3G Basic Good

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11
How many Scrambling Codes are available in DL? – 512
Uplink Scrambling Codes
2 types of scrambling codes are available ...
12
All codes below it in the same branch become unavailable, starting with C3(0) and C3(1),
then, on the next level, C4(0)...
13
3.8 Spreading and Processing Gain : What do they mean for us?
In WCDMA, the baseband signal is spread using a spreading...
17
3.11 Achievable Speeds in 3G
How do we get the speed of 2Mbps for R99 ?
Data Rate = Chip Rate / Spreading Factor
In R99...
18
How do you calculate maximum possible speed in HSDPA?
Using the formula (data rate = chiprate/spreading factor),
1 QPSK...
19
signals due to low Useful Signal-to-Interference ratio (Ec/No) and hence the call gets
dropped.
Points to remember:
- S...
20
Prioritizing Neighbours
More efficient handover can be achieved by proper prioritization of neighbours. It is
possible ...
21
4.1 HSDPA – Techniques
- Shared Channel Transmission (enabling one user to have more than one code)
- Shorter TTI (2ms)...
22
Channel Direction Content
HS – DSCH DL User Data
HS-SCCH DL
Control information to address UEs and
information for deco...
23
Fig 7: Retransmission methods in R99 and HSDPA
As seen in the picture above, in case of R99, retransmission decision is...
24
4.5 Why is CQI important?
CQI is the feedback which the system receives from the UE and it mainly indicates the
radio c...
25
A user in a very bad radio condition reports an average CQI of 14, whereas the same user
in excellent radio conditions ...
26
- Power Control
- Soft Handover
5.2 EUL - Channels
Fig 9: EUL Channel Structure
5.3 Achievable Speeds in EUL
Case 1: As...
31
DL Transmit Power : In WCDMA, downlink is power limited, assuming that we
have enough resources like CEs and channeliza...
35
Fig 11: DC-HSPA Channel Usage in the Multiplexed Carriers
Advantages of DC-HSPA are
- Higher data rates possible compar...
36
UE DTX (discontinuous transmission from UE) enables the UE to switch off continuous
transmission of DPCCH (Dedicated Ph...
37
12. Appendix
12.1 UE Categories
Knowledge of different categories of UEs available is essential to understand the
achie...
38
Table giving UE categories for EUL
12.2 Modulation Schemes
Fig : Constellation diagrams of different modulation schemes
39
12.3 SIB List
System information is broadcast regularly to the UE on the BCCH. It contains
parameters related to Cell S...
40
D-NBAP (Dedicated NBAP) controls radio links specific to UEs
RANAP : Radio Access Network Application Part (Iu)
- For s...
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Basic Detail of 3G
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3G basic good
1. 1.
NANDU’S ROUGH GUIDES
Rough Guide to 3G and HSPA
(Radio Part)
An Effort to Understand the Complexities of 3G/HSPA
Nandakumar Nair
10/24/2009
nandakumarcnair@gmail.com
This rough guide is an effort to help RF engineers who are interested in learning the basic
principles of 3G/HSPA and apply in their
daily work.
2. 2.
2
Contents
1. INTRODUCTION 5
2. GENERAL CONCEPTS OF 3G/UMTS/WCDMA 5
2.1 3G : General Information 5
2.2 UMTS Network 5
2.3 Why do we
need 3G? Is 2G not enough? 6
2.4 What is the main difference between 3G and 2G? 7
2.5 Why does 3G have less coverage compared to GSM900? 7
2.6 Why is
WCDMA called Wideband CDMA? 7
2.7 What are the frequency bands used in 3G? 7
2.8 QOS Classes in 3G 8
2.9 What are the main services available (and
used) in 3G/HSPA as of October 2009? 8
2.10 Main difference in performance between R99 Packet and HSDPA 8
3. TECHNICAL CONCEPTS OF
3G/UMTS/WCDMA 9
3.1 Noise Floor 9
3.2 Pilot 9
3.3 Ec/No, RSCP 9
3.4 Codes 10
What is the difference between Scrambling, Spreading and Channelization
Codes? 10
3.5 Scrambling Codes 10
3.6 Spreading Codes 11
3.7 Spreading Factor 12
3.8 Spreading and Processing Gain : What do they mean for us? 13
3.9 Soft &
Softer Handover 14
3. 3.
3
3.10 Power Control 15
3.11 Achievable Speeds in 3G 17
3.12 What factors affect the data rates available to a user? 18
3.13 What are the main issues in a real
3G network? 18
3.14 What is the difference between RAB and RB? 20
4. HSDPA 20
4.1 HSDPA – Techniques 21
4.2 HSDPA Channel Structure 21
4.3
Advantages of HSDPA over R99 22
4.4 What is the maximum possible speed in HSDPA? 23
4.5 Why is CQI important? 24
4.6 Limiting factors of HSDPA 25
5.
EUL 25
5.1 EUL – Techniques 25
5.2 EUL - Channels 26
5.3 Achievable Speeds in EUL 26
6. HSDPA & EUL 27
6.1 Resource Utilization in HSDPA and EUL 27
6.2 Difference between HSDPA and EUL 28
7. KPIS 28
8. CAPACITY MANAGEMENT 28
9. NETWORK ELEMENTS UTILIZATION 29
10. INTER-RAT &
INTER-FREQUENCY HANDOVERS 31
4. 4.
4
10.1 Inter-RAT Handovers 31
10.2 Inter-Frequency Handovers 32
10.3 Compressed Mode 32
11. WHAT NEXT AFTER HSPA? 33
11.1 HSPA+ 33
11.2
MIMO 34
11.3 Dual Carrier HSPA 34
11.4 Continuous Packet Connectivity 35
12. APPENDIX 37
12.1 UE Categories 37
12.2 Modulation Schemes 38
12.3 SIB
List 39
12.4 UTRAN Protocols 39
Acknowledgements & References 40
5. 5.
5
Rough Guide to 3G and HSPA
1. Introduction
This Rough Guide has been written with the objective of aiding those, who already have
some experience with
3G. Prior knowledge will be helpful for deeper understanding of
the material presented in this guide.
Please note that only WCDMA is considered in this guide and
for 2G, only GSM is
considered. Most of the topics covered are Radio related. Core Network details are not
explained.
2. General Concepts of 3G/UMTS/WCDMA
2.1 3G : General Information
UMTS – Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
Provides mainly Speech, Video, R99 data and HS services
3GPP Releases
Rel 99 3G UMTS
Rel 5 HSDPA
Rel 6 EUL
Rel 7 HSPA +
Rel 8 LTE, All IP network (SAE)
Rel 9 SAES Enhancements, WiMax and LTE/UMTS Interoperability
Rel 10 LTE advanced
2.2 UMTS Network
UMTS can be considered as an evolution of GSM. While UMTS has its own radio access network
known as UTRAN
(UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network ), usually UMTS and GSM/EDGE
have a shared Core Network.
Generally UMTS networks are built up on existing
GSM networks and both networks co-exist.
UMTS networks in general have lesser coverage due to the fact that most of them operate at
higher frequency bands.
This is not a big issue as UMTS-GSM handover is possible.
6. 6.
6
Please note that the network below has a common core network for both 3G and 2G.
Fig 1: UMTS/GSM Network
2.3 Why do we need 3G? Is 2G not enough?
3G gives much higher data rates compared to 2G. 2G was mainly designed keeping in
mind the requirements for Speech traffic. 3G has been developed mainly to
cater to data
services, in addition to Speech traffic. Multiplexing of services with different QOS
requirements on a single connection is possible with 3G.
7. 7.
7
2.4 What is the main difference between 3G and 2G?
WCDMA GSM
Carrier Bandwidth 5MHz 200kHz
Frequency Re-use Factor 1 1-18
Frequency Diversity
Multipath diversity with
rake receivers achieved
with 5MHz bandwidth
Frequency Hopping
Packet Data Load based Scheduling Time Slot based Scheduling
with
GPRS
Power Control Frequency 1500Hz 2Hz or lower
2.5 Why does 3G have less coverage compared to GSM900?
GSM900 works at a lower frequency band than
3G, which usually works at the 2GHz
band. Lower frequency signals are attenuated less, which gives them greater propagation
capability.
2.6 Why is WCDMA
called Wideband CDMA?
WCDMA has a higher bandwidth of 5 MHz compared to IS-95(cdmaOne), which has
only 1.25MHz.
2.7 What are the frequency bands
used in 3G?
FDD – Frequency Division Duplexing is mainly used for UMTS. Hence, for uplink and
downlink, we have different frequency bands.
UL – Uplink
(mobile to base station) 1920-1980 MHz
DL - Downlink (base station to mobile) 2110-2170 MHz
Point to remember: Generally, operators are given 5MHz Carriers
and can have one or
more carriers depending on the operator requirements as well as frequency band
availability.
8. 8.
8
2.8 QOS Classes in 3G
CSIB – Conversational, Streaming, Interactive, Background
Traffic
Class
Conversational
(Real Time)
Streaming
(Real Time)
Interactive
(Best Effort)
Background
(Best Effort)
Basic
Features
- Preserve time
relation (variation)
between
information
entities of the
stream
- Preserve
time
relation
(variation)
between
information
entities of the
stream
- Request
response pattern
-Destination is not
expecting the data
within a certain time
-
Conversational
pattern (stringent
and low delay )
-Preserve payload
content
-Preserve payload
content
Example of
the
application
voice streaming
video
web
browsing emails
2.9 What are the main services available (and used) in 3G/HSPA as of
October 2009?
Service
CS12 – Speech Service with 12.2 kbps dedicated
channel
CS64 – Video Telephony with 64kbps dedicated channel
PS64 - Packet Switching with 64kbps dedicated channel
PS128 – Packet Switching with 128kbps
dedicated channel
PS384 – Packet Switching with 384kbps dedicated channel
HSDPA - High Speed Downlink Packet Access – shared channel
EUL – Enhanced
Uplink
2.10 Main difference in performance between R99 Packet and HSDPA
- R99 Packet service requires dedicated channels whereas HSDPA users have a
shared channel
- Speeds of HSDPA are much higher compared to 3G(R99). In real networks, an
average HS subscriber gets around 5-8 times throughput, compared
to an R99
data user. We can easily say that an average HS user can get between 1100kbps
to 2000kbps..whereas an average R99 user can get around 250- 280kbps.
9. 9.
9
Ofcourse, all these values depend on the configuration of the network. For
example speeds of about 6Mbps was reported during random field tests in one of
the
networks in Kuwait. Introduction of higher capacity UEs as well as higher
modulation schemes will further increase the HS throughputs.
3. Technical Concepts of
3G/UMTS/WCDMA
3.1 Noise Floor
Main idea of WCDMA is to spread the User signal over the whole band, pushing the signal under
the noise floor. Only a
receiver with knowledge of the correct PN (pseudorandom noise)
sequence can detect the signal. Any other receiver will see only the noise. Hence the security is
high.
3.2 Pilot
Pilot coverage decides the coverage boundary for a particular site. Proper Pilot power planning
is very important. Too-weak pilot will lead to
coverage holes, whereas too-strong pilots will lead
to overshooting and interference.
Point to remember : In real networks Pilot power normally varies between 27-
33dBm. Usually in
urban areas Pilots have values between 27-30dBm.
3.3 Ec/No, RSCP
Ec/No signifies the level difference between received pilot signal and the
overall noise floor.
No is the noise floor, which signifies all the signals (useful and interfering) present at the
receiver side.
For example: A value of Ec/No= -8dB
tells us that the spread signal is 8 dB below the noise floor
Higher the Ec/No value, the better it is….
Please note that the existing receivers have rake receiver
functionality which enables them to
decode multiple pilots and use them accordingly based on their strength.
For example:
If there are 3 pilots present….the mobile
receiver will compare Ec1/No, Ec2/No and Ec3/No and
decide which pilot will be the best server. More details are provided in Handover and Pilot
Pollution
Sections.
RSCP : Received Signal Code Power is the received power on one code after despreading,
defined on the pilot symbols.
Ec/No = RSCP/RSSI
10. 10.
3.4 Codes
What is the difference between Scrambling, Spreading and Channelization Codes?
Spreading Code = Channelization Code
Usage
Length
No: of
Codes
Fig 2: Usage of Scrambling Codes and
3.5 Scrambling Codes
Downlink Scrambling Codes
3 types of scrambling codes are available in DL: primary,
secondary and alternative.
Downlink primary scrambling codes are used for cell separation. One primary scrambling
code, is allocated for each cell. Secondary
scrambling codes
scrambling codes can be used in compressed mode.
10
What is the difference between Scrambling, Spreading and Channelization Codes?
Spreading Code = Channelization Code
Channelization Code/
Spreading Code
Scrambling Code
DL – Separation of DL
dedicated user channels
UL – Separation
of Data
and Control channels from
the same terminal
DL – Separation of Cells
(Sectors)
UL – Separation of UEs
Variable Fixed
Depends on SF DL – 512
UL –
Unlimited
Fig 2: Usage of Scrambling Codes and Channelization codes
Scrambling Codes
odes
3 types of scrambling codes are available in DL: primary, secondary
and alternative.
Downlink primary scrambling codes are used for cell separation. One primary scrambling
code, is allocated for each cell. Secondary scrambling
codes are not used. Alternative
scrambling codes can be used in compressed mode.
Scrambling Code
Separation of Cells
Separation of UEs
512
Unlimited
(Millions)
3 types of scrambling codes are available in DL: primary, secondary and alternative.
Downlink primary scrambling codes are used for cell separation.
One primary scrambling
re not used. Alternative
11. 11.
11
How many Scrambling Codes are available in DL? – 512
Uplink Scrambling Codes
2 types of scrambling codes are available in UL : long and short. Only
the long ones are
used. Uplink scrambling codes are used for separating the different UEs in the same cell.
RNC allocates the code.
3.6 Spreading Codes
Downlink
Spreading Codes (Channelization Codes)
DL spreading codes differentiate the dedicated user connections/channels within one cell.
Ideally they are orthogonal to
each other, though due to multipath propagation, some
orthogonality might be lost.
Channelization codes are managed with the help of a code-tree. Basic rule is that
codes
are orthogonal, if they do not descend from an already used code. If a code is used, then
all the codes below and above on the same branch are unavailable for
service. Resource
manager keeps track of the codes allocated so that orthogonality of the code tree is
preserved.
Fig 3: Code Tree for orthogonally spreading codes
Example : Code management with the help of the code tree
If code C2(0) in the Tree of orthogonal spreading codes (in the figure above) is allocated,
then:
12. 12.
12
All codes below it in the same branch become unavailable, starting with C3(0) and C3(1),
then, on the next level, C4(0), C4(1), C4(2) and C4(4), and so on.
All codes above it in the same branch to root become unavailable, that is, C1(0) and
C0(0) cannot be assigned to any user .
Spreading codes of some channels
(mainly Pilot and P-CCPCH) are fixed. Spreading
codes for all other downlink physical channels are allocated by the resource manager.
3.7 Spreading Factor
Higher the bit rate of the data service, lesser the spreading factor.
Service Spreading Factor
Half Rate – AMR 256
Speech 128
CS64 32
PS64 32
PS128 16
PS384 8
HSDPA 16
Table giving DL spreading factors for different services
Points to remember :
Usually UL spreading factor for a service is half the value of that in the
DL (when the
RAB bearer rates are the same in both UL and DL).
For example: DL SF for speech(AMR12.2) service is 128, where as in UL, it has a SF of
64.
Why should we avoid pulsed transmission in the UL?
During the silent periods, only information for link maintenance purposes are needed in
UL direction. A
typical example is Power Control commands at 1.5KHz which can
interfere with the telephony voice frequency band.
To avoid audible interference to audio devices
in UL, data and control channels are not
time multiplexed in WCDMA. Continuous transmission is achieved with I/Q code
multiplexing or by using parallel control
and data channels.
13. 13.
13
3.8 Spreading and Processing Gain : What do they mean for us?
In WCDMA, the baseband signal is spread using a spreading code…
By spreading,
1)
Baseband signal is spread over the entire spectrum (3.84MHz), with help of a
spreading code
2) Overall noise floor rises, but the baseband signal is hidden below
the noise floor
and hence difficult to detect
3) Effect of Narrow-band interference is reduced, since only a small part of the
signal will be affected and data can be
recovered with effective techniques
4) Effect of Multipath fading is also reduced
5) Higher the bit rate of the service, lower the SF (Speech SF = 128, PS384 SF= 8)
and lower the processing gain
Despreading is done at the RX side.
By despreading
1) We get the baseband signal back and gain from the processing gain.
Point to
remember : Spreading and despreading can be considered as a process of
pushing the actual baseband signal below the noise floor and then retrieving it.
Processing
Gain = 10 log (chiprate / bit rate)
To get a good service, the requirement is
Rx Sig Level + Processing Gain > Eb/No
Eg: PG for speech = 10 log ( 3.48Mcps /
12.2Mbps) = 25dB
Eb/No requirement for speech = 5dB (for good service)
Rx sig level = 5 – 25 = -20dB (which implies that even if the received signal is 20 dB
below the noise floor, the WCDMA receiver can detect the speech signal).
In GSM, the C/I requirement is about 9-12dB. This directly gives an advantage of about
20-25 dB for WCDMA.
14. 14.
14
3.9 Soft & Softer Handover
Soft handover is the condition in which the UE is connected to more than one NodeB at
the same time. While in connected
mode, UE continuously measures the neighbouring
signals and compares the measurement results with specific handover thresholds set by
the operator. When the
threshold is exceeded, UE sends a measurement report to the
RNC. RNC decides if the SHO should take place.
Soft Handover is also called MEHO – Mobile
Evaluated Handover
Active Set : Set of cells which are in soft handover.
There are 3 types of Soft Handover
1) Handover between sectors in the same site (Softer
Handover)
2) Intra-RNC SHO
3) Inter-RNC SHO
Majority of Soft handovers are usually Intra-RNC SHO.
Advantages of SHO:
1) Seamless handover without
disconnection of RAB
2) Macro diversity gain..achieved in both UL and DL due to the combining of
signals from different cells
3) Better performance in areas
where a single cell is not strong enough
Disadvantages of SHO
1) Increased consumption of radio resource as one UE in SHO, will use more than
one radio link at
a time
Point to remember : SHO is kept in mind during the initial planning and ideally an
overhead of 30-40% is assumed.
Events
Mobile sends Measurement
Report to RNC, when certain thresholds are crossed. For
SHO, it is important to know Event 1a, 1b, 1c and 1d.
Event 1a : addition of a new cell to the Active Set
Event 1b: deletion of a cell from the Active Set
15. 15.
15
Event 1c: replacement of weaker cell in Active Set by another stronger cell (not in the
Active Set)
Event 1d : replacement of best cell in Active Set by a
stronger cell (from Active Set,
Monitored Set or Detected Set)
3.10 Power Control
Main purpose of Power control mechanism is to
1) maintain the quality of
service
2) minimize the transmitted power in both UL and DL
In WCDMA, downlink transmitted power determines the interference and hence the air
interface
capacity. So it is important to avoid excessive transmission in DL.
A single UE can create problems with excessive transmission in the UL. Power control
mechanism takes care of this.
Power control is done on both common and dedicated channels. Power control in
common channels ensure that sufficient coverage is
available to setup UE-originating and
UE-terminating calls as well as data transfer on RACH and FACH. Power control in
dedicated channels ensure that
connection quality is maintained in terms of BLER (Block
Error Rate)
There are mainly 3 types of power control.
1) Open loop power control
2) Closed loop power
control (Fast Power Control)
3) Outer loop power control
Open Loop Power Control – When the UE accesses the system it first sends a preamble
and waits for a
response from the NodeB. If this expected response, AI (Acquisition
Indicator), is not obtained, the UE transmits another preamble with slightly higher power.
The
process of ramping up preamble power continues till either a response is obtained
from the NodeB or the allowed number of preamble steps are used. When the
maximum
number of steps in a preamble cycle is used, another preamble cycle is started, which in
turn is limited by a maximum number of preamble cycles set by
the operator.
16. 16.
16
Point to remember : Three parameters are controlled by the operator in the case of
Open loop power control ( preamble step, number of preamble steps in a
preamble cycle
and the number of preamble cycles).
Closed Loop Power Control (Fast Power Control) – setting of TX power based on SIR
target (in NodeB). Done
with a frequency of 1500Hz.
UE and BTS continuously compare the actual SIR of the received signal with a target
SIR. Based on the comparison, BTS/UE tells the
UE/BTS to either increase or decrease
the transmission power.
Outer Loop Power Control – setting of SIR target based on Frame quality (in RNC).
Outer loop
power control aims to provide the required quality in both UL and DL, by
monitoring the BLER of the received signal. Based on the BLER, the SIR target for the
Fast Power Control is increased or decreased.
For example: if the received BLER is not meeting the expected quality, then the SIR
target is increased and if the
received BLER is higher than the expected quality, then the
SIR target is decreased.
Fig 4: Power Control Mechanism
17. 17.
17
3.11 Achievable Speeds in 3G
How do we get the speed of 2Mbps for R99 ?
Data Rate = Chip Rate / Spreading Factor
In R99, 3 codes with SF4 gives the
max possible data rate.
Data Rate for one SF4 code = (3.84Mcps / 4 ) = 960ksps
ksps = kilo symbols per second
Since R99 uses only QPSK, 1 symbol = 2 bits
Hence, Data Rate = 480ksps = 960 * 2 bits = 1920kbps = 1.92Mbps
For 3 SF4 codes, data rate = 3 * 1.92Mbps = 5.76 Mbps
BUT, Data Rate = Net User Data +
Channel Code Redundancy + Control Data
After taking out Channel Code Redundancy and Control data, Net User Data == 2Mbps
(the above value is for one
sector with one carrier)
Point to remember : The code rate used in R99 is 1/3
Why do we have 384kbps as the max possible data for a single R99 Packet user in
3G?
Currently PS384 is the highest RAB available in DL for R99 Packet users.
SF for PS384 = 8
Data Rate for one SF4 code = (3.84Mcps / 8 ) = 480ksps
ksps = kilo
symbols per second
Since R99 uses only QPSK, 1 symbol = 2 bits
Hence, Data Rate = 480ksps = 480 * 2 bits = 960kbps
BUT, Data Rate = Net User Data +
Channel Code Redundancy + Control Data
After taking out Channel Code Redundancy and Control data,
Net User Data == 384kbps (max possible)
18. 18.
18
How do you calculate maximum possible speed in HSDPA?
Using the formula (data rate = chiprate/spreading factor),
1 QPSK code at SF16 = 480kbps
1 16-
QAM code at SF16 = 960kbps
1 64-QAM code at SF16 = 1440kbps
For HSDPA after applying ¾ coding rate
1QPSK Code = 360kbps
1 16-QAM Code = 720kbps
1 64-QAM Code = 1080kbps
10 codes with 16QAM = 720 * 10 = 7200 kbps = 7.2Mbps
15 codes with 16QAM = 720 *15 = 10.8Mbps (max per cell or sector)
15
codes with 64QAM = 1080 *15 = 16.2Mbps (max per cell or sector)
Theoretical max of HSDPA with one carrier = 15 Codes * 1440kbps = 21.6Mbps for a
single
carrier (assuming coding rate of 1, which is impossible in actual conditions)
3.12 What factors affect the data rates available to a user?
- User position in the cell
-
Interference from other users and neighbouring cells
- Number of subscribers accessing the same cell
- Speed of the customer (if he is mobile)
3.13 What are the
main issues in a real 3G network?
Pilot Pollution (Improper Pilot Power Planning)
Main objective of Pilot planning is to have a dominant signal at a given place. In
practice, this is difficult to achieve. 2 to 3 strong signals are still ok, since Soft handover
will manage the situation. But if you have more signals coming at the same
place with
more-or-less equal strength, then the UE gets confused and cannot correctly decode the
19. 19.
19
signals due to low Useful Signal-to-Interference ratio (Ec/No) and hence the call gets
dropped.
Points to remember:
- Strive to have ONE dominant Pilot
signal at a given place.
- In Ec/No, Ec is good (as long as there is no pilot pollution). No is interference.
Power, Tilt and Azimuths optimization mainly used to
avoid pilot pollution.
Missing Neighbour Definitions
This can be observed on Field with Tems or any monitoring tool (as Detected Set).
When the UE is getting a
strong signal which is not defined as a neighbour to the existing
cells in the Active Set, the new signal adds to the interference. Soft handover does not
take place
and as a result Ec/No degrades. As a result the call drops when the new signal
is about 15dB higher than the cells in the Active set.
Improper UEs
Though not
observed on a wide scale, this can be a problem. A malfunctioning UE can
cause many problems like
- Demanding too much power from the base station
- In-
efficient channel switching
- Excessive transmission of power in UL
IRAT HO Parameter Definition
- Improper definitions can lead to un-necessary handover
between 3G and 2g. This
can be a problem especially for indoor customers using HSDPA or data services.
Overall throughput of the data user will be affected due
to unnecessary
handovers/cell changes.
Cell Breathing
With more and more users coming into a cell, the actual power available for services is
lesser than the power
available in an empty cell. So the overall coverage of the cell
shrinks.
Cell breathing is more of a planning issue and has to be considered at the planning stage
itself.
Proper handover regions should be planned, to avoid any coverage gaps.
20. 20.
20
Prioritizing Neighbours
More efficient handover can be achieved by proper prioritization of neighbours. It is
possible to give higher priority for some cells
than to other cells, so as to make sure that
chances for a handover is higher between certain cells. This parameter can also be used to
avoid handover in certain
locations between certain cells to some extent. Improper
allocation of priority can lead to bad handover decisions.
Low Sites
One major mistake RF planners did in
the beginning was to install low sites for UMTS,
thinking mistakenly that since interference is to be avoided in UMTS, it is better to have
low sites with lower
coverage areas.
In actual practice, low sites are generally problematic as they overshoot and contribute to
Pilot Pollution. Down-tilting of low sites can lead to
coverage holes…(we should keep in
mind that down-tilting is an efficient way of reducing overshooting).
3.14 What is the difference between RAB and RB?
RAB
– Radio Access Bearer – Link between UE and Core (Radio + Iub + Iu)
RB – Radio Bearer – Link between UE and RNC (Radio + Iub)
4. HSDPA
HSDPA has a
fixed spreading factor of 16. Multiple codes can be reserved for HSDPA at
this SF level and depending on the number of codes available, the speed varies. Details
are given in the section What is the maximum possible speed in HSDPA?
Generally operators reserve 5 or 10 codes per carrier (out of the 15 available) for HSDPA
service, which implies that these codes are not available for other R99 services like
Speech, CS64 and PS. There are different ways of code allocation for HSDPA,
and this
varies from vendor to vendor.
When there is a shortage of codes, due to higher traffic, the operators can go for a second
carrier. Operator can decide how to
distribute HS and R99 traffic in different carriers. It
is also possible to have a carrier fully allocated to HS, which implies that 15 codes will be
available solely for
HS and no other services will be possible in that carrier.
Point to remember: Greater the number of codes you reserve for HS, lesser the
resources available for R99
services.
21. 21.
21
4.1 HSDPA – Techniques
- Shared Channel Transmission (enabling one user to have more than one code)
- Shorter TTI (2ms)
- Higher Modulation
Technique (16QAM )
- Hybrid ARQ Retransmission
- Faster Scheduling based on Radio conditions
- Better Scheduling Techniques(code rate, modulation
technique)
Fig 5: HSDPA Techniques
4.2 HSDPA Channel Structure
In addition to the new downlink shared channel HS-DSCH, some control channels are
also
required for HSDPA. Mainly they are HS-SCCH and HS-DPCCH.
22. 22.
22
Channel Direction Content
HS – DSCH DL User Data
HS-SCCH DL
Control information to address UEs and
information for decoding the transport block.
UEs can see upto 4 HS-SCCH
HS-DPCCH UL ACK/NAK, CQI
A-DCH UL and DL
SRB (Control signaling: RRC and NAS) in DL
SRB and User data in UL
Table giving HSDPA Channels and related R99 Channels
Fig 6: HSDPA Channels
4.3 Advantages of HSDPA over R99
- Faster Retransmission (due to control in
NodeB), leading to much lower RTT
23. 23.
23
Fig 7: Retransmission methods in R99 and HSDPA
As seen in the picture above, in case of R99, retransmission decision is taken in the RNC
(RLC layer),
whereas in HSDPA, the retransmission decision is taken in NodeB (MAC-
hs layer). This leads to a great reduction in overall RTT (Round Trip Time)
- More codes
used by a single user, hence higher throughputs
- Shorter TTIs, hence better response time and RTT
- 16QAM is not used in R99
- Soft Combining of re-
transmission
Point to remember : There are mainly 2 types of scheduling in HSDPA – Round Robin
and Proportional Fair. Round Robin scheduling, allocates
resources to every user in a
round robin manner regardless of the radio conditions, the users are in.
Proportional fair scheduling takes into account, the radio
conditions also and tries to
improve the overall cell throughput by giving slightly higher preference to users in better
radio conditions.
In actual testing conditions,
not much difference in overall cell throughput was observed
between the two scheduling techniques and since Round Robin scheduling came free of
charge, with
most vendors, it was the preferred scheduler.
4.4 What is the maximum possible speed in HSDPA?
Check section 3.11
24. 24.
24
4.5 Why is CQI important?
CQI is the feedback which the system receives from the UE and it mainly indicates the
radio condition of the UE. Depending on
the CQI values, NodeB scheduler allocates
resources to the UE.
Higher the CQI, better the network. An average CQI value of about 22 and above,
indicates a
reasonably good network. CQI values less than 17, indicates a low quality
network and optimization is required.
Fig 8: Overall picture of how radio conditions
affect HS Throughput and Power
Requirement
The figure above summarizes the tests conducted for a HS user in both bad and good
radio conditions.
In all the 3
graphs above, the left side represents a user in bad radio condition and the
right side represents a user in a good radio condition.
25. 25.
25
A user in a very bad radio condition reports an average CQI of 14, whereas the same user
in excellent radio conditions reported an average CQI of 26. In bad
radio conditions, the
user consumed much more power, though he got almost the same throughput as the user
in good radio condition.
- It is
very important to have a HS user in good radio conditions, since higher
throughputs can be achieved with lesser transmitted power, leading to increased
capacity for
the system.
- For higher order modulations to work, CQI values should be high.
4.6 Limiting factors of HSDPA
Channelization Codes, Modulation Scheme,
Channel Elements, Power, Simultaneous
users, UE Category
5. EUL
Main idea of EUL is to effectively use the interference headroom available in the uplink.
Currently achievable peak individual user throughputs are around 1.4 to 2Mbps in EUL
where as it is 384 kbps with R99. Overall, EUL should give higher
throughputs and
greater capacity than R99.
For example: Assume that 4 users want to upload big amounts of data…(let us say,
movies)
If EUL is used, we need to
have upto 32 channel elements.
With R99, assuming that they are using 384 RAB in uplink, total CE requirement = 4 * 16
= 64 CEs, since each 384UL RAB
requires 16 CEs. Hence in this case, 32 CEs are saved by
using EUL.
5.1 EUL – Techniques
- Hybrid ARQ with Soft Combining
- Fast Channel Dependent
Scheduling
- Multi-code Transmission
26. 26.
26
- Power Control
- Soft Handover
5.2 EUL - Channels
Fig 9: EUL Channel Structure
5.3 Achievable Speeds in EUL
Case 1: Assuming that the UE category
available can support only upto 2 SF4,
Data rate per channel = 3.84/4 = 0.96Msps
1symbol = 1bit since BPSK is used in EUL
So, Data rate per channel = 0.96Mbps
Since 2 channels (2 SF4) are possible, maximum rate = 0.96 * 2 = 1.92Mbps
27. 27.
27
After taking out all FEC, CRC, MAC-headers and L3 signaling, data rate at RLC level =
1.376Mbps
Data rate at L1 (transport block level) = 1.46Mbps
Point
to remember: Above figure is the total bit rate achievable with EUL in one cell,
when the maximum possible configuration is 2 * SF4 channels (and only BPSK is
available). If we have SF2 available, we will be getting higher UL throughputs.
Case 2: Assuming that the maximum channel capacity of 2SF2 + 2SF4 is available,
Data rate per SF2 channel = 3.84/2 = 1.92Mbps
Data rate per SF4 channel = 3.84/4 = 0.96Mbps
Total data rate = (2*1.92) + (2*0.96) = 5.76Mbps
Realistically with
¾ coding Max EUL Data Rate = 5.76 * ¾ = 4.32Mbps
Why is it NOT beneficial to have 16-QAM in EUL ?
Since UL is interference limited:
- It is better not to
have power-inefficient higher-order modulation schemes
- Cost effective design of UE power amplifier is possible with lower-order
modulation schemes, since they
have lesser PAR (Peak to Average Ratio) which
in turn lead to lesser Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) generated by the UE.
6. HSDPA & EUL
6.1 Resource
Utilization in HSDPA and EUL
In HSDPA, the shared resource is DL Transmission Power, Channelization Codes and
Channel Elements
In EUL, the shared
resource is UL interference and Channel Elements
28. 28.
28
6.2 Difference between HSDPA and EUL
HSDPA EUL
Spreading Factor Fixed = 16 Variable from 256-2
Soft Handover No (only A-DCH in SHO) Yes
Power Control No (Check RPA ) Yes
Modulation Scheme 16QAM & QPSK BPSK
Link Adaptation Rate Control Rate & Power Control
7. KPIs
Accessibility –
both RRC and RAB phases considered
Mobility – Soft/softer handover (30-40%), IRAT handover
Retainability – Mainly Voice and HS drops. Currently the
practice is to monitor
Minutes/Drop
Traffic – Erlangs for Speech/CS64 services, Data Volume for PS/HS services
Integrity – CQI for HS, BLER for R99 (if needed)
8. Capacity Management
Main purpose of capacity management is to provide sufficient QOS and coverage for
users. Admission Control and Congestion Control
are the two main mechanisms used
for capacity management.
Admission Control ensures that a new user will be connected only if there are enough
resources
available for him.
Congestion Control tries to keep the usage of the system within reasonable limits. For
example, if there are 3 PS384 users in a cell and one of
them moves into a bad signal
area and requires more power to maintain the data rate, the system checks the used DL
transmitted power. If it has crossed a threshold,
the user is downgraded from PS384 to
PS128 or to PS64, depending on the available power. By doing this, channel element
29. 29.
29
utilization is also reduced from 16 to 8(PS128) or 4(PS64), which effectively means that
more speech users can be accommodated.
Congestion control is
based on 3 parameters
- Downlink overload (when the downlink transmitted power is exceeding some
threshold for a set period of time)
- Uplink overload (when
RTWP –received total wideband power exceeds a
- DL HSDPA Overload (when total power, which includes HS power exceeds a
Point to remember: Generally congestion control comes into play before admission
control. Speech and video call users have
higher priority over HS and PS users.
Admission for speech and video calls have strict criteria. Speech/video call users are
connected only if dedicated resources are
available for them. Data services have easier
admission policies. EUL, especially has a very lenient admission policy, as connected
users are allocated capacity
based on availability and do not use other system resources.
Resources Monitored for Load Control:
Parameters monitored and used for capacity management are
-
Downlink Transmitted Carrier Power
- Downlink Channelization Codes
- Uplink Received Total Wideband Power
- Interference
- No: of radio links in compressed
mode
- No: of serving HS connections
- No: of serving connections
- No: of non-serving connections
- Node B Hardware Utilization (mainly Channel Elements)
9.
Network Elements Utilization
This section gives a rough idea of the parameters to be monitored to calculate the
utilization of different network elements
30. 30.
30
- RNC: Total Traffic, Simultaneous number of HS users, ATM connectivity, total
number of NodeBs which can be connected to one RNC
- NodeB: Channel
Elements, Code Tree, DL Transmit Power
Channel Elements are one of the major hardware resource in NodeB to be planned
and monitored carefully. Different
services have different requirement of CEs. In
most of the vendors, there is a fixed allocation of CEs for HS services. R99
services use CE when required. The
tables below give sample CE requirements
for different services. HS requirements are not included in these tables, as they
are different for different vendors.
Spreading
Factor Bearer Data Rate (kbps) Channel Element Requirement
128 AMR 12.2 1
32
32 64 2
16 128 4
8 384 8
Sample Table for DL Channel Element
Requirement
Spreading Factor Bearer Data Rate (kbps) Channel Element Requirement
64 AMR 12.2 1
32 32 2
16 64 4
8 128 8
4 384 16
Sample Table for UL
Channel Element Requirement
Channelization Codes : With the introduction of HSPA, channelization codes
have become a major limiting factor in terms of
resource utilization. Since atleast
5 to 10 codes are reserved for HS, only the remaining codes are available for R99
services like Speech, CS64 and R99 Packet.
Generally, vendors go for a second
carrier in case of code congestion.
31. 31.
31
DL Transmit Power : In WCDMA, downlink is power limited, assuming that we
have enough resources like CEs and channelization codes. Hence it is
important
to monitor the DL power consumption. We can say that Power == Capacity. We
have to keep in mind that Packet users require more power compared to
Speech
users.
Point to remember : Channel Element is a NodeB level resource. Channelization
code is a cell level resource.
- Iub: Proper planning should be done
for VP/VC. Different methods are
available. One of the main limitations if you have AAL2 switching is the number
of CIDs available per VC.
For example: If you
have one STM1 link with 155Mbps, you can divide it into
any number of VCs as you need.
Case 1: If you assign just one VC, you have a total of 248 CIDs
available…
Case 2: If you assign 10 VCs, you have 248 * 10 = 2480 CIDs available….
Assuming only voice users in the network, since each Voice user needs 2
CIDs,
Total possible subscribers in case 1 = 248 / 2 = 124 speech users
Total possible subscribers in case 2 = 2480 / 2 = 1240 speech users
So in case1, even when
there was more than enough capacity (155Mbps), we have
a limitation of 128 speech users due to the definition of VC.
In case2, with the same capacity available as
in Case1, we have 10 times more
speech users.
Please keep in mind that the each HS user require 3 CIDs. Further, separate CIDs
are needed for Control purpose
also.
10. Inter-RAT & Inter-Frequency Handovers
10.1 Inter-RAT Handovers (event 3a)
Required since 3G coverage is generally less compared to 2G.
It is
important to have proper parameters defined for Inter-RAT handovers (mainly
UMTS-GSM).
Event 2d occurs when the 3G measured quality is below a certain
threshold for a certain
period of time and this triggers measurement on IRAT or Inter-Frequency (depending on
32. 32.
32
vendor). Compressed mode measurements on 2G start after event 2d. Once event 2d is
triggered, if the measured quality of 2G is above a certain threshold
for a certain period
of time, then event3a occurs. Actual 3G-2G handover is triggered by event 3a.
10.2 Inter-Frequency Handovers (event 2b)
Required when 2 or
more frequencies are implemented in a network.
Event 2d occurs when the measured quality is below a certain threshold for a certain
period of time and this
triggers measurement on IRAT or Inter-Frequency (depending on
vendor). Compressed mode measurements on the 2nd
frequency start after event 2d.Once
event 2d
is triggered, if the measured quality of the 2nd
frequency is above a certain
threshold for a certain period of time, then event2b occurs. Actual IF HO is triggered by
event 2b.
Point to remember :
- Event 3a : 3G-2G HO
- Event 2b : Inter-Frequency HO
Event 2f occurs when the measured quality is above a certain threshold for a
certain
period of time and this triggers the stopping of IRAT/Inter-Frequency measurements.
Depending on the settings, when event 2d occurs, the system decides if
IRAT or IF
handover should take place . In some vendors both are possible.
For example: In Ericsson you have to set either IRAT or IF HO, where as in Nokia it is
possible to have IRAT and IF handovers from the same carrier.
Event 6d occurs when the UL UE Tx power exceeds a certain threshold for a certain
period of time.
Event 3a (IRAT HO) or Event 2b(IF HO) follows.
Event6b, occurs when the UL UE Tx power is below a certain threshold for a certain
period of time. All ongoing
HO attempts are aborted if DL Quality for both Ec/No and
RSCP are good.
10.3 Compressed Mode
Compressed mode mechanism enables the UE to carry out
measurements on another
frequency. Certain idle periods are created in radio frames during which the UE can
perform measurements on other frequencies. No user
data is lost as it is compressed in
the time domain using one of the below 2 methods
33. 33.
33
- Halving the spreading factor so that the same amount of data can be sent in half
the time
- Higher layer scheduling in which layer2 restricts the high bit rate
TFC (transport
format combinations) so that the user throughput is reduced temporarily
- Currently, compressed mode is not used for HS-
DSCH or EUL. It would be
available soon.
- Compressed mode can be used for both UL and DL (depending on UE capability)
- The transmission/reception gap is
always 7 slots (out of the total 15 slots in a
frame)
Fig 10: Transmission Gaps created with Compressed Mode
11. What next after HSPA?
11.1 HSPA+
HSPA+ is a
natural evolution to HSPA and can be considered as an upgrade to the
existing HSPA system. Many techniques are specified in HSPA+ for improved
performance.
They are
- MIMO
- Higher Order Modulation (64QAM)
- Multi-carrier HSPA
- Continuous Packet Connectivity
34. 34.
34
- Enhanced Cell_FACH
- Voice Over HSPA
Below sections will give you a brief idea of some of these features.
11.2 MIMO
Multiple Input Multiple Output
involves using multiple antennas at both transmit and
receive side which leads to significant increase in achievable throughputs, without the
necessity for additional
bandwidth or transmit power.
Point to remember:
HSPA+ Rel: 7 (MIMO) can theoretically support up to 28Mbps with a single 5MHz
Carrier
HSPA+ Rel: 8
(Higher Order Modulation + MIMO) can theoretically support up to
42Mbps with a single 5MHz carrier
11.3 Dual Carrier HSPA (also known as Dual Cell HSPA)
DC- HSPA aims to increase the available user data rates by merging 2 carriers of 5MHz
each, thus making available up to 10MHz carrier bandwidth for a user.
Higher Bandwidth available to a user = = Higher Throughput for the user
Basic idea of DC-HSPA is to achieve better resource utilization by means of joint
resource
allocation and load balancing across the carriers.
Some of the features for DC-HSPA are
- New MAC entity, MAC-ehs which supports HS-DSCH
transmission/reception in
more than one cell served by the same Node-B
- New UE categories required (Categories 21 to 24)
- Anchor Carrier : Carrier with all
physical channels (as shown below)
- Supplementary Carrier: Carrier with just HS-PDSCH and HS-SCCH
35. 35.
35
Fig 11: DC-HSPA Channel Usage in the Multiplexed Carriers
Advantages of DC-HSPA are
- Higher data rates possible compared to the 5MHz single carrier,
since a user can
get all the code and power resources of both carriers in a single TTI
- Improved load sharing due to dynamic statistical multiplexing of users at
connection management level
- Greater frequency selectivity and improved QOS due to joint scheduling. User
can be assigned resources dynamically either on the
anchor or on the
supplementary carrier
-
Point to remember : Theoretical DL throughputs achievable with DC-HSPA without
MIMO is around 43.2 Mbps
11.4
Continuous Packet Connectivity
In future, data users are expected to stay connected for long times, even if they are not
doing anything for a majority of the time
they are connected. So it will be good to avoid
unnecessary transmissions during these idle periods, so as to avoid interference and
reduce system resource
utilization.
CPC consists of two main features UE DTX/DRX and HS-SCCH-less operation.
36. 36.
36
UE DTX (discontinuous transmission from UE) enables the UE to switch off continuous
transmission of DPCCH (Dedicated Physical Control Channel)
when there is no
information to be transmitted in the uplink. This leads to
- Reduced battery consumption
- Reduced interference, resulting in increased uplink
capacity
UE DRX (discontinuous reception at UE) enables the UE to switch off their receivers,
when there is no data to be received in downlink. This also leads to
reduced battery
consumption.
Services like VoIP, require transmission of lots of small packets in DL. This leads to
significant overhead due to the HS-SCCH
control channel. One solution to this problem
is to remove HS-SCCH transmission completely for the first HARQ transmission. This
involves blind decoding of up
to 4 different formats of HS-DSCH, the DL data channel.
37. 37.
37
12. Appendix
12.1 UE Categories
Knowledge of different categories of UEs available is essential to understand the
achievable throughputs.
Category
Max.
number of
HS-DSCH codes
Modulation
MIMO -
Dual
Carrier
Code rate
required to
achieve max.
data rate
Max. data rate
[Mbit/s]
1 5 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.76
1.2
2 5 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.76 1.2
3 5 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.76 1.8
4 5 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.76 1.8
5 5 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.76 3.6
6 5 QPSK and 16-QAM
0.76 3.6
7 10 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.75 7.2
8 10 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.76 7.2
9 15 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.7 10.1
10 15 QPSK and 16-QAM 0.97 14.4
11 5 QPSK
only 0.76 0.9
12 5 QPSK only 0.76 1.8
13 15
QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-
QAM 0.82 17.6
14 15
QPSK, 16-QAM and 64-
QAM 0.98 21.1
15 15 QPSK, 16-QAM
MIMO 23.4
16 15 QPSK, 16-QAM MIMO 27.9
19 15 QPSK, 16-QAM MIMO 35.3
20 15 QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM MIMO 42.2
21 15 QPSK, 16-QAM DC 23.4
22 15 QPSK, 16-QAM DC 27.9
23 15 QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM DC 35.3
24 15 QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM DC 42.2
25 15 QPSK, 16-QAM DC + MIMO 46.8
26
15 QPSK, 16-QAM DC + MIMO 55.9
27 15 QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM DC + MIMO 70.6
28 15 QPSK, 16-QAM, 64-QAM DC + MIMO 84.4
Table giving UE
categories for HSDPA
38. 38.
38
Table giving UE categories for EUL
12.2 Modulation Schemes
Fig : Constellation diagrams of different modulation schemes
39. 39.
39
12.3 SIB List
System information is broadcast regularly to the UE on the BCCH. It contains
parameters related to Cell Selection, Reselection, Location and
routing registration,
Handover, Power Control etc. Any parameter change in the system information is
notified to all UEs in the cell by a paging message or by a
system information change
indication message. The table below list the different SIB messages available.
12.4 UTRAN Protocols
RRC : Radio Resource Control
-
Handles control plane signaling of Layer3 signaling between UEs and RNC
NBAP : NodeB Application Protocol (Iub)
- Signaling protocol responsible for the
control of NodeB by RNC
- NBAP has two parts: C-NBAP and D-NBAP
C-NBAP (Common NBAP) controls the overall functionality of the NodeB
System
Information
Blocks Contents
MIB PLMN identity for serving cell, SIB Scheduling Information
SB1 SIB Scheduling Information
SIB1
Paging parameters, Timers
and counters in Idle and Connected mode, LA and
RA updating
SIB2 URA identity list
SIB3 Cell selection and reselection parameters
SIB4 Cell selection and
reselection parameters. Connected mode only
SIB5 and SIB5bis Paging parameters, Cell and common channel configuration
SIB7 Power control on common
channel
SIB11 Measurement management, Cell selection and reselection parameters
SIB12 Measurement management
SIB18 PLMN identity for GSM neighbors
listed in SIB11.
40. 40.
40
D-NBAP (Dedicated NBAP) controls radio links specific to UEs
RANAP : Radio Access Network Application Part (Iu)
- For signaling between Core
Network( MSC or SGSN) and RNC
RNSAP : Radio Network System Application Part (Iur)
- Signaling protocol responsible for communication between RNCs
Acknowledgements & References
I would like to thank my colleagues at Wataniya Telecom, Kuwait as well as Mobitel,
Slovenia for the support extended to me. I
would like to thank specially,
- Naveen Krishnapillai, Wataniya Telecom, Kuwait
- Amol Rajan Pradhan , Wataniya Telecom, Kuwait
- Santosh Tummala , Wataniya
Telecom, Kuwait
- Amin Sudhir Vasanth , Wataniya Telecom, Kuwait
- Iztok Saje, Mobitel, Slovenia
Material for this guide has been compiled from
- Author’s
experience in 3G from year 2002 with Mobitel, Slovenia and Wataniya
Telecom, Kuwait
- WCDMA for UMTS by Harri Holma and Antti Toskala
- Internet
(especially Wikepedia)
- White Paper – Dual Cell HSDPA and its Future Evolution - Nomor Research
GmbH
- Articles from different vendors, especially Ericsson
and NSN
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