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Towards the classification of recycled

concrete aggregates: influence of
fundamental aggregate properties on
recycled concrete performance
a b c
Liam J. Butler , Jeffrey S. West & Susan L. Tighe
a
Read Jones Christoffersen Consulting Engineers, Toronto, Canada
b
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
Published online: 22 May 2014.

To cite this article: Liam J. Butler, Jeffrey S. West & Susan L. Tighe (2014) Towards the
classification of recycled concrete aggregates: influence of fundamental aggregate properties on
recycled concrete performance, Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 3:2, 140-163, DOI:
10.1080/21650373.2014.909752

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 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 2014
Vol. 3, No. 2, 140–163, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21650373.2014.909752

Towards the classification of recycled concrete aggregates: influence

of fundamental aggregate properties on recycled concrete
performance
Liam J. Butlera*, Jeffrey S. Westb and Susan L. Tighec
a
Read Jones Christoffersen Consulting Engineers, Toronto, Canada; bDepartment of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada; cDepartment of Civil
and Environmental Engineering,University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada
Downloaded by [University of Guelph] at 21:09 16 August 2014

(Received 14 October 2013; accepted 26 March 2014)

This study provides an in-depth evaluation of how fundamental aggregate properties

affect mechanical properties of structural concretes produced using 100% coarse
Recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) and constant mixture proportions. The key find-
ings presented within this study will assist in developing a framework for classifying
RCA sources for use in specific concrete applications. Fourteen mixture proportions
were developed using three RCA types with compressive strengths of 30, 40, 50,
and 60 MPa. Contrary to other studies, one RCA concrete type had compressive
strengths up to 22% greater than the natural aggregate concrete. These results were
confirmed by repeated batching and measured to be statistically significant. An anal-
ysis of the failure modes of RCA concrete and linking particular aggregate properties
to the observed concrete failure mode were used to explain the results. Based on
measured correlations, the modulus of elasticity of RCA concrete can be estimated
based on the compressive strength and aggregate unit weight.
Keywords: recycled concrete aggregates; RCA classification; mortar aggregate bond;
statistical significance; adhered mortar; failure mechanisms

1. Introduction and research 21% is from concrete rubble.[1] In com-

significance
In 2008, 28.1 million cubic meters of
concrete was used in construction pro-
jects across Canada.[1] Concrete is pro-
duced by combining cement, gravel,
sand, and water. Given the high percent-
age of aggregate used in concrete
(between 60 and 75% of the total con-
crete volume), a sufficient reserve of
high-quality aggregate is essential to sus-
taining the concrete industry. In Canada,
approximately 11 million tonnes of land-
fill waste per year can be attributed to
construction activities alone, of which
parison, there is close to 100 million ton-
nes of demolished concrete produced
annually in the United States and
European countries combined.[2]
Based on projected consumption sta-
tistics, the aggregate industry may face a
shortage of high-quality aggregate
reserves within close proximity to major
urban centers.[3] Alternative and/or sup-
plemental sources of aggregates will
therefore need to be considered to ensure
an adequate long-term supply for the
construction industry. The construction
industry will have two options for

*Corresponding author. Email: LButler@rjc.ca

© 2014 Taylor & Francis

 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
dealing with the pending shortage of
locally available high-quality aggregate:
accepting the increase in transportation
costs incurred by importing aggregate
from other areas or, finding supplemen-
tary sources of aggregate that are locally
available. Recycled concrete aggregate
(RCA) produced by crushing concrete
from demolished concrete structures may
serve as a potential aggregate alternative
and help to alleviate the aggregate supply
shortage while diverting considerable
amounts of construction waste from
landfills.
Downloaded by [University of Guelph] at 21:09 16 August 2014
In the literature, there are many stud-
ies that have investigated the use of RCA
(derived from various crushed concrete
sources) in new concrete and various
concrete mechanical properties. A com-
prehensive study conducted by Shayan
and Xu [4] investigated both the mechan-
ical and durability-related properties of
RCA concrete of higher compressive
strength (50–60 MPa). They used one
source of RCA that was commercially
produced and investigated several surface
treatment methods as well as the addition
of silica fume to achieve similar mechani-
cal and durability properties as natural
aggregate (NA) mixtures. Based on their
findings, they have indicated that RCA
may be used in structural concrete appli-
cations. Xiao and Zhang [5] investigated
the constitutive behavior of RCA con-
crete using one RCA source with 0, 30,
50, 70, and 100% replacement of NA.
They reported significant reductions in
post-peak ductility (up to 20% reduction
in peak strain), compressive strength (up
to 12% reduction), and modulus of elas-
ticity (up to 45% reduction for 100%
RCA replacement). Padmini et al. [6]
performed studies on RCA derived from
the crushing of laboratory-produced con-
crete ranging in strengths of 35–56 MPa.
Correlations between properties of the
original concrete and the concrete pro-
duced using the RCA were used to form
the basis for their main conclusions. It
141
was found that the concrete produced
with RCAs from the crushing of the
higher strength original concrete was of
superior quality as compared to those
produced from the lower strength mix-
tures. Sagoe-Crentsil et al. [7] investi-
gated the use of commercially produced
RCA in new concrete (25 MPa). They
found that at the 5% confidence level
there were no significant reductions in
compressive strength or splitting tensile
strength when 100% of coarse NA was
replaced with RCA.
Although there have been numerous
international studies on the use of RCA
as a replacement for NA in concrete,
there is still hesitation from North
American construction industries for
using these materials. In part, this is due
to the reluctance from owners, engineers,
and concrete suppliers to assume the risk
associated with guaranteeing the perfor-
mance of a material with such highly var-
iable properties. In particular, if RCA is
to be used on a large scale, sources will
likely include crushed concrete from a
variety of concrete structures. Therefore,
there is a great need for the development
of methods for classifying various RCA
sources for use in different concrete
applications. An in-depth evaluation of
the fundamental RCA properties and how
they affect the properties of concrete pro-
duced using RCAs is a critical first step
towards developing such a classification
system.
This study aimed at evaluating the
failure mechanisms associated with RCA
concrete and understanding how mea-
sured aggregate properties can influence
these mechanisms. An analysis was per-
formed to quantify any statistically signif-
icant effects of replacing NA with
various RCA on the properties of the
resulting RCA concrete. The findings of
this study combined with the findings of
a previous study by the authors [8]
will represent a significant contribution
of experimental data critical to the
 142 L.J. Butler et al.
development of a framework for RCA
classification.
2. Experimental program
The experimental program was carried
out systematically by first testing aggre-
gate properties, followed by concrete
mixture proportioning, and concrete
mechanical properties testing and evalua-
tion. Aggregate properties tested
included: particle size distribution (grada-
tion), bulk and relative density, adhered
mortar content (RCAs only), absorption,
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adhered surface moisture, abrasion resis-
tance, and aggregate crushing strength.
Concrete properties tested included:
slump, hardened density (γc), compressive
strength (fc0 ), splitting tensile strength
(fct0 ), and modulus of elasticity (Ec). Con-
crete mixture proportions were developed
to reach target compressive strengths
associated with structural concrete (i.e.
30–60 MPa). The research was conducted
over several years of experimentation
which resulted in separate phases of con-
crete mixture designs involving three dis-
tinct RCA sources.
Figure 1 presents an overview of the
experimental program. In the Phase 1
mixtures (30 and 50 MPa), only the
slump and compressive strength were
Target compressive
strengths
Phase 1 30 and 50 MPa
Phase 2 40 and 60 MPa
Figure 1. Experimental program overview.
tested. In Phase 2 mixtures (40 and
60 MPa), slump, compressive strength,
density, splitting tensile strength, and
modulus of elasticity were tested. Results
for both phases are presented and dis-
cussed in the same sections. A previous
study conducted by the authors investi-
gated the properties of RCA concrete
produced with similar concrete compres-
sive strength and slump as the control
mixtures.[8] This study therefore
completes the overall research program.
3. Coarse aggregate properties testing
and evaluation
3.1. Coarse aggregate sources
The aggregates tested as part of this
research consisted of one NA (blended
crushed limestone and river gravel) and
three RCA sources. The first RCA source
(RCA-1) was derived from crushing
concrete from decommissioned municipal
sidewalk, curb, and gutter structures.
The second RCA source (RCA-2) con-
sisted of crushed concrete from demol-
ished apron and terminal structures from
Pearson International Airport in Toronto
and contained a considerable amount of
deleterious debris (e.g. wood chips, styro-
foam, nails, metal ties, glass, etc.). The
third source of RCA (RCA-3) was
Concrete
Aggregate
properties
types
tested
NA
RCA-1 Slump and f ’c
RCA-2
NA
RCA-1 Slump, c, f ’c,
RCA-2 fct, and E c
RCA-3
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
produced from the crushing of returned
concrete at a local ready-mixed concrete
plant that had been stored in stockpiles
and allowed to harden. All four aggregate
sources met the gradation requirements
of the Ministry of Transportation of
Ontario Standards and Specifications.[9]
for coarse aggregates used in concrete.
The particle size distribution of both nat-
ural aggregate and RCAs is presented in
Figure 2.
3.2. Qualitative properties
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All four aggregate types had the
same maximum particle size of 19 mm
although, their shape and surface texture
varied considerably given that all four
aggregate types were derived from four
distinct original materials. The RCA par-
ticles are all more angular in shape as
compared to the natural source. In addi-
tion, the RCA particles all have consider-
able amounts of old adhered mortar from
the original concrete from which they
were derived. The RCA-1 particles have
the most roughened surface texture
whereas RCA-2 and RCA-3 have surface
100%
80%
Percent Passing
60%
40%
20%
0%
0.0
Figure 2. Particle size distribution of coarse aggregates.
143
textures which are grainier resulting
from more loose-rounded adhered mortar
particles on the surface. A method that
provides an indirect measure of an aggre-
gates surface roughness is presented in a
later section.
3.3. Physical properties
A number of physical aggregate proper-
ties including adhered mortar content,
density, absorption, abrasion resistance,
and crushing value were tested as part of
this study and have been summarized in
Table 1. The following sections provide a
discussion and analysis of the results.
3.3.1. Adhered mortar content
The adhered mortar portion of the RCA
consists of both hydrated and unhydrated
cement particles and the original fine
aggregate. The adhered mortar content
can have a significant effect on the aggre-
gate properties, including absorption,
density, and abrasion resistance. At pres-
ent, there is no standard test procedure
for the determination of the amount of
Natural
RCA-1
RCA-2
RCA-3
5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Sieve Size (mm)
 144 L.J. Butler et al.

Table 1. Coarse aggregate physical properties.

NA RCA-1 RCA-2 RCA-3
a
Adhered mortar content n/a 46% 56% 50%
Relative density (saturated surface dry) 2.71 2.48 2.43 2.41
Relative density (oven-dry) 2.67 2.36 2.28 2.22
Oven-dry rodded bulk density (kg/m3) 1744 1539 1458 1395
Absorption % (by mass) 1.52% 4.66% 6.15% 7.81%
Absorption rate (hours)b 2 4 7 8
Moisture content after 24 h of soaking 3.06% 7.34% 8.33% 10.08%
Adhered surface moisturec, MCadhered 1.54% 2.68% 2.18% 2.27%
Abrasion resistanced 11.9% 15.1% 22.1% 25.0%
Aggregate crushing value (ACV) 18.2 23.1 26.0 28.5
Note: n/a = not applicable, NAs contain no adhered mortar.
a
Based on the thermal expansion method.
b
Time required for the aggregate to reach its SSD condition.
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c
MCadhered = MCmoisture 24 h – Absorption % (SSD condition).
d
Abrasion loss was determined using the Micro-Deval method (percent mass loss).

adhered mortar on RCAs. However, between adhered mortar content and

based on previous study conducted by
the authors [10], three methods (nitric
acid dissolution, freeze-thaw chemical
attack, and thermal expansion) were eval-
uated and the thermal expansion method
proposed by de Juan and Gutiérrez [11]
was found to be the most effective at
removing the adhered mortar. The mea-
sured adhered mortar amounts for the
three RCA sources are listed in Table 1.
RCA-2 had the highest amount of
adhered mortar (56% by weight) as com-
pared to the RCA-1 (46%) and RCA-3
(50%).
3.3.2. Density
The bulk density, relative density, and
absorption capacity of both the fine and
coarse aggregates were carried out in
accordance with the test procedures out-
lined in the Canadian Standards Associa-
tion (CSA) A23.2-09.[12] The NA was
found to have the highest density fol-
lowed by RCA-1, RCA-2, and the
RCA-3. Overall, the density of RCA is
dependent on the adhered mortar content,
the density of the adhered mortar itself,
and the density of the original aggregate.
As illustrated in Figure 3, the relationship
RCA density is not directly correlated
which highlights the additional influence
of the adhered mortar density on the
RCA density. The contribution of the
adhered mortar to absorption may
provide a relative approximation of the
density of the adhered mortar. RCA-3
showed the highest contribution of
the adhered mortar to absorption (see
Table 1). This suggests that the adhered
mortar on the RCA-3 has a higher poros-
ity and thus, a lower density. This finding
explains why RCA-3 had the lowest den-
sity but did not have the highest adhered
mortar content. A further correlation
between absorption and oven-dry bulk
relative density was observed (with
R2 = 0.96) and is presented in Figure 3.
3.3.3. Absorption rate and adhered
surface moisture
Absorption rates are important to con-
sider when developing concrete mixture
proportions incorporating RCAs. Con-
crete mixtures are proportioned assuming
that both coarse and fine aggregates are
in a saturated surface-dry (SSD) condi-
tion. Aggregates whose moisture contents
are less than SSD at the time of mixing
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
9.00
8.00
RCA-1
7.00
6.00
Absorption (%)
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
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0.00
2.00 2.10
Aggregate Ovendry Bulk Relative Density
Figure 3. Relationship between oven-dry bulk relative density, absorption, and adhered mortar
content of coarse aggregate.
will absorb mixing water which will
affect workability and the actual water–
cement ratio. Thus, batch proportions
must be adjusted to compensate for this
difference in mixing water to ensure that
the desired water–cement ratio and con-
sistent workability is attained. The usual
maximum time for coarse aggregates to
become fully saturated is around
30 min.[13] Therefore, the rate of absorp-
tion of aggregates with high absorption
capacities must be considered in order to
achieve proper workability and actual or
desired water–cement ratios.
A study was conducted to measure
the time required for each coarse aggre-
gate type at an oven-dry condition to
reach a SSD condition. Several time
increments were used during which each
aggregate type was soaked in water and
both their oven-dry and surface-dry
weights were recorded. To monitor the
moisture content changes of each aggre-
gate over time, measurements of mois-
ture content were taken at ½ hour, 1, 2,
4, 8, and 24 h time intervals. RCA-3
had the highest absorption of 7.81%,
145
60
RCA-2
50
RCA-3
40
Adhered Mortar (%)
30
20
R² = 0.96
10
NA
0
2.20 2.30 2.40 2.50 2.60 2.70 2.80
and took the longest time to reach
SSD at approximately 8 h. This may be
due to the more porous adhered mortar
on RCA-3 which could potentially
take longer to absorb water (refer to
Table 1 for absorption values). RCA-2
with an absorption capacity of 6.15%
took approximately 7 h to reach SSD,
RCA-1 with an absorption capacity of
4.66% took only 4 h, and the NA with
an absorption capacity of 1.52% took
only 2 h to reach complete saturation.
The term adhered surface moisture
used henceforth refers to the moisture
content in excess of SSD after aggre-
gates have been soaked for 24 h. When
using RCAs as coarse aggregates in
concrete mixtures, it is necessary to pre-
wet or pre-soak the aggregates as they
tend to take longer to reach SSD during
mixing than NAs due to their higher
absorption. If the RCA is not pre-wet,
the gradual absorption during mixing
may cause a variation in the fresh prop-
erties of the RCA concrete and the
specified water–cement ratio may not be
achieved.
 146 L.J. Butler et al.
A method for measuring the adhered
surface moisture in excess of SSD for
pre-soaked RCA was developed for the
purposes of developing the concrete mix-
ture proportions for this study (refer to
Section 4.2 for further details). Approxi-
mately 1500 g of properly graded coarse
aggregate was allowed to soak for 24 h
(or, at a minimum, the measured time
required for total absorption). Samples
were then drained over a 1.18 mm sieve
to minimize loss of fines. Once satisfacto-
rily drained, samples were immediately
weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram and then
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placed in an oven to dry at 110 ± 5 °C for
24 h. Samples were then removed from
the oven and weighed again. The value
MC24 is defined as the moisture in excess
of SSD measured after 24 h of soaking
followed by draining over a 1.18 mm
sieve and was calculated using Equation
(1).


MTOT  MOD
MC24 ¼  100% (1)
MOD
The adhered surface moisture was
then obtained by calculating the differ-
ence between MC24 and the absorption
capacity of the aggregate as described in
Equation (2).
% Adhered Surface Moisture
¼ MC24  Absorption (2)
3.3.4. Aggregate strength characteristics
Two properties were measured to evalu-
ate the strength characteristics of the bulk
aggregate samples: the Micro-Deval abra-
sion resistance and the aggregate crushing
value (ACV). The abrasion resistance of
each aggregate was determined using the
Micro-Deval method to provide a mea-
sure of the aggregate resistance to abra-
sion under moist conditions. The test was
carried out in accordance with CSA test
method A23.2-29A.[12] The NA had a
26% higher abrasion resistance than
RCA-1, an 86% higher abrasion resis-
tance than RCA-2 and a 110% higher
abrasion resistance than RCA-3. In
comparing the different RCAs, RCA-1
had the lowest abrasion loss (highest
abrasion resistance) whereas RCA-3 had
the highest abrasion loss (lowest abrasion
resistance). This difference in abrasion
resistance between the different RCA
types is due to the differences in strength,
density, and amount of adhered mortar
which are a direct result of the properties
of the original concrete from which the
RCAs were derived. The source concrete
from which RCA-3 was derived (i.e.
returned ready-mix concrete) was improp-
erly cured and may have contained
higher amounts of water and, as a result,
would tend to have higher water–cement
ratios, higher mortar porosity, and conse-
quently, lower adhered mortar density
and strength. Since RCA-1 and RCA-2
are both derived from the crushing of
concrete structures, it is likely that the
original concrete from which they were
produced had lower water-cement ratios
and were properly cured and consoli-
dated. They would also have had less
water which would lead to lower mortar
porosity and higher adhered mortar
density as compared to the RCA-3.
British Standard (BS) 812-110:1990
[14] was used to determine the ACV of
each aggregate. Following removal from
the ACV test apparatus, all aggregate
types (natural and RCA) became more
roughened as many of the rounded and
smooth particles had been crushed.
RCA-3 appeared to have a higher per-
centage of fines after crushing than the
RCA-2, RCA-1, or the NA. These qual-
itative observations were consistent with
the ACVs that are summarized in
Table 1. The NA had an ACV that was
27% higher than RCA-1, 43% higher
than RCA-2, and 57% higher than
RCA-3.
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
4. Concrete mixture proportioning
4.1. Overview of mixture proportion
types
Two concrete types were developed as part
of this study: control (NA) and RCA con-
crete mixtures. The control mixtures used
both natural coarse and fine aggregates,
and were proportioned to achieve compres-
sive strengths of 30, 40, 50, and 60 MPa
with slump values between 75 and
125 mm. The RCA concrete mixtures were
developed by directly replacing the coarse
NA (100% replacement) from the control
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mixtures with equivalent volumes of RCA-
1, RCA-2, and RCA-3 with no other
changes to the mixture proportions (i.e.
constant water content, cement content, and
water–cement ratio). Natural fine aggregate
(i.e. river sand) was also used in the RCA
concrete mixtures. Due to the varying den-
sities of the three aggregate types, a direct
replacement by volume approach ensured
that the total yield remained constant. A
total of 14 mixture proportions were devel-
oped and were used to gage the effect of
natural coarse aggregate replacement with
RCA on workability, compressive strength,
splitting tensile strength, and modulus of
elasticity. Table 2 summarizes the control
(NA concrete) and direct replacement
(RCA concrete and RCA concrete mixture
proportions) mixture proportions.
4.2. Aggregate preparation and
controlling the actual water–cement
ratio
The high water absorption of RCAs can
result in changes in workability and the
actual or effective water–cement ratio of
the fresh concrete during mixing and place-
ment due to absorption of the mixing water
by unsaturated RCA. Changes in the fresh
concrete properties may still occur even if
the moisture content of the aggregate is
known and moisture corrections are applied
to the concrete batch quantities since the
absorption rate of the aggregate is not
instantaneous.
147
Measurements of absorption rate of
aggregate, that is, the amount of time
required for an aggregate to become fully
saturated, were recorded for each aggre-
gate type. It was noticed that all the mix-
ing water was not fully absorbed by each
aggregate type within the first 30 min of
being added to the mixer (previously
noted as the usual maximum time for
aggregates to absorb mixing water).[13]
Also, in mixtures with higher cement con-
tent, the aggregate particles could poten-
tially become quickly coated with mortar
and unable to absorb sufficient water to
reach their absorption capacity. If this
were to happen, it may create an addi-
tional source of variation in the actual
water–cement ratio during the first 30 min
of batching. In order to minimize this
occurrence, typical production practice is
to pre-wet the RCA to reduce the amount
of moisture absorbed by the RCA during
mixing; moisture corrections are still
applied for aggregate moisture contents
other than SSD. For the purposes of this
research, all coarse aggregates (natural
and RCA) were soaked for 24 h and then
drained immediately prior to batching to
ensure that the aggregate was fully satu-
rated (at or above SSD) to eliminate
absorption of the mixing water during
concrete production and placement. The
aggregate moisture content after 24 h of
soaking (MC24) was determined, and the
excess surface moisture (above SSD) was
considered to be available as mixing
water (refer to Table 1 for moisture con-
tent values). Accordingly, the batch pro-
portions were adjusted to compensate for
this additional moisture and to maintain a
consistent water–cement ratio.
Since water absorption by the coarse
aggregate during mixing is eliminated by
pre-soaking of the aggregates, the fresh
properties of the concrete may still be
affected in comparison to concrete made
with pre-wetted aggregate or where no
pre-wetting is used. However, assuming
that the batch moisture corrections are
 148 L.J. Butler et al.

Table 2. Concrete mixture proportions summary.

Coarse Volume of Fine
Water* Cement* aggregate* coarse aggregate*
Mix ID w/c* (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) aggregate (m3) (kg/m3)
Phase 1 NAC-30 0.60 160 267 1106 0.411 861
NAC-50 0.38 180 474 1106 0.411 633
RAC1-30 0.60 160 267 975 0.411 863
RAC1-50 0.38 180 474 975 0.411 635
RAC2-30 0.60 160 267 949 0.411 863
RAC2-50 0.38 180 474 949 0.411 635

Phase 2 NAC-40 0.59 160 271 1099 0.412 861

NAC-60 0.37 180 487 1099 0.412 625
RAC1-40 0.59 160 271 974 0.412 861
RAC1-60 0.37 180 487 974 0.412 625
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RAC2-40 0.59 160 271 940 0.412 861

RAC2-60 0.37 180 487 940 0.412 625
RAC3-40 0.59 160 271 912 0.412 861
RAC3-60 0.37 180 487 912 0.412 625
Note: RAC1-50 = concrete mixture incorporating RCA-1 as coarse aggregate with a target compressive
strength of 50 MPa.
*Mixture proportion values reported do not include adjustments for aggregate water absorption.

done properly, the effect on the hardened
properties of the concrete should not be
significant except in cases where the
RCA is very dry prior to batching. There-
fore, the results of this study are applica-
ble to pre-soaked aggregates.
This study used one type of concrete
sand (fine aggregate) in the “air-dry” state
(in situ moisture content of 0.2%) which
had a water absorption capacity of
1.61%. The sand met the gradation
requirements under MTO OPSS 1002 [9]
for sand used as fine aggregate in con-
crete. Therefore, additional mixing water
was required to offset the additional
water absorbed by the sand (fine aggre-
gate).
5. Failure modes of RCA concrete
NA concrete is a complex heterogeneous
material whose response to stress is
dependent on both the response of individ-
ual components and on the interaction
between each component.[13] NA con-
crete is considered a three-phase material
in which the weakest phase becomes the
source of the failure mechanism. The three
phases in NA concrete consist of the
coarse aggregate particles, the mortar
(matrix), and the mortar–aggregate inter-
face or interfacial transition zone (ITZ).
RCA concrete is considered a five-phase
material as the RCA particles produced
from crushing of NA concrete also consist
of three phases. Two additional phases are
introduced when RCA is re-used in new
concrete: a second mortar phase and a sec-
ond ITZ. The strength of RCA concrete
therefore is ultimately governed by the
weakest of the five phases. Figure 4 sum-
marizes the five possible failure modes of
RCA concrete and the RCA properties
which influence these failure modes.
The majority of the failures that
occurred in the compressive and splitting
tensile strength specimens were modes b,
c, and d. Given that all of the RCA con-
crete mixtures of a given strength class
(i.e. 30, 40, 50, or 60 MPa) had identical
coarse aggregate volumes and water–
cement ratios, it is reasonable to assume
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
that the strength of the new mortar within
a particular strength class was the same
regardless of concrete (and aggregate)
type. Therefore, by observing the fracture
planes of the compressive strength and
splitting tensile strength specimens to
assess whether failure mode b, c, or d
occurred, any variation in compressive
and splitting tensile strength could be
explained based either on the strength of
the original aggregate, the strength of the
old mortar, and the bonding properties of
the ITZ (which is influenced by the sur-
face texture of the aggregate particle). It
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should be noted that in most cases it is
difficult to differentiate between failure
modes b and d as the failure through old
mortar and through original aggregate
often occur simultaneously. In most
cases, it may also be quite difficult to dif-
ferentiate between failure modes b and e,
unless, the original aggregate is clearly
separated from the old mortar (as
depicted in Figure 4(e)).
In general, the tensile strength of the
entire RCA particle itself will be depen-
dent on the tensile strength of the old
mortar and the tensile strength of the
original aggregate. Therefore, for the pur-
poses of analysing the concrete compres-
sive and splitting tensile results, failures
were visually identified as:
 occurring around more than 50% of
the aggregate (NA or RCA) parti-
cles,
 occurring through more than 50%
of the aggregate (NA or RCA) par-
ticles, or
 occurring approximately equally
around and through the aggregate
particles (NA or RCA).
In the case of failures occurring
equally around and through coarse aggre-
gate particles, the mortar–aggregate bond
strength (ITZ strength) in combination
with the aggregate tensile strength
governs the concrete strength. Note that
149
particular failure modes were approxi-
mated based on visual inspection of mul-
tiple specimens.
6. Concrete properties testing and
evaluation
6.1. Slump
Slump values for all concrete mixtures
have been summarized in Figure 5. Pre-
soaking the RCAs should have eliminated
any slump loss due to coarse aggregate
absorption of mixing water during batch-
ing. However, a significant reduction in
slump between the NA concrete mixtures
and the RCA concrete mixtures was
observed (up to 78, 61, and 35% reduc-
tion for the RCA-1, RCA-2, and RCA-3
concrete mixtures, respectively). These
slump results were verified using a mini-
mum of two different trial batches.
Therefore, the repeatability of the results
would seem to indicate that the lower
slump values of the RCA concrete mix-
tures may result from the more angular
shape and roughened surface texture of
the RCAs that increased the inter-particle
friction in the fresh concrete. Recall from
Section 3.3.3 that the amount of adhered
surface moisture was defined as the
moisture in excess of SSD measured after
24 h of soaking followed by draining
over a 1.18 mm sieve. A strong relation-
ship between the adhered surface
moisture of the aggregate and the con-
crete slump (assuming aggregates have
been pre-soaked) exists, as depicted in
Figure 6. This relationship suggests that
the adhered surface moisture of an aggre-
gate particle may provide an indirect
indication of the aggregate particle sur-
face texture and its subsequent effect on
slump. Another possible contributor to
the higher slump values of the RCA-3
concrete as compared to the RCA-1 con-
crete is a possible increase in mortar vol-
ume due to the abrasion of the weaker
adhered mortar on the RCA-3 particles.
Increasing the mortar volume increases
 150 L.J. Butler et al.

(a) Failure through new mortar

Correlated RCA properties:

- New mortar porosity
- Supplementary cementing materials

(b) Failure through old mortar

Correlated RCA properties :

- Old mortar porosity
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(c) Failure through new ITZ

Correlated RCA properties :

- RCA surface texture
- New mortar porosity
- Supplementary cementing materials

(d) Failure through original aggregate

Correlated RCA properties :

- Original aggregate strength (porosity)

(e) Failure through old ITZ

Correlated RCA properties :

- Old mortar quality
- Surface texture of original aggregate

Figure 4. Failure modes of RCA concrete.

the lubrication properties of the concrete could lose up to 8% of their mass

mixture and reduces the inter-particle via aggregate–aggregate collisions during
friction. A study conducted by Safiuddin one minute of concrete mixing, hence
et al. [15] concluded that RCA particles increasing mortar volume.
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 151

140

120

100
Slump (mm)

80

60

40

20
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0
30 MPa 40 MPa 50 MPa 60 MPa
NAC 100 115 100 115
RAC1 25 30 35 25
RAC2 45 45 75 60
RAC3 85 75

Figure 5. Slump values of NA and RCA concrete mixtures.

140

120

100
Slump (mm)

80

Phase 1 R² = 0.91
60
Phase 2 R² = 0.84

40

20

0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Adhered Surface Moisture of Aggregate Particle (%)

Figure 6. Relationship between adhered surface moisture of aggregate particle and concrete
slump.

6.2. Compressive strength reported are averages of three cylinders

Compressive strengths for the NA and with dimensions 100 mm by 200 mm and
RCA concrete mixtures are summarized in were measured in accordance with CSA
Table 3. The compressive strength values A23.2-9C.[12] All compressive strength
 152
specimens were moist-cured for the first
seven days followed by curing in air for
the remaining 21 days.
6.2.1. Summary of results
It was found that the 30 and 50 MPa
(Phase 1) RCA-1 concrete mixtures
achieved compressive strengths that were
37 and 3% higher than the NA concrete,
respectively. The 30 and 50 MPa RCA-2
concrete mixtures produced compressive
strengths that were 19% higher and 5%
lower than the NA concrete, respectively.
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After 28 days of curing, the 40 and 60
MPa RCA-1 concrete mixtures achieved
compressive strengths that were 10 and
12% higher than the NA 40 and 60 MPa
concrete, respectively. The 40 and
60 MPa (Phase 2) RCA-2 concrete mix-
tures produced compressive strengths that
were essentially the same as the NA
concrete at 3% lower and 1% lower,
respectively. The 40 and 60 MPa RCA-3
concrete mixtures produced compressive
strengths that were significantly lower
(19% each) than the NA concrete
mixtures.
Table 3. Summary of compressive strengths and failure modes.
Mix ID
Phase 1 NAC-30
RAC1-30
RAC2-30
5% LSD
NAC-50
RAC1-50
RAC2-50
5% LSD
Phase 2 NAC-40
RAC1-40
RAC2-40
RAC3-40
5% LSD
NAC-60
RAC1-60
RAC2-60
RAC3-60
5% LSD
*Indicates that the difference in fc0 from the control concrete is statistically significant at the 95% confidence level.
L.J. Butler et al.
The increase in compressive strength
of RCA-1 concrete as compared to the
control concrete is in contrast with stud-
ies in the literature that have reported a
decrease in compressive strength when
NA is replaced with RCA.[5,16–18] Note
that the batching of each NA and RCA
concrete mixture was repeated at least
once and compressive strengths were
measured for each independent batch.
Similar differences in strength were con-
firmed within each repeat batch thus
these strength results were considered to
be repeatable. The compressive strength
results presented herein represent the
results of the final round of batching. The
increase in compressive strength is
explained and discussed further in the
following sections.
6.2.1. Statistical significance of
compressive strength results
Overall, within batch variation of
compressive strengths was low at all
compressive strength levels (i.e.
coefficient of variation values ranged
between 0.4 and 4%). Compared to the
28 day fc0 (MPa) Failure mode
32.1 Around more than 50% of aggregates
44.1* Around more than 50% of aggregates
38.3* Around more than 50% of aggregates
2.7
57.3 Through more than 50% of aggregates
59.0 Through more than 50% of aggregates
54.0* Through more than 50% of aggregates
3.8
38.9 Around more than 50% of aggregates
42.7* Equally around and through aggregates
37.8 Through more than 50% of aggregates
31.6* Through more than 50% of aggregates
2.0
61.9 Equally around and through aggregates
69.5* Through more than 50% of aggregates
62.6 Through more than 50% of aggregates
50.0* Through more than 50% of aggregates
4.4
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
control standards recommended by ACI
Committee 214,[19] this range of coeffi-
cient of variation in compressive
strengths for laboratory-produced con-
crete is considered “good” to “excellent”.
To determine whether the relative dif-
ferences in 28- day compressive strengths
between the various NA and RCA con-
crete mixtures were statistically signifi-
cant, a least significant difference (LSD)
value was calculated at the 5% signifi-
cance level. Using analysis of variance
and a modification to the Bonferroni
t-test, the 5% LSD values for each com-
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pressive strength level were calculated
and are presented in Table 3.
The difference in nominal compres-
sive strength values at the 30 MPa
strength level between the NA concrete
and the RCA-1 and RCA-2 concretes
were greater than the 5% LSD value.
This indicates that relative differences in
compressive strength between the NA
concrete mixtures and the RCA-1 and the
RCA-2 concrete mixtures are statistically
significant at the 95% confidence level.
Therefore, this difference in the compres-
sive strength results can be directly attrib-
uted to the effect of the RCA-1 and
RCA-2 aggregate properties. However, in
the 50 MPa mixtures, the difference in
nominal compressive strength values for
both the RCA-1 and RCA-2 concretes
was less than the 5% LSD value. This
result indicates that the relative differ-
ences in compressive strength between
the NA concrete mixtures and the RCA-1
and the RCA-2 concrete mixtures are not
statistically significant.
In both the 40 and 60 MPa strength
mixtures, the difference in compressive
strengths between the NA concrete and
the RCA-1 and RCA-3 concretes was
greater than the 5% LSD value. This
indicates that relative differences in com-
pressive strength between the NA con-
crete mixtures and the RCA-1 and the
RCA-3 concrete mixtures are statistically
significant. Therefore, this difference in
153
the compressive strength results can be
directly attributed to the effect of the
RCA-1 and RCA-3 aggregate properties.
The compressive strength of the RCA-2
concrete was found to be statistically
similar to the NA concrete for both the
40 and 60 MPa strength mixtures. Sagoe-
Crentsil et al. [7] also reported no statisti-
cally significant difference in compressive
strength between NA concrete and con-
crete containing 100% RCA (commer-
cially produced) as coarse aggregate.
6.2.2. Failure mechanism and effect of
RCA properties on compressive strength
The failure planes of concrete cylinders
for each concrete type were examined to
explain the effect that RCA has on con-
crete compressive strength and were
found to be mainly around or mainly
through the RCA (failure mode b or d,
see Figure 4). A summary of the 28- day
compressive strengths and associated fail-
ure modes is presented in Table 3. As
discussed previously, failure planes that
occur around the aggregate indicate that
the mortar–aggregate interface or ITZ is
the limiting strength component. When
considering RCAs that contain original
NAs and adhered mortar, this suggests
that either the old or the new ITZ is
the limiting strength component. Failure
planes that occur through the coarse
aggregate indicate that the strength of the
coarse aggregate particle (NA or RCA)
itself is the limiting strength compo-
nent. To explain differences in concrete
strength (that were found to be statisti-
cally significant), an evaluation of the
above failure modes was used for all con-
crete strength specimens.
In the 30 MPa specimens, the failure
planes occurred mainly around the aggre-
gate for all three aggregate types. Recall
that all concrete mixtures (RCA and NA)
have the same water–cement ratio and
proportions and, as a result, are expected
to have the same mortar strengths.
 154 L.J. Butler et al.
Therefore, given that the 30 MPa RCA-1
concrete specimens had higher compres-
sive strengths than the NA concrete
specimens, it follows that the mortar–
aggregate bond strength (ITZ strength)
between the new mortar and the RCA-1
is higher than the mortar–aggregate bond
strength between new mortar and the
NA. As suggested by Rao and Prasad
[20], this increase in ITZ strength is
attributed to the more roughened surface
texture of the RCA particles compared to
the smoother surface texture of the NA
particles.
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In the 40 MPa specimens, the failure
planes occurred mainly around the aggre-
gate for the NA concrete specimens, both
around and through RCA-1 concrete
specimens and mainly through the aggre-
gate for the RCA-2 and RCA-3 speci-
mens. The only statistically significant
differences in compressive strength exist
between the NA and the RCA-1 and
RCA-3 concrete mixtures. The higher
compressive strength of the 40 MPa
RCA-1 mixture is likely due to the
stronger mortar–aggregate bond resulting
from the more roughened surface texture
of the RCA-1. The lower crushing
strength of the RCA-3 particle itself
seems to be factor which most limited
the concrete compressive strength as the
failure planes passed mainly through the
weaker strength RCA-3 particles.
In the 50 MPa specimens, the failure
planes occurred mainly through the
aggregate for all three aggregate types.
This suggests that the strength of the NA
particles and the strength of the RCA
particles were the limiting factors rather
than mortar–aggregate bond strength.
Since the RCA-2 concrete had a com-
pressive strength that was statistically dif-
ferent from the NA concrete, it follows
that the strength of the RCA-2 (aggre-
gate) was the governing factor of con-
crete compressive strength. Compared to
the NA, RCA-2 had a lower crushing
strength (higher ACV value of 26.0 vs.
18.2) which explains why the compres-
sive strength of the RCA-2 concrete was
also lower.
In the 60 MPa specimens, the failure
planes occurred both around and through
the aggregate for the NA concrete speci-
mens and mainly through the aggregate
for the RCA concrete specimens. It was
also observed that the failure planes
passing around the natural coarse aggre-
gate occurred around the smoother river
gravel component, whereas failures pass-
ing through the natural coarse aggregate
occurred through the crushed angular
component. For the NA concrete speci-
mens, this suggests that the mortar–
aggregate bond strength in combination
with the tensile strength of the NA gov-
erned the concrete compressive strength.
The 60 MPa RCA-1 concrete had a
significantly (according to the calculated
5% LSD values) higher compressive
strength than the NA concrete (i.e.
69.5 MPa vs. 61.9 MPa). Failures occurred
mainly through the aggregate particles for
the RCA-1 concrete mixtures and both
around and through the aggregate particles
for the NA concrete mixtures. As previ-
ously mentioned, the RCA-1 consisted of
mainly angular particles (with roughened
surface texture) whereas the NA had both
rounded and angular particles (with
smooth surface texture). As a result,
the strength of the combined failure
mechanism of the NA concrete (i.e. mor-
tar-aggregate bond failure and aggregate
particle splitting) was lower than the
mortar–aggregate bond strength of the
RCA-1 concrete. Therefore, even though
the crushing strength of the NA particles is
higher than that of the RCA-1 particles,
the difference in failure mechanisms led to
the higher compressive strengths of the
RCA-1 concrete.
Statistically, the differences in com-
pressive strength between the NA and the
RCA-2 60 MPa concrete mixtures were
not significant. Therefore, it can be
inferred that the tensile strength of the
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
RCA-2 and the combination of mortar–
aggregate bond strength and tensile
strength of the NA are similar.
The 60 MPa RCA-3 concrete had a
significantly lower compressive strength
than the NA concrete (i.e. 50.0 MPa vs.
61.9 MPa), which suggests that the tensile
strength of RCA-3 is considerably lower
than the combined mortar–aggregate
bond and tensile strength of the NA. This
is consistent with the observed fracture
planes passing mainly through the RCA-
3 particles.
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6.4. Hardened density
The density of hardened concrete was
measured at 28 days (Figure 7) for the
40 MPa and 60 MPa specimens only. In
general, the NA concrete had higher den-
sities at both the 40 and 60 MPa strength
levels followed by the RCA-1, RCA-2,
and RCA-3 concretes. As suspected,
given that all mixtures had equal volumes
(i.e. direct replacement) of coarse aggre-
gate, a strong correlation between aggre-
gate density and concrete density was
observed, as shown in Figure 8. No
2500
2400
Concrete Hardened Density (kg/m3)
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
1800
1700
1600
40 MPa Mixes
60 MPa Mixes
Figure 7. Hardened density results.
155
significant correlation was found between
concrete hardened density and the com-
pressive strength or splitting tensile
strength of concrete.
6.5. Splitting tensile strength
Splitting tensile strength was measured
using 100 mm by 200 mm long cylindri-
cal specimens and following the testing
procedure outlined in CSA A23.2-09.[12]
Triplicate specimens of each concrete
type were cast and were tested after 28
days. Results for all concrete types are
presented in Table 4 along with the asso-
ciated 5% LSD limits. In general, the 40
MPa mixtures produced splitting tensile
strengths that were lower than the 60
MPa mixtures.
6.5.1. Statistical significance of tensile
strength results
To determine whether the relative differ-
ence in 28- day compressive strengths
between the various Phase 2 mixtures
(40 MPa and 60 MP) was statistically sig-
nificant, the 5% LSD values were once
NAC RAC1 RAC2 RAC3
2388 2290 2255 2247
2407 2323 2279 2268
 156 L.J. Butler et al.

2420
Natural Aggregate
2400

Concrete Hardened Density (kg/m3)

R² = 0.99
2380

2360

2340
RCAs
R² = 0.98
2320

2300

2280

2260
40 MPa (w/c = 0.59)
2240
60 MPa (w/c = 0.38)
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2220
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
Aggregate Bulk Density (kg/m 3)

Figure 8. Relationship between aggregate bulk density and concrete hardened density.

again calculated and compared to the rel- concrete containing 100% RCA as coarse
ative differences in splitting tensile aggregate.
strength. The splitting tensile strength
values for the 40 and 60 MPa concrete
mixtures were calculated and are tabu- 6.5.2. Failure mechanism and effect of
lated in Table 4. The difference in 28-day RCA properties on splitting tensile
splitting tensile strength values (at both strength
40 and 60 MPa strength levels) between Upon inspection of the fracture surfaces
the NA concrete and the RCA concrete of the splitting tensile strength specimens,
were lower than the 5% LSD value. This the majority of the fracture planes for
indicates that relative differences in both the 40 and 60 MPa specimens
splitting tensile strength between the occurred mainly through the coarse
NA concrete mixtures and the RCA aggregate. This failure mode suggests
concrete mixtures are not statistically that the strength of the coarse aggregate
significant. Therefore, the splitting ten- was the most influential property control-
sile strengths of all the RCA concrete ling the splitting tensile strength of the
types are statistically similar to the NA concrete specimens. As noted above, the
concrete within a given strength range relative differences in splitting tensile
(i.e. 40 or 60 MPa strength mixtures). strengths between the four concrete types
Ajdukiewicz and Kliszczewicz [21] pro- were not statistically significant. This
vided a similar conclusion in their inves- suggests that for equal volume fractions
tigation of high strength RCA concretes of coarse aggregate and for equal water–
and found differences in tensile strength cement ratios, splitting tensile strengths
between NA concrete and RCA concrete are statistically insensitive to the proper-
were never more than 10%. Sagoe-Crent- ties of the RCAs used in this research.
sil et al. [7] also reported no statistically Given that the differences in compressive
significant difference in splitting tensile strengths between RCA and NA concrete
strength between the NA concrete and were found to be statistically significant
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 157

Table 4. Splitting tensile results, statistics and failure modes.

Standard Coefficient of
fct deviation variation Failure mode
Mix ID (MPa) (MPa)
NAC-40 3.18 0.15 0.05 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
RAC1-40 3.20 0.20 0.06 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
RAC2-40 3.39 0.41 0.12 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
RAC3-40 3.48 0.26 0.08 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
5% LSD 0.78
NAC-60 4.38 0.15 0.03 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
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RAC1-60 3.55 0.07 0.02 Through more than 50% of

aggregates
RAC2-60 4.07 0.50 0.12 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
RAC3-60 3.80 0.47 0.12 Through more than 50% of
aggregates
5% LSD 1.00

and that the differences in splitting tensile
strengths were statistically insignificant
indicates that there is not a strong rela-
tionship between compressive strength
and splitting tensile strength for the RCA
concrete mixtures tested.
6.6. Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity was measured
for the Phase 2 mixtures (40 and
60 MPa) to determine the effect that
replacing NA with RCA has on concrete
stiffness. Testing was carried out in
accordance with ASTM C 469,[22] and
all modulus of elasticity specimens were
cylindrical with a diameter of 100 mm
and a length of 200 mm and were moist-
cured for the first seven days followed by
curing in air until testing. Figure 9(a) pre-
sents the modulus of elasticity results for
the 40 and 60 MPa mixtures. The 40 MPa
NAC specimens on average had elastic
moduli that were 1, 9, and 19% higher
than the RCA-1, RCA-2, and RCA-3
concrete specimens, respectively. The 60
MPa specimens on average had elastic
modulus values that were 6, 12, and 21%
higher than the RCA-1, RCA-2, and
RCA-3 concrete specimens, respectively.
The differences in moduli of elasticity are
in part due to the varying compressive
strengths (within the 40 MPa mixes and
60 MPa mixes) and therefore, the experi-
mental values were normalized with
respect to f 0 1=2
c .
Based on the values presented in
Figure 9(b), the 40 MPa NA concrete
specimens had normalized elastic modu-
lus values (Ec/f 0 1=2
c ) that were 6, 8, and
10% higher than the RCA-1, RCA-2, and
RCA-3 concrete specimens, respectively.
The 60 MPa NAC specimens had normal-
ized elastic modulus values that were
11, 13, and 13% higher than the RCA-1,
RCA-2, and RCA-3 concrete specimens,
respectively. This reduction in modulus
of elasticity values is in agreement with
other research studies.[17,20,23] and
reflects the influence of RCA type on the
modulus of elasticity irrespective of
compressive strength. However, these
 158 L.J. Butler et al.
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Figure 9. Test results for (a) modulus of elasticity, (b) modulus of elasticity normalized to f 0 1=2
c ,
and (c) modulus of elasticity normalized to f 0 c1=2 and concrete density.

previous studies did not attempt to corre-
late fundamental aggregate properties to
the modulus of elasticity of the resulting
concrete. A previous study conducted by
the authors found strong correlations
between the secant modulus of elasticity
of bulk aggregate and the modulus of
elasticity of the resulting concrete.[9] The
following sections present further correla-
tions based on the data presented.
6.6.1. Statistical significance of modulus
of elasticity results
LSD values were calculated using the
data from each strength set (i.e. 40 and
60 MPa) once again to determine whether
the relative difference in moduli of elas-
ticity (Ec) and Ec/f 0 c1=2 values between
the various Phase 2 concrete mixtures
was statistically significant. The 5% LSD
values for the Ec and Ec/f 0 1=2
c values for
the 40 and 60 MPa mixtures along with
their sample statistics (i.e. standard devia-
tion and coefficient of variation) were
calculated and are tabulated in Table 5.
Note that each Ec value reported repre-
sents an average of three specimens. In
general, specimen-to-specimen coefficient
of variation values was relatively low
(i.e. 5% or lower).
As presented in Table 5, the differ-
ence in moduli of elasticity (at both 40
and 60 MPa strength levels) between the
NA concrete and the RCA-1 concrete
was lower than the 5% LSD value. This
indicates that the relative differences in
Ec between the NA concrete mixtures
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials 159

and the RCA-1 concrete mixtures are not
statistically significant. The differences in
Ec between the NA concrete mixture and
the RCA-2 and RCA-3 mixtures, how-
ever, were statistically significant.
To eliminate the effect of compressive
strength on modulus of elasticity and
determine whether significant differences
exist between the RCA and NA con-
cretes, the 5% LSD values for the Ec/
f 0 1=2
c values were also evaluated. Based
on the results presented in Table 5 at the
40 MPa strength level, only the Ec/f 0 1=2
value for RCA-3 concrete was statisti-
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concrete mixture had the same coarse
aggregate volume and each modulus of
elasticity value was normalized with
respect to f 0 1=2
c , the difference in coarse
aggregate elastic moduli must explain the
differences between the various concrete
types. Often, the modulus of elasticity of
the aggregate is unknown and the expres-
sion presented in CSA A23.3-04 [24] and
other expressions typically use the den-
sity of concrete raised to the power of
1.5 as an indirect estimate of this prop-
c erty,[25] as given by Equation (3).
pffiffiffi0

cally different from the NA concrete. At Ec ¼ 3300 f c þ 6900Þðcc =2300Þ1:5 (3)

the 60 MPa level, all RCA concretes had
Ec/f 0 1=2
c values that were statistically dif-
ferent from the NA concrete. This finding
illustrates that at higher compressive
strength levels, and with equivalent
water–cement ratios, replacing NA with
RCA can lead to a statistically significant
reduction in modulus of elasticity of the
resulting concrete.
6.6.2. Effect of RCA properties on
modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of concrete is
dependent on the concrete compressive
strength, the volumetric proportion of
aggregate, and the modulus of elasticity
of the aggregate.[13] Given that each
where Ec = static modulus of elasticity
of concrete in compression (MPa), fc0 =
concrete cylinder compressive strength
(MPa), γc = concrete hardened density
(kg/m3)
Once elastic modulus values were
normalized with respect to compressive
strength and the concrete hardened den-
sity, the differences between the various
concrete types decreased significantly, as
evidenced by Figure 10(c). Figure 10(a)
shows that the concrete modulus of elas-
ticity is proportional to the hardened den-
sity of concrete. Using the relationship
defined in Figure 8, which presents the
relationship between aggregate density
and concrete hardened density, along with
the relationship provided by Figure 10(a),

Table 5. Modulus of elasticity results and statistics.

Ec* Standard deviation Coefficient of variation Ec/f 0 c1=2
Mix ID (MPa) (MPa)
NAC-40 32,088 1135 0.04 5145
RAC1-40 31,558 747 0.02 4829
RAC2-40 28,894 908 0.03 4700
RAC3-40 26,010 1179 0.05 4627
5% LSD 2861 475
NAC-60 35,382 843 0.02 4497
RAC1-60 33,270 559 0.02 3991
RAC2-60 30,989 875 0.03 3917
RAC3-60 29,641 969 0.03 4157
5% LSD 2345 307
*Average of three cylindrical specimens.
 160 L.J. Butler et al.
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Figure 10. Relationship between modulus of elasticity and, (a) aggregate bulk density and, (b)
concrete hardened density.

it may be deduced that the bulk density
of coarse aggregate (natural and RCA) is
proportional to the modulus of elasticity
of concrete. This inference is confirmed
in Figure 10(b) that shows a good corre-
lation between the coarse aggregate bulk
density and concrete elastic modulus,
particularly in the case of the 60 MPa
specimens.
7. Conclusions
A comprehensive research program was
conducted that included 14 concrete
mixtures incorporating one NA and three
RCA sources. The RCA concrete mix-
tures had the same mixture proportions
(i.e. cement content, water–cement ratio,
aggregate volume, etc.) as the NA con-
crete mixtures, but replaced 100% of the
natural coarse aggregate with RCA. A
number of different aggregate and con-
crete properties were measured, and key
relationships between aggregate and
concrete properties were evaluated. All
aggregates were pre-soaked for 24 h
prior to batching. The study systemati-
cally investigated the failure mechanisms
 Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials
associated with RCA concrete and
evaluated how fundamental aggregate
properties can influence these mecha-
nisms. Efforts were made to quantify
statistically significant effects of replac-
ing NA with various RCA types on the
properties of the resulting concrete.
The following is a summary of the
main findings of this study.
(1) Based on observed correlations
between aggregate properties,
it was found that the density
of RCA is dependent on the
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adhered mortar content, the den-
sity of the adhered mortar itself,
and the density of the original
aggregate.
(2) After replacing the NA with
equivalent volumes of RCA and
maintaining equivalent water–
cement ratios, slump values of
the RCA concretes were up to
78% lower. After several repeat
batches which verified the slump
results, this significant loss was
attributed to the more roughened
surface texture of the RCA parti-
cles increased the inter-particle
friction in the fresh concrete.
(3) A good correlation was found to
exist between adhered surface
moisture of aggregate particles
(which provides an indirect mea-
sure of surface roughness) and
slump.
(4) The NA concrete mixtures had
the highest hardened densities fol-
lowed by the RCA-1, RCA-2, and
RCA-3 mixtures. The excellent
correlation (R2 = 0.98) between
bulk density of coarse aggregate
and hardened density of concrete
helped to explain this trend.
(5) A statistical assessment was
used to determine whether the dif-
ferences in compressive strength
between the various RCA con-
crete and NA concrete mixtures
161
were significant. Differences that
were found to be statistically sig-
nificant were explained through
observations of the failure planes
of the test cylinders and by
identifying one of several possi-
ble failure modes of RCA
concrete. Failure modes were
then associated with RCA proper-
ties (mainly surface texture and
strength) and were used to
explain the differences in com-
pressive strength between various
concrete types.
(6) In the lower strength mixtures
(i.e. 30, 40, and 50 MPa), the
RCA-1 concrete specimens had
the highest compressive strengths
(up to 22% higher than the equiv-
alent NA concrete). These higher
strengths were explained by the
more roughened surface texture
of the RCA-1 particles which led
to superior mortar–aggregate
bond in specimens with failure
planes occurring around the
aggregate.
(7) In the higher strength (i.e. 60
MPa) mixtures, the RCA-1 had
the highest and statistically signif-
icant compressive strength (up to
12% higher than the equivalent
NA concrete). Failures occurred
mainly through the aggregate
particles for the RCA concrete
mixtures and both around and
through the aggregate particles
for the NA mixtures. The RCA-1
consisted of mainly angular parti-
cles (with roughened surface tex-
ture) whereas the NA had both
rounded and angular particles
(with smooth surface texture). As
a result, the mortar–aggregate
bond in the NA concrete failed at
a lower compressive strength as
compared to the RCA-1 particles
in the RCA-1 concrete. This
difference in failure mechanisms
 162 L.J. Butler et al.
is significant as it explains how
concrete incorporating weaker
coarse aggregate (RCA-1) can
have higher compressive
strengths than a concrete with
stronger coarse aggregate (NA).
(8) Given that all failure planes
passed through the coarse aggre-
gate, relative differences in split-
ting tensile strength should have
been observed and related to the
relative strengths of the various
coarse aggregates. However, the
differences in splitting tensile
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strengths between the RCA and
NA concretes were not statisti-
cally significant when analyzed
within all compressive strength
levels. This suggested that for
the aggregates used in this study,
the splitting tensile strength of
concrete produced with 100%
RCA as coarse aggregate is sta-
tistically insensitive to RCA
strength.
(9) By fully replacing NA with
RCA, modulus of elasticity val-
ues normalized with respect to
f 0 1=2
c was reduced by as much as
to 10% as compared to the equiv-
alent NA concrete mixtures.
Based on measured correlations,
the modulus of elasticity of RCA
concrete can be estimated when
both the compressive strength
and aggregate unit weight are
considered.
(10) Based on the main findings of
this study, the adhered mortar
content, aggregate density and
aggregate surface texture seem to
have the highest influence on
resulting concrete properties. In
establishing classification systems
and user guidelines for use of
RCAs in concrete, it is recom-
mended that testing of these
fundamental aggregate properties
be implemented as a minimum
requirement.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Steed and
Evans Construction, Greater Toronto Airports
Authority, Dufferin Aggregates, Lafarge and
St. Mary’s Cement for their donations of
materials for use on this project; the Univer-
sity of Waterloo and the Centre for Pavement
and Transportation Technology (CPATT) for
the use of their laboratory facilities; and to
Rico Fung and the Cement Association of
Canada in conjunction with the National
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of
Canada for generously funding this research.
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