Analog Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters 241 Current in instrument for full scale deflection V _ 10010 ee 103A, Deflecting torque T, = NBIdI = 100% Bx 30% 10" «25% 1095x107 =375x10°8Om, :. Controlling torque for a deflection 8 = 120°, T, = KO =0.375 «10° « 120 45x 10° N-m. At final steady position, Ty=T, or 375x10°B=45x10°. Flux density in the air gap 45x10 2 Bxt0~ =0.12 Wo/m?. 375x10° Resistance of coil winding R,=0.3x20=60 Length of mean turn [yy =2(1 +d) =2(30 +25)= 110 mm. Let a be the area of cross-section of wire and p be the resistivity. Resistance of coil, R, = Np ly, / a Area of cross-section of wire, 00% 1.7% 10°8 «11010 "- x =31.3710°9 mm? Diameter of wire, d=((4/)(1.37«10-)}"? = 10° 2mm Example 9.3 The coil of a moving coil voltmeter is 4 mm long and 30 mom wide and has 100 turns on it. The control spring exerts a torque of 240% 10°€ N-m when the deflection is 100 divisions on full scale, If the flux density of the magnetic fed in the air gap is 1.0 Whim, estimate the resistance that must be put in series withthe col to give one volt per division. The resistance of the vollmeler coil may be replected Solution. Controlling torque at full scale deflection T, =240«10 N-m, Deflecting torque at full scale deflection Ty=NBld1 = 1001 40% 10° «30% 10791 =120% 10 1 N-m, At final steady position, Ty=T, or 120x101=240x10, Current at full scale deflection, 1 =2x10°A=2 mA, Let the resistance of the voltmeter circuit be R :. Voltage across the instrument =2 x 10° R, This produces a deflection of 100 divisions Volts per division =2 «10° R/100 This value should be equal to 1 in order to get 1 volt per division. 210° R/100=1 or R= 500000 = 50k 9.4.3. Ammeter Shunts “The basic movement ofa d.c. ammeter isa PMMC @’Arsonval galvanometer. The coil winding of a basic ‘movement is small and light and can carry very small currents since the construction of an accurate instrument with a moving coil to carry currents greater, than 100 mA is impracticable owing to the bulk and weight of the coil that would be required, When heavy currents are to be measured, the major part of the current is bypassed through a low resistance called a “shunt”. Figure 9.5 shows the basic movement (meter) and its shunt to produce an ammeter. Fig. Basic ammeter circult. ‘The resistance of the shunt can be calculated using, conventional circuit analysis, See Fig. 9.5, ternal resistance of movement (i.e, the coil) 2 ; sistance of the shunt ; ©, where R,, ull scale deflection current of movement, A shunt current, A T= current to be measured ; A. Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage drops across shunt and movement must be the same. or My Ry = Igy Ry = Tyg Ry! ly (96) But * Il, ‘Therefore, we can write, Ry = ly Ry (Ig) (9.7) Ty -1= Ry FRy or T1 ly =1+ Ry I Ry (98)242 This ratio of total current to the current in the movement is called multiplying power of shunt. Multiplying power m=I/ ly (99) =14R,/ Ry (9.10) Resistance of shunt Ry, = Ry /(m—1) (9.11) ‘The shimt resistance used with a d’Arsonval movement may consist of a coil of resistance wire within the case ofthe Instrument, or it may be external shunt having a very low resistance. Construction of Shunts : ‘The general requirements for shunts are () The temperature co-efficient of shunt and instrument should be low and should be as, nearly as possibly the same. (i) The resistance of shunts should not vary with time, They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise, ‘They should have a low thermal electro- motive force with copper. (iti) () ‘Manganin’ is usually used for shunts of dc instruments as it gives low value of thermal emé with copper although it is liable to corrosion and is difficult to solder. ‘Coustantan’ is a useful material for ac. ircuits since its comparatively high thermal emf, being unidirectional, is ineffective on these circuits ‘The construction of shunts is the same as that of low resistance standards explained in Art, 6.4. Shunts for low currents are enclosed in the meter casing but for currents above 200 A, they are mounted separately (6o that heat produced can be effectively dissipated), Example 9.4 1 mA meter d’Arsonval movement with fan internal resistance of 100 Q is to be converted into a 0-100 mA ammeter. Calculate the shunt resistance required. What particulars should he specified on the shunt ? Solution. Shunt resistance Ry lpg Ry (= fy) = 1100 / (100-1 Voltage drop across the shunt (1.0) (100) = 100 mv. Equivalent resistance of shunt and meter in parallel =100x 10 /(100x10)= 1.09. ‘Therefore the indications on the shunt should be : (100 mA, 100 mV (i) 1.02, 100 mA or (i) 1.0, 100 mv. 010. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Example 9.5 Find the multiplying power of a shunt of 200-2 resistance used with a galvanometer of 1000 0 resistance. Determine the value of shunt resistance to give a ‘multiplying power of 50. Solution. Multiplying power + Ry, | Ry, = 1 1000/200 = 6. +R, I Ry We have, m <. Shunt resistance, R,, =~ em Example 9.6 A moving coil ammeter has a fixed shunt of (0.02 8. With a coil resistance of R= 1000 and a potential difference of 500 mV across it, full scale deflection is obtained = (@) To what shunted current does this correspond ? (8) Calculate the value of R to give full scale deflection when shunted current 1 is (104, (i) 75. Aand (©) With what value of R is 40% deflection obtained with = 100A? Solution. (a) Current through shunt, Ty, = 500% 10 /0.02 =25 A. Current through the meter to give full scale deflection = 500% 107? / 1000 =0.5%1077 A. ( ( Voltage across shunt for a current of 10 A =0.02%10=02 V. -: Resistance of meter for a current of 10 A to give full scale deflection =02/(0.5%10™)= 4009. (i) Voltage across shunt for a current of 75 A =002%75=15 V. Resistance of meter for a current of 75 A to give full scale deflection =15/(0.5«10) = 3000 0. (©) Now 40 percent deflection is obtained with 100 A, 2 Current to give full scale deflection 100 /0.4 = 250 A. Voltage across shunt for a current of 250 A 02250 =5.0V Resistance of meter for a current of 100 A to give 40 percent of full scale deflection =5.0/(0.5x 10) =109000 Example 9.7 A simple shunted ammeter using a basic ‘meter movement with an internal resistance of 18000 and a full scale deflection current of 100 WA is connected in aAnalog Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters 243 circuit and gives reading of 3.5 mA on its 5 mA scale. This reading is checked with a recently calibrated dc. ammeter ‘which gives a reading of 4.1 mA. The implication is that the first ammeter has a faulty shunt on its 5 mA range. Calculate (@) the actual value of faulty shunt ; (8) the correct shunt for the 5 mA range. Solution. Correct multiplying power of shunt = I/ I, =5* 10 /(100« 10) Multiplying power of faulty shunt 50x (4.1/3.5) =586. Resistance value of faulty shunt = 1800 / ($8.6 -1)=31.252. Correct value of shunt resistance = 1800 /(50 -1)=36.732. 9.4.4 Effect of Temperature Changes in Ammeters The temperature error can be eliminated when the shunt and the moving-coil are made of the same material and kept at the same temperature. This method, however, is not satisfactory in practice as the temperatures of the two parts are not likely to change at the same rate. An additional disadvantage of using copper shunts is that they are likely to be bulky as the resistivity of copper is small. Copper shunts are only occasionally used in instruments with built-in shunts. Fig. 9.6 Meter shunt and swamping resistance, The arrangement normally used is shown in Fig. 9.6. In this case, a ‘swamping resistance’ of manganin (which has a negligible temperature co-efficient) having a resistance 20 to 30 times the coil resistance is connected in series with the coil and a shunt of manganin is connected across this combination. Since copper forms a small fraction of the series combination, the proportion in which the currents would divide between the meter and the shunt would not change appreciably with the change in temperature. This fact is illustrated with the following example. Example_9.8 A moving coil instrument whose resistance is 250 gives a full-scale deflection with a current of 1 mA. This instrument is to be used with a manganin shunt to extend its range to 100 mA. Calculate the error caused by a 10°C rise in temperature when (@) Copper moving coil is connected directly across the manganin shunt. (6) A75-ohm manganin resistance is used in series with the instrument moving-col. ‘The temperature co-efficient of copper is 0.004/°C and that of manganin 0.000151°C. Solution. Case (a). Refer to Fig. 9.6. Multiplying. factor of shunt m= 1/ Iq =100/1= 100. «+ Resistance of shunt Ry, = Ry [(m=1)=25 / (100-1) = 0.2525 2. Instrument resistance for10°Crise in temperature, Ry =25(1 + 100.004) = 26 2. Shunt resistance for 10°C rise in temperature, Ry, = 02525(1 + 100.0015) = 0.2529 2. Current J, through the meter for 100 mA in the main circuit for 10°C rise in temperature, 1 02529 __ 9,963 26 +0.2529 ‘Normal meter current = 1 mA. 1, Ig = 100: mA. Error due to rise in temperature = (0963-1) 100 =- 3.7%. Case (b). Total resistance in the meter circuit Ry, + Ryy =25+75 = 1002. Shunt resistance Ry = Ry / (m1) =100 / (100-1) = 1.01 2. Resistance of the instrument circuit for 10°C rise temperature, R, 25(1 + 10x0004)+75(1 +10x000015) 101.119. Shunt resistance for 10°C rise in temperature, Ry, = L.01(1+ 100.0015) = 1.0115 0 Instrument current for 100 mA in the main circuit for 10°C rise in temperature 1.0115 Ip 300% pus 70.9905 MA. Error = (0.9905 -1)x 100 =~ 0.95%. ‘The improvement in the error from 3.7% to about 1% has been obtained by the use of the additional series swamping resistance of 3 times as compared to the meter resistance. We could obtain better correction244 by increasing the ratio of the swamping resistance as ‘compared to the meter resistance. But by increasing this ratio, the pd. across the meter circuit would also be increased. Thus the disadvantage of using swamping resistors is a reduction in the full scale sensitivity as a higher voltage across the instrument is necessary to sustain the full scale current, 9.4.5 Multi-range Ammeters ‘The current range of a dc. ammeter may be further extended by a number of shunts, selected by a range switch. Such meter is called a multirange ‘ammeter. Figure 9.7 shows a schematic diagram of multirange ammeter. The circuit has four shunts R,y,, Rugg Ryg and Ryyy, which can be put in parallel with the meter movement to give four different current ranges ly, ly I; and Iy. Let my, tm ms and m,, be the shunt multiplying powers for currents I, Iy-1,and I, Ruy = Ry Hm 1 (1) Ry, H(t, -1) Fig. 5.7 Low range ammeters use a multiposition make-before-break switch (See in Fig. 9.7) provided on the case of the instrument. This type of switch is essential in order that the meter movement is not damaged when changing from the current range one to another. If we provide an ordinary switch, the meter remains without a shunt and as such is unprotected and therefore can be damaged when the range is changed. Multi-range ammeters are used for ranges from 1 to 50 A. When using a multi-range ammeter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the current range until good upscale reading is obtained. ‘The universal shunt or Ayrton shunt shown in Fig, 9.8 is also used for multi-range ammeters. The advantage of an Ayrton shunt is that it eliminates the possibility of the meter being in the circuit without a shunt. But this advantage is gained at the cost of a higher meter resistance. Multi-range ammeter. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Fig. Multi-range ammeter using universal shunt. Universal _or Ayrton shunt. Consider that the ‘meter ranges have to be extended to I, 1, and I}. For the arrangement shown in Fig. 9.8 we have, for switch at position 1, =Iy)Ry fp Uy =1+ Ry Ry or m1) For switch at position 2, Tyg (By — Ry + Ry) = Up By) Re or Ry =(Ry + Ry )/ my For switch at position 3, Ty (Ry — Ry + Ry.) = (1g Ty, ) Ry or Ry=(Ry + Ry)/ My ‘Thus the values of different sections of resistances ive, (R, ~ Ry} (RyRy), and R, may be found, Example 9.9 Design a multi-range dc. milli-ammeter ising a basic movement with an internal resistance R,, = 502 and a full scale deflection current I, = 1mA. ‘The ranges required are 0-10 mA: 0-50 mA ; 0— 100 mA, and 0-500 mA, Solution. (30-10 mA range: Multiplying power m= 1/1, =10/1=10. From Eqn. 9.11, resistance of shunt Ray = Ry / (m1) = 50/9 =5.552. (ii) 0-50 mA range m= 50/1 =50 Ray = 50/50 ~ 1) = 1.03 ©. (iil) 0- 100 mA range 10/1 = 100 Ryy3 = 50/(100 ~ 1) =0.506 2. (iv) 0-500 mA range ‘500/1 = 500 Rug = 5/0500 ~ 1) =0.1.,Analog Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters Example 9.10 Design an Ayrton shunt to provide an Tnmeter with current ranges of 1A, 5 A and 10.A. A basic meter with an internal resistance of 50.9 and a full scale deflection current of 1 mA is to be used. Solution. Referring to Fig. 9.8, we have, 1, =1mA, R, =502 A, h=5A, b= 10 A. (11079) = 1000 m, = 5 (1x10) = 5000. 1m, =10 /(1x10)= 10,000. Ree, 0 m-1 100-1 Thus, R, =0.05.9, ‘Therefore the resistances of the various sections of the universal shunt are : R,-R, =0.05-0.01= 040 R,—R, =0.01-0.005 = 0.005 2 and Ry = 0.0059. 9.4.6 Voltmeter Multipliers A d’Arsonval basic meter movement is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a series resistance with it. This series resistance is known as a multiplier. The combination of the meter movement and the multiplier is put across the circuit whose voltage is to be measured (See Fig. 99). ‘The multiplier limits the current through the ‘meter so that it does not exceed the value for full scale deflection and thus prevents the movement from being damaged. o-—— Supply ——-o < Load Series resistance (nultiplier) Fig. 9.9 Meter with a multiplier. 245 The value of a multiplier, required to extend the voltage range, is calculated as under : Let: y= Ij, = full scale deflection current of meter, R,, = intemal resistance of meter movement, R, ., = multiplier resistance, v= voltage across the meter movement for current I, V = full range voltage of instrument. For the circuit of Fig. 9.9, = Iq Ry V= Ty (Ry + Ry) (9.12) 13) 14) We can also express the result in terms of multiplying factor of multiplier. Multiplying factor for multiplier, V_In(Ry+R)_,, 8, =v atu EBn A Sos "hon ete Rees #15) . Resistance of multiplier, R, =(m-1)R,, ..(9.16) Hence for the measurement of voltage m times the voltage range of the instrument, the series multiplying resistance should be (m~1) times the meter resistance. Thus to extend the voltage range to 10 times the instrument range, R, =9R,, Construction of Multipliers The essential requirements of multipliers are : (Their resistance should not change with time, (ii) ‘The change in their resistance with tempe- rature should be small, (iii) They should be non-inductively wound for ac. meters. The resistance materials used for multipliers are manganin and constantan. ‘The general constructional details of multipliers are the same as that for medium and high resistances as explained in Chapter 5. Example 9.11 A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection of 10 mA when the potential difference ‘across its terminals is 100 mV. Calculate (@) the shunt resistance for a full scale deflection corresponding to 100 A, (b) the series resistance for full scale reading with 1000 V. Calculate the power dissipation in each case.246 Solution. Meter current, /,, = 10 mA, *. Meter resistance R,, =100x 107 / (10x10) = 109 (@) Shunt multiplying factor, 1/1,, =100 /(10 10") = 10,000. «Shunt resistance, Ry, =10/(10,000 -1)~ 0.001 2. Power dissipation, 01 = (100% 10™)x 100 = 10 W. (©) Voltage multiplying factor m= V / v= 1000 /(100% 10) :. Multiplier resistance R, =(m=1)R,, =(10,000 ~1)x 10 = 100,000 0. Power dissipation V1, = (100010 10>) = 10,000. 10W 9.4.7 Effect of Temperature Changes in Voltmeters ‘The multiplier resistance used in series with the moving-coil is usually made of manganin having a negligible resistance temperature coefficient. Since the series resistance of the multiplier is very much greater than the coil resistance (which is of copper), the variations of resistance of R,, due to temperature changes are ‘swamped’ by ‘the resistance R, of multiplier. This is illustrated by the following example. Example_9.12_A_ moving-coil_ instrument whose resistance 25 02 gives a full-scale deflection with a voltage of 25 mV. This instrument is to be used with a series ‘multiplier to extend its range to 10 V. Calculate the error caused by 10°C rise in temperature. The temperature coefficient of copper i 0.004/°C and that of ‘manganin 0.00015/°C. Solution. Meter current for full scale deflection, Tp, = V/ Ry =25x 10 /25 =1 mA. Voltage multiplying factor m= V/v=10/ (25x10) = Multiplier resistance m-I)R,, =(400 -1)25 =99752 Total resistance of voltmeter circuit, R, =25 +9975 = 100002. Resistance of meter with 10°C rise in temperature, nt = 25(1+0.004 « 10) =26 0. Resistance of multiplier with 10°C rise in temperature R,, =9975(1 +000015 10) =9990.2. 00. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Total resistance of voltmeter circuit with 10°C rise in temperature Ry =26 +9990 =10016 2. Reading of voltmeter at 10°C rise in temperature =(10,000 / 10016) 10 =9: 9.984-10 x100 Percentage error = ‘Thus it is clear from above that the temperature changes have no appreciable effect on the readings of voltmeters if the multipliers are made of low temperature coefficient materials, i¢., the temperature changes are swamped out by the multipliers. 9.4.8 Multirange d.c. Voltmeters In a multirange voltmeter, different full scale voltage ranges may be obtained by the use of individual multiplier resistors or by a potential divider arrangement. 1._Individual_multipliers, We can obtain aifferent_ voltage Tanges by connecting different values of multiplier resistors in series with the meter. ‘The number of these resistors is equal to the number of ranges required. Figure 9.10 shows multiplier resistors Ray Ry, Rag and R,, which can be connected in series Fig. 9.10 Multi-range voltmeter. with the meter by a range selector switch. Consider that the ranges desired are V,, V, V, and V,, then the corresponding multiplier resistances can be obtained by Eqn. 9.16. We have, Ry = Cm —DR yy Raq =(m—DRy, Ry = (—DRy, Ry =(™-DRy where m,=V,/0, -m=V,/v, m,= V,/v and m,=V,/v. 2. Potental_divider_arrangement. Anoter multi-range voltmeter is Shown in which the connections are made at the junctions of resistances R,, R;, R, and Ry in series to obtain the } 49.17)‘Analog Ammeters, Voltmeters and Ohmmeters 247 “Ti Multi-range voltmeter using potential divider. voltage ranges V,, Vz, Vy, and Vy. These connections are brought out to binding posts on the instrument, and the instrument is connected to the proper binding post for the desired voltage range. The series resistances for the voltage ranges V,, Vy Vand V, can be computed as follows = MReyy — Ry — Cm Rey = (0 =) Ry (9.19) Similarly, Ry = (V5 Ig )~ Ruy ~ By ~ Ry = (5) Ry (220) and R= (Vg/ I) ~Ry Ry ~ Ry ~ Ry) Ry 9.21) ‘This system has the advantage that all multipliers except the first have standard resistance values and can be obtained commercially in precision tolerances. The range multiplier, R,, is the only special resistor which must be manufactured to meet specific requirements. Multi-range voltmeters are very effective for moderate range voltages. For higher-range voltages it is often desirable to use external resistors in connection with a given voltmeter. Example 9.13 A basic d’Arsonval meter movement with an internal resistance R,, = 10092 and a full scale current Of I =1 mA, is t0 be converted into a multi-range d.c. voltmeter with ranges of 0 - 10 V, 0-50 V, 0-250 V and 0 - 500 V. Find the values of various resistances using the potential divider arrangement. Solution. Voltage across the meter movement, = Ig Ry =1*100=100mV. ‘The voltage multiplying factors are : m, = 10/(100% 10") = 100, 1m = 50 /(100% 10°) rm, = 2500 and m, =5000 Referring to Fig. 9.11 and using Eqns. 9.18 to 9.21 the values of various resistances are Ry =(m, -1) Ry, = (100-1) 100 = 9900.02 Ry = (im, —,) Ry, = (500-100) 100 = 40 12 Ry =(m,—M,)Ry, =(2500 ~ 500) 100 92 = 200 kA and Ry = (1m —™)Ry, =(5000 ~2500)x 100 9 =250 2 9.4.9: Sensitivity of PMMC Voltmeters ‘The current sensitivity is defined as the deflection per unit current and this is equal to the ratio of constant G of the electrical system divided by the control spring constant K. Hence for sensitivity to be large, G should be large and K should be small. For a given coil area A(= Id) and a constant flux density, G can be increased when the coil is wound with many turns of thin wire while K can be made small by using, a light flat spring and the coil assembly lightly pivoted. On the contrary a less sensitive instrument is wound with few turns of thick wire and has a stiffer spring. Thus as a general rule it may be stated that a sensitive instrument will have a large resistance because it is wound with many turns of fine wire. Different d’Arsonval movements having different values of resistance are used in voltmeters of various ranges ~ requiring different multipliers for different ranges. Therefore, the total resistance of the voltmeter circuit isa difficult instrument rating to express. More meaningful information can be conveyed to the user via the sensitivity rating of the instrument. This rating, generally printed on the meter dial, specifies the resistance of the meter for a one volt range. ‘The sensitivity of a voltmeter is defined as S,=M pg -1/ 1g QIV (9.22) where I, = current required for full scale deflection. ‘The sensitivity 5, of the voltmeter may be used to advantage in the sensitivity method of calculating the resistance of multiplier in a d.c. voltmeter. Consider the circuit of Fig. 9.10. R,=5,Y-Ry Ry = 5,V,-(R,, + Ry) Ry = $,Vq (Ry + Ry + Rp) Ry= SV, (Ry + By + By + Ra) (9.23) (9.24)248 Example 9.14 Solve Example 9.13 by voltage Sensitivity method. Solution. Sensitivity $,=1/ 1, =1/(1x 10) = 10009/V. R, =8,V, Ry, =1000% 10-100 =9900.0 Ry = S,Va-(Ry + Ry) 1000 x 50 ~(100 +9900) = 40k by = Sy¥5—(Ry + Ry +R) 1000x250 ~(100 +9900 + 40000) = 200 kee and Ry=$,Vs~(Ry +R, + Ry + Ry) = 1000 x 500 ~(100 +9900 + 40,000 + 200/000) <2 250k0 Example 9.15 Which meter has a greater sensitivity : Meter A having a range of 0 - 10 V and @ multiplier resistance of 18 KO, or meter B with a range of 0-300 V and 4 multiplier resistance of 298 2 ? Both meter movements have a resistance of 2 10. Solution. Meter A: Resistance of |, resistance of meter movement ‘multiplier =2+18 =20k0. Sensitivity =20/10=2 k/V Meter B: Resistance of |, resistance of meter movement multiplier =2 +298 =300k0 Sensitivity =300 /300=1k2/V Meter A is more sensitive than meter B, as it (meter A) needs half the current that meter B needs for full scale deflection. 9.4.10 Sensitivity of PMMC Voltmeters ‘ond their Loading Effects ‘The sensitivity of a dc. voltmeter is an important factor when selecting a meter for a certain voltage measurement. A low resistance voltmeter may give correct readings when measuring voltages in low resistance circuits but is certain to produce very unreliable readings in high resistance circuits. A voltmeter, when connected across two points in a highly resistive circuit, acts as a shunt for that portion of the circuit. The meter will then give a lower voltage drop than actually existed before the meter was connected. This effect is called loading effect of an instrument and is caused principally by low sensitivity instruments. This is illustrated by the following example. Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation Example 9.16 It is desired to measure the voltage across © 50 Q resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. 9.12. Two voltmeters are available for this purpose : Voltmeter A with a sensitivity of 1000 9/V and Voltmeter B with a sensitivity of 20,000 91 V. 100k 150V Fig. 9.12 Circuit of Example 9.16. Both meters have 0 ~ 50 V range. Calculate : (a) The reading of eack voltmeter ; (6) The error in each reading expressed as a percentage of true value. Solution. True value of voltage across the 50 KO resistor = 50 /(100 + 50)*150 = SOV. (@ Voltmeter A, Resistance of voltmeter R, =S,V =1000x 50.2 =50k2. Now this voltmeter is connected across the 50 KO resistor and therefore the resistance of parallel combination of voltmeter and resistor is 50x 50 /(50+50)=25k2. Voltage across the combination of voltmeter and resistor =25 /(100-+25)x150 =30 V. Hence voltmeter A indicates a voltage of 30 V. Voltmeter B. Resistance of voltmeter R, = 8,V =20,000x 50.9 = 1000 ka Resistance of combination of voltmeter in parallel with 50 KO resistor 1000 x 50 /(1000 +50) = 47.6 ka. :. Voltage across the combination of voltmeter and resistor = 476 | (100 +47.6)x 150 = 48.37 V. Hence voltmeter B indicates a voltage of 48.37 V. (b) Voltmeter A. Percentage error _ indicated voltage~ true voltage true voltage 100 100 =-40% Voltmeter B. Percentage error