Femininity

Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of

attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with
women and girls. Femininity can be understood as
socially constructed,[1][2] and there is also some
evidence that some behaviors considered feminine are
influenced by both cultural factors and biological
factors.[1][3][4][5] To what extent femininity is
biologically or socially influenced is subject to
debate.[3][4][5] It is conceptually distinct from both the
female biological sex and from womanhood, as all
humans can exhibit feminine and masculine traits,
regardless of sex and gender.[2]

Traits traditionally cited as feminine include

gracefulness, gentleness, empathy, humility, and
sensitivity, though traits associated with femininity vary
across societies and individuals, and are influenced by a
variety of social and cultural factors.
Venus with a Mirror (c. 1555) by Titian, showing
Overview and history the goddess Venus as the personification of
femininity.
Despite the terms femininity and masculinity being in
common usage, there is little scientific agreement about
what femininity and masculinity are.[3]: 5   Among
scholars, the concept of femininity has varying
meanings.[8]

Professor of English Tara Williams has suggested that

modern notions of femininity in English-speaking
society began during the medieval period at the time of
the bubonic plague in the 1300s.[9] Women in the
Early Middle Ages were referred to simply within their
traditional roles of maiden, wife, or widow.[9]: 4   After
the Black Death in England wiped out approximately The Birth of Venus (1486, Uffizi) is a classic
half the population, traditional gender roles of wife and representation of femininity painted by Sandro
mother changed, and opportunities opened up for Botticelli.[6][7] Venus was a Roman goddess
women in society. The words femininity and principally associated with love, beauty and
womanhood are first recorded in Chaucer around fertility.
1380.[10][11]

In 1949, French intellectual Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "no biological, psychological or economic fate
determines the figure that the human female presents in society" and "one is not born, but rather becomes, a
woman".[12] The idea was picked up in 1959 by Canadian-American sociologist Erving Goffman[13] and
in 1990 by American philosopher Judith Butler,[14] who theorized that gender is not fixed or inherent but is
rather a socially defined set of practices and traits that have, over time, grown to become labelled as
feminine or masculine.[15] Goffman argued that women are socialized to present themselves as "precious,
ornamental and fragile, uninstructed in and ill-suited for anything requiring muscular exertion" and to
project "shyness, reserve and a display of frailty, fear and incompetence".[16]

Scientific efforts to measure femininity and masculinity were pioneered by psychologists Lewis Terman and
Catherine Cox Miles in the 1930s. Their M–F model was adopted by other researchers and psychologists.
The model posited that femininity and masculinity were innate and enduring qualities, not easily measured,
opposite to one another, and that imbalances between them led to mental disorders.[17]

Alongside the women's movement of the 1970s, researchers began to move away from the M–F model,
developing an interest in androgyny.[17] The Bem Sex Role Inventory and the Personal Attributes
Questionnaire were developed to measure femininity and masculinity on separate scales. Using such tests,
researchers found that the two dimensions varied independently of one another, casting doubt on the earlier
view of femininity and masculinity as opposing qualities.[17]

Second-wave feminists, influenced by de Beauvoir, believed that although biological differences between
females and males were innate, the concepts of femininity and masculinity had been culturally constructed,
with traits such as passivity and tenderness assigned to women and aggression and intelligence assigned to
men.[18][19] Girls, second-wave feminists said, were then socialized with toys, games, television, and
school into conforming to feminine values and behaviors.[18] In her significant 1963 book The Feminine
Mystique, American feminist Betty Friedan wrote that the key to women's subjugation lay in the social
construction of femininity as childlike, passive, and dependent,[20] and called for a "drastic reshaping of the
cultural image of femininity."[21]

Behavior and personality

Traits such as nurturance, sensitivity, sweetness,[8] supportiveness,[22][23] gentleness, [23][24]
warmth,[22][24] passivity, cooperativeness, expressiveness,[17] modesty, humility, empathy,[23] affection,
tenderness,[22] and being emotional, kind, helpful, devoted, and understanding[24] have been cited as
stereotypically feminine. The defining characteristics of femininity vary between and even within
societies.[22]

The relationship between feminine socialization and heterosexual relationships has been studied by
scholars, as femininity is related to women's and girls' sexual appeal to men and boys.[8] Femininity is
sometimes linked with sexual objectification.[26][27] Sexual passiveness, or sexual receptivity, is sometimes
considered feminine while sexual assertiveness and sexual desire are sometimes considered masculine.[27]

Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to
socialization versus biological factors.[5]: 2 9 [28][29] Social and biological influences are thought to be
mutually interacting during development.[5]: 2 9 [4]: 2 18–225  Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have
provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically
determined. [3]: 
8 –9 
[ 4]: 
1 53–154  Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics,
and hormones (both during development and in adulthood).[5]: 2 9–31 [3]: 7 –13 [4]: 1 53–154 

In 1959, researchers such as John Money and Anke Ehrhardt proposed the prenatal hormone theory. Their
research argues that sexual organs bathe the embryo with hormones in the womb, resulting in the birth of an
individual with a distinctively male or female brain; this was suggested by some to "predict future
behavioral development in a masculine or feminine direction".[30] This theory, however, has been criticized
on theoretical and empirical grounds and remains controversial.[31][32] In 2005, scientific research
investigating sex differences in psychology showed that gender
expectations and stereotype threat affect behavior, and a person's
gender identity can develop as early as three years of age.[33]
Money also argued that gender identity is formed during a child's
first three years.[29]

People who exhibit a combination of both masculine and feminine

characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist
philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender
classification.[34][35] Modern conceptualizations of femininity also
rely not just upon social constructions, but upon the individualized
choices made by women.[36]

Philosopher Mary Vetterling-Braggin argues that all characteristics

associated with femininity arose from early human sexual
encounters which were mainly male-forced and female-unwilling, Young Woman Drawing (1801,
because of male and female anatomical differences.[37] Others, Metropolitan Museum of Art) painted
such as Carole Pateman, Ria Kloppenborg, and Wouter J. by Marie-Denise Villers (possibly a
Hanegraaff, argue that the definition of femininity is the result of self-portrait), depicts an independent
how females must behave in order to maintain a patriarchal social feminine spirit.[25]
system.[26][38]

In his 1998 book Masculinity and Femininity: the Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Dutch
psychologist and researcher Geert Hofstede wrote that only behaviors directly connected with procreation
can, strictly speaking, be described as feminine or masculine, and yet every society worldwide recognizes
many additional behaviors as more suitable to females than males, and vice versa. He describes these as
relatively arbitrary choices mediated by cultural norms and traditions, identifying "masculinity versus
femininity" as one of five basic dimensions in his theory of cultural dimensions. Hofstede describes as
feminine behaviors including service, permissiveness, and benevolence, and describes as feminine those
countries stressing equality, solidarity, quality of work-life, and the resolution of conflicts by compromise
and negotiation.[39][40]

In Carl Jung's school of analytical psychology, the anima and animus are the two primary anthropomorphic
archetypes of the unconscious mind. The anima and animus are described by Jung as elements of his theory
of the collective unconscious, a domain of the unconscious that transcends the personal psyche. In the
unconscious of the male, it finds expression as a feminine inner personality: anima; equivalently, in the
unconscious of the female, it is expressed as a masculine inner personality: animus.[41]

Clothing and appearance

In Western cultures, the ideal of feminine appearance has traditionally included long, flowing hair, clear
skin, a narrow waist, and little or no body hair or facial hair.[2][42][43] In other cultures, however, some
expectations are different. For example, in many parts of the world, underarm hair is not considered
unfeminine.[44] Today, the color pink is strongly associated with femininity, whereas in the early 1900s pink
was associated with boys and blue with girls.[45]

These feminine ideals of beauty have been criticized as restrictive, unhealthy, and even racist.[43][46] In
particular, the prevalence of anorexia and other eating disorders in Western countries has frequently been
blamed on the modern feminine ideal of thinness.[47]
In many Muslim countries, women are required to cover their heads
with a hijab (veil). It is considered a symbol of feminine modesty
and morality.[48][49] Some, however, see it as a symbol of
objectification and oppression.[50][51]

In history

Cultural standards vary on what is considered feminine. For

example, in 16th century France, high heels were considered a
distinctly masculine type of shoe, though they are currently
considered feminine.[52][53]

In Ancient Egypt, sheath and beaded net dresses were considered

Muslim woman wearing a headdress
female clothing, while wraparound dresses, perfumes, cosmetics,
(Hijab)
and elaborate jewelry were worn by both men and women. In
Ancient Persia, clothing was generally unisex, though women wore
veils and headscarves. Women in Ancient Greece wore himations; and
in Ancient Rome women wore the palla, a rectangular mantle, and the
maphorion.[54]

The typical feminine outfit of aristocratic women of the Renaissance

was an undershirt with a gown and a high-waisted overgown, and a
plucked forehead and beehive or turban-style hairdo.[54]

In some cultures, cosmetics are

Body alteration
associated with femininity
Body alteration is the deliberate altering of the human body for
aesthetic or non-medical purpose.[55] One such purpose has been to
induce perceived feminine characteristics in women.

For centuries in Imperial China, smaller feet were considered to be a more aristocratic characteristic in
women. The practice of foot binding was intended to enhance this characteristic, though it made walking
difficult and painful.[56][57]

In a few parts of Africa and Asia, neck rings are worn in order to elongate the neck. In these cultures, a long
neck characterizes feminine beauty.[58] The Padaung of Burma and Tutsi women of Burundi, for instance,
practice this form of body modification.[59][60]
 In China until the The Kayan people
twentieth century, of Burma (Myanmar)
tiny, bound feet for associate the
women were wearing of neck
considered rings with feminine
aristocratic and beauty.[61]
feminine

Traditional roles
Femininity as a social construct relies on a binary gender system that
treats men and masculinity as different from, and opposite to, women
and femininity.[8] In patriarchal societies, including Western ones,
conventional attitudes to femininity contribute to the subordination of
women, as women are seen as more compliant, vulnerable, and less
prone to violence.[8]

Gender stereotypes influence traditional feminine occupations,

resulting in microaggression toward women who break traditional
Teacher in a classroom in
gender roles.[62] These stereotypes include that women have a caring
Madagascar (c. 2008). Primary
nature, have skill at household-related work, have greater manual
and secondary school teaching is
dexterity than men, are more honest than men, and have a more
often considered a feminine
attractive physical appearance. Occupational roles associated with
occupation.
these stereotypes include: midwife, teacher, accountant, data entry
clerk, cashier, salesperson, receptionist, housekeeper, cook, maid,
social worker, and nurse.[63] Occupational segregation maintains gender inequality[64] and the gender pay
gap.[65] Certain medical specializations, such as surgery and emergency medicine, are dominated by a
masculine culture[66] and have a higher salary.[67][68]

Leadership is associated with masculinity in Western culture and women are perceived less favorably as
potential leaders.[69] However, some people have argued that feminine-style leadership, which is associated
with leadership that focuses on help and cooperation, is advantageous over masculine leadership, which is
associated with focusing on tasks and control.[70] Female leaders are more often described by Western
media using characteristics associated with femininity, such as emotion.[70]

Explanations for occupational imbalance

Psychologist Deborah L. Best argues that primary sex characteristics of men and women, such as the ability
to bear children, caused a historical sexual division of labor and that gender stereotypes evolved culturally
to perpetuate this division.[71]
The practice of bearing children tends to interrupt the continuity of employment. According to human
capital theory, this retracts from the female investment in higher education and employment training.
Richard Anker of the International Labour Office argues human capital theory does not explain the sexual
division of labor because many occupations tied to feminine roles, such as administrative assistance, require
more knowledge, experience, and continuity of employment than low-skilled masculinized occupations,
such as truck driving. Anker argues the feminization of certain occupations limits employment options for
women.[63]

Role congruity theory

Role congruity theory proposes that people tend to view deviations from expected gender roles negatively.
It supports the empirical evidence that gender discrimination exists in areas traditionally associated with one
gender or the other. It is sometimes used to explain why people have a tendency to evaluate behavior that
fulfills the prescriptions of a leader role less favorably when it is enacted by a woman.[72][73][74][75][76]

Religion and politics

Asian religions

Shamanism may have originated as early as the Paleolithic period, predating

all organized religions.[78][79] Archeological finds have suggested that the
earliest known shamans were female,[80] and contemporary shamanic roles
such as the Korean mudang continue to be filled primarily by women.[81][82]

In Hindu traditions, Devi is the female aspect of the divine. Shakti is the
divine feminine creative power, the sacred force that moves through the entire
universe[83] and the agent of change. She is the female counterpart without
whom the male aspect, which represents consciousness or discrimination,
remains impotent and void. As the female manifestation of the supreme lord,
she is also called Prakriti, the basic nature of intelligence by which the The Altai consider
Universe exists and functions. In Hinduism, the universal creative force Yoni shamanism a feminine
is feminine, with inspiration being the life force of creation. role.[77]

In Taoism, the concept of yin represents the primary force of the female half
of yin and yang. The yin is also present, to a smaller proportion, in the male half. The
yin can be characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive.[84]
Yin and yang
Abrahamic theology

Although the Abrahamic God is typically described in masculine terms—such as father or king—many
theologians argue that this is not meant to indicate the gender of God.[85] According to the Catechism of the
Catholic Church, God "is neither man nor woman: he is God".[86] Several recent writers, such as feminist
theologian Sallie McFague, have explored the idea of "God as mother", examining the feminine qualities
attributed to God. For example, in the Book of Isaiah, God is compared to a mother comforting her child,
while in the Book of Deuteronomy, God is said to have given birth to Israel.[85]

The Book of Genesis describes the divine creation of the world out of nothing or ex nihilo. In Wisdom
literature and in the wisdom tradition, wisdom is described as feminine. In many books of the Old
Testament, including Wisdom and Sirach, wisdom is personified and called she. According to David
Winston, because wisdom is God's "creative agent," she must be intimately
identified with God.[87]

The Wisdom of God is feminine in Hebrew: Chokhmah, in Arabic: Hikmah,

in Greek: Sophia, and in Latin: Sapientia. In Hebrew, both Shekhinah (the
Holy Spirit and divine presence of God) and Ruach HaKodesh (divine
inspiration) are feminine.

In Christian Kabbalah, Chokhmah (wisdom and intuition) is the force in the

creative process that God used to create the heavens and the earth. Binah
(understanding and perception) is the great mother, the feminine receiver of
energy and giver of form. Binah receives the intuitive insight from
Chokhmah and dwells on it in the same way that a mother receives the seed
Holy Wisdom: Hagia Sophia
from the father, and keeps it within her until it's time to give birth. The
intuition, once received and contemplated with perception, leads to the
creation of the Universe.[88]

Communism

Communist revolutionaries initially depicted idealized womanhood

as muscular, plainly dressed and strong,[89] with good female
communists shown as undertaking hard manual labour, using guns,
and eschewing self-adornment.[90] Contemporary Western
journalists portrayed communist states as the enemy of traditional
femininity, describing women in communist countries as "mannish"
perversions.[91][92] In revolutionary China in the 1950s, Western
journalists described Chinese women as "drably dressed, usually in Porcelain statue of a woman in
sloppy slacks and without makeup, hair waves or nail polish" and communist China - Cat Street
wrote that "Glamour was communism's earliest victim in China. Market, Hong Kong
You can stroll the cheerless streets of Peking all day, without seeing
a skirt or a sign of lipstick; without thrilling to the faintest breath of
perfume; without hearing the click of high heels, or catching the glint of legs sheathed in nylon."[93][94] In
communist Poland, changing from high heels to worker's boots symbolized women's shift from the
bourgeois to socialism."[95]

Later, the initial state portrayals of idealized femininity as strong and hard-working began to also include
more traditional notions such as gentleness, caring and nurturing behaviour, softness, modesty and moral
virtue,[89][96]: 5 3  requiring good communist women to become "superheroes who excelled in all spheres",
including working at jobs not traditionally regarded as feminine in nature.[96]: 5 5–60 

Communist ideology explicitly rejected some aspects of traditional femininity that it viewed as bourgeois
and consumerist, such as helplessness, idleness and self-adornment. In Communist countries, some women
resented not having access to cosmetics and fashionable clothes. In her 1993 book of essays How We
Survived Communism & Even Laughed, Croatian journalist and novelist Slavenka Drakulic wrote about "a
complaint I heard repeatedly from women in Warsaw, Budapest, Prague, Sofia, East Berlin: 'Look at us –
we don't even look like women. There are no deodorants, perfumes, sometimes even no soap or toothpaste.
There is no fine underwear, no pantyhose, no nice lingerie[']" [97] : 3 1  and "Sometimes I think the real Iron
Curtain is made of silky, shiny images of pretty women dressed in wonderful clothes, of pictures from
women's magazines ... The images that cross the borders in magazines, movies or videos are therefore more
dangerous than any secret weapon, because they make one desire that 'otherness' badly enough to risk one's
life trying to escape."[97] : 2 8–9 
As communist countries such as Romania and the Soviet Union began to liberalize, their official media
began representing women in more conventionally feminine ways compared with the "rotund farm workers
and plain-Jane factory hand" depictions they had previously been publishing. As perfumes, cosmetics,
fashionable clothing, and footwear became available to ordinary women in the Soviet Union, East
Germany, Poland, Yugoslavia and Hungary, they began to be presented not as bourgeois frivolities but as
signs of socialist modernity.[98] In China, with the economic liberation started by Deng Xiaoping in the
1980s, the state stopped discouraging women from expressing conventional femininity, and gender
stereotypes and commercialized sexualization of women which had been suppressed under communist
ideology began to rise.[99]

In men
In many cultures, men who display qualities considered feminine are often
stigmatized and labeled as weak.[8] Effeminate men are often associated
with homosexuality,[102][103] although femininity is not necessarily related
to a man's sexual orientation.[104] Because men are pressured to be
masculine and heterosexual, feminine men are assumed to be gay or queer
because of how they perform their gender. This assumption limits the way
one is allowed to express one's gender and sexuality.[105][106]

Cross-dressing and drag are two public performances of femininity by men

Flowers and makeup are
stereotypically associated
with femininity in Western
culture.[100][101]
that have been popularly known and understood throughout many western
cultures. Men who wear clothing associated with femininity are often called
cross-dressers.[107] A drag queen is a man who wears flamboyant women's
clothing and behaves in an exaggeratedly feminine manner for
entertainment purposes.

Feminist views
Feminist philosophers such as Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir[108] contend that femininity and
masculinity are created through repeated performances of gender; these performances reproduce and define
the traditional categories of sex and/or gender.[109]

Many second-wave feminists reject what they regard as constricting standards of female beauty, created for
the subordination and objectifying of women and self-perpetuated by reproductive competition and
women's own aesthetics.[110]

Others, such as lipstick feminists and some other third-wave feminists, argue that feminism should not
devalue feminine culture and identity, and that symbols of feminine identity such as make-up, suggestive
clothing and having a sexual allure can be valid and empowering personal choices for both sexes.[111][112]

Julia Serano notes that masculine girls and women face much less social disapproval than feminine boys
and men, which she attributes to sexism. Serano argues that women wanting to be like men is consistent
with the idea that maleness is more valued in contemporary culture than femaleness, whereas men being
willing to give up masculinity in favour of femininity directly threatens the notion of male superiority as
well as the idea that men and women should be opposites. To support her thesis, Serano cites the far greater
public scrutiny and disdain experienced by male-to-female cross-dressers compared with that faced by
women who dress in masculine clothes, as well as research showing that parents are likelier to respond
negatively to sons who like Barbie dolls and ballet or wear nail polish than they are to daughters exhibiting
comparably masculine behaviours.[113]: 2 84–292 

Julia Serano's transfeminist critique

In her 2007 book Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity,
American transsexual writer and biologist Julia Serano offers a transfeminist critique of femininity, notable
especially for its call to empower femininity:[113][114]

Serano notes that some behaviors, such as frequent smiling or avoiding eye contact with strangers, are
considered feminine because they are practised disproportionately by women, and likely have resulted from
women's attempts to negotiate through a world which is sometimes hostile to them.[113]: 3 22 

Serano argues that because contemporary culture is sexist, it assigns negative connotations to, or trivializes,
behaviours understood to be feminine such as gossiping, behaving emotionally or decorating. It also recasts
and reimagines femininity through a male heterosexual lens, for example interpreting women's empathy and
altruism as husband-and-child-focused rather than globally focused, and interpreting women's interest in
aesthetics as intended solely to entice or attract men.[113]: 3 27–8 

See also
Feminine psychology
Feminism
Feminization (sociology)
Effeminacy
Gender role
Gender studies
Marianismo
Masculinity
Nature versus nurture
Sociology of gender
Transfeminine

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External links
Quotations related to Femininity at Wikiquote
The dictionary definition of femininity at Wiktionary
 Media related to Femininity at Wikimedia Commons

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