Revision Questions 1 Describe the mechanism and the various stages of creep. 2 What is the effect of Cr and Mo on steel? 3 Why are impurity elements in creep resistant steels so damaging? 4 What preheat and PWHT temperatures are required when welding 20mm thickness | 2'/4Cr 1Mo steel using low hydrogen electrodes? Rev 2 January 2010 - s Creep resistant steels IWE TWI wonocenrne Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 VL ‘swwsrcetsovoseCREEP RESISTANT STEELS ‘TW Training & Examination Services Ty, yp renscemnaantotes siovled emperatze. Tho tampa and aos encton are flows = Tromelin point — OL = oFe(OH)2 ‘Anodic reaction (oxidation) Cathodic reaction (reduction) __| 2Fe 2Fe*+4e" Q2 + 2H,0 + de" + 40H or 2H"#2e"+H, (electron gain) ( e = electron ( nee TWI ronocenne Corrosion WE FORMATERIALS Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 ZT ‘scwwicrcorncvoer2.1 Redox potential The redox potential is a measure of the affinity of a substance for electrons compared with hydrogen (which is set at OV), and is measured in volts. Substances more electronegative than hydrogen have positive redox potentials, ie are Capable of oxidising and substances less electronegative have negative redox potentials, ie they are capable of reducing. The greater the difference between the redox potential of two substances, the faster the electrons flow between them. Where there is sufficient redox potential, electrochemical reactions can occur without any encouragement and are called galvanic cells, for example steel corroding in seawater: Fo= Fe 426 et Iron corrodes atthe anode dation Electron Flow Current Flow 02+ 2,0 +4e"> 40H Reduction Oxygen Is reduced at the cathode Rev 1 January 2010 TWI wort cenree Corrosion IWE ENR Copyright © TW Lid 2010 WMT swans tccno.0cvThe galvanic series applies to the relative electrode potentials of metals and alloys in seawater: Most active, more anodic Magnesium Zine Cadmium Iron and mild steel Tin Copper Nickel Titanium 316 stainless steel Gold Platinum ( 3 Galvanic Series (Electrode Potential Series) f | Least active, increasingly inert, more cathodic Elements higher up the series will preferentially corrode compared with elements lower down. This occurs with the cathodic protection of iron with zinc where zinc becomes the anode and corrodes in preference to the iron (ie the zinc is sacrificed). Practical implications of the galvanic series are that the further apart the electrode potentials of the two metals the faster the corrosion rate.The order of metals and alloys in the series depends on the corrosive environment. Rev 1 Ji 2010 Corosion IWE TWI wonocenrne Copyright @ TWI Ltd 2010 WF JOINING TECHNOLOGY4 Types of Aqueous Corrosion * Galvanic* (including leaching) * Uniform or general ° Intergranular * Crevice * Pitting* * Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) * © Hydrogen damage © Filform* + Erosion-corrosion *Tend to be concentrated in small areas so through-wall penetration can be rapid. 4.1. Galvanic corrosion Galvanic corrosion occurs when two areas with different electrode potentials are electrically»connected in an aqueous environment: (ie galvanic cells form) which can occur because of: 1 Local areas low in O2: below dirt, scale, within crack-like features, etc; 2. Different materials electrically coupled together. 3. Differences in composition, eg coring. 4 “Surface defects.’ Selective phase attack or leaching can also occur, which is the preferential removal of phases or elements in an alloy where the material contains phases having different potentials. For example, dezineification in brass, exfoliation in 2xxx aluminium alloys, ferrite phase in duplex stainless steels, and iron in cast iron To avoid corrosion of dissimilar joints, choose materials close in the galvanic seties - the more.anodic metal. will corrode, so use an anode area as large as possible ‘so that the general corrosion rate per unit area is low. Electrically insulate dissimilar metals and either eliminate the electrolyte or, ina closed system, use a corrosion inhibitor. A common practical implication of the galvanic series is the use of sacrificial anodes, ie, connect a third anode higher in the series than the metals to be protected. Pereecniwe TWI won cenree Corrosion IWE FOR MATERIALS Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 LM ‘srwiseenio.ooy4.2 43 44 General Corrosion General corrosion attack proceeds at the same velocity over the entire surface, s transgranular and the rate of corrosion can be determined for example as a rate of so many millimetres-per year, (mm/year, mpy). For stainless steels, general corrosion occurs almost exclusively in acidic or strong alkaline solutions: Resistance against this type of corrosion is improved by increasing the Cr'and Mo content in the steel or passivation in the case of Cr, Fe, Ni and Ti.\For stainless steels apply pickling (to remove high temperature scale) followed by passivation (to restore Cr oxide layer) Intergranular corrosion Intergranular corrosion attack is localised at and adjacent to grain boundaries, It occurs in stainless steels due to Cr carbide precipitation (sensitisation); for welded stabilised grades (eg 321, 347), can take the form of knife line corrosion in the HAZ and resistance against it is improved by lowering the C content, controlling the welding procedure or by adding Ti or Nb (stabilisation). Pitting corrosion Pitting corrosion is a highly destructive non-uniform local attack where a pit forms due to localised breakdown of passivity eg because of coring with low corrosion resistance in grain. centre; The base of the pit becomes the anode whilst the surface becomes the cathode from the effect of differential aeration and hence rapid:corrosion can occur: Pitting results in holes in the metal. In stainless steel it occurs most commonly in chloride-containing environments or oxidising salts. Resistance against this type of corrosion is. improved by increasing-Cr .and-Mo- content; N has also’ a favourable influence Gey U Rev 1 January 2010 Corrosion IWE TWI wonocenrne Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 CLA ‘sswwscetnio.oor4.5 Crevice corrosion Crevice corrosion results from the formation of anodic regions within a crevice where stagnant conditions give low oxygen levels. These anodic regions can therefore become sites for localised corrosion and since the corrosion is concentrated in a small area it can be relatively rapid. It occurs in welded joints due to surface breaking porosity or lack of penetration and in fluid service it can result from excessive weld bead penetration, etc. Other sites at risk of crevice corrosion include gasket surfaces or under bolt/rivet heads, weld toes, on the metal surface under non-metallic deposits or coatings. Corrosion under insulation (CUI) is a form of crevice corrosion and materials resistant to pitting corrosion are also resistant to crevice corrosion. ] Crevice corrosion can be prevented by removing susceptible crevices and preventing the environment inside the crevice becoming corrosive. Crevices can be avoided, for example, by using welding instead of bolts or rivets and when welding, using seal: welds avoiding non-removable backing strips and partial penetration welds. Design vessels to avoid stagnant areas and ensure complete drainage and prevent the environment in the crevice becoming corrosive. Use non-absorbing gaskets, remove accumulated deposits frequently to allow free circulation of fluids and ensure complete drainage to avoid stagnant areas. : 4.6 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the corrosive attack in metal subjected to tensile stress’ and a corrosive environment! It is particularly “dangerous because the material can remain generally not attacked while fine branched cracks progress through it, Sufficient stress for SCC often comes from cold work; mechanical damage, Welding rasidual stress, loading, stress raisers. Examples of SCC occur for austenitic stainless steel in chloride or halogen- containing solutions; for ferritic steels in caustic and'ammonia solutions; and for copper in nitrate solutions. The risk of SCC increases with increasing salt concentration, tensile stress and service temperature. For austenitic stainless steel, resistance to SCC is improved by increasing Ni content. Ferritic stainless steel (without Ni) is insensitive to chloride SCC, and duplex stainless steel is more resistant to chloride SCC than austenitic stainless steel. fk ‘Rev 1 January 2070 TWI sono cenrne Corrosion WE La FOR MATERIALS Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGYSeveral kinds of corrosion result from a difference in the amount of oxygen available in different locations. Cathodic reactions often require oxygen whereas anodic reactions do not require oxygen. In locations away from the free. surface where oxygen depletion occurs, anodic regions can form and | this leads to separation of anodic and cathodic reactions. ‘Since metal loss oceurs as a result of the anodic reaction, small anodic regions can result in rapid corrosion rates. Examples are crevice and pitting corrosion where the anode is inside the crevice/pit and the cathode is outside, on the metal surface; SCC is where the anode is inside the crack and the cathode is the metal surface. 47 Hydrogen damage Atomic hydrogen is generated atthe "yemaritioment Hydrogen is Hydrogen diffuses to absorbed into the ee Petal (crack tip zones) Hydrogen damage associated with corrosion can be blistering or hydrogen altack (accelerated corrosion, often accompanying SCC). Blistering also occurs in ferritic steel in hydrogen service, Hydrogen build-up occurs in voids in the steel, and the pressure increases until eventually a blister will form. Hydrogen damage can also occur from plating and pickling of carbon/ low alloy steels and can be prevented by baking at ~200°C for 24hr, to perform a hydrogen release heat treatment. Rev 1 January 2010 Corrosion IWE TWI wonocenrne Copyright © TWI Lid 2010 LMT ‘owns tcernoxoor4.8 Other kinds of corrosion Filiform corrosion is in the morphology of a spider’s web and occurs below protective coatings due to water diffusion through the coating by osmosis. Erosion corrosion is when corrosion occurs in environments with solid particles in a fluid that cause erosion of the corrosion products and further corrosion can occur resulting in locally thinned areas. Rev 1 January 2010 TWI worocenme Corrosion IWE Ve FOR MATERIALS: Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGY5.2 5.3 Corrosion Protection Protective coatings Protective coatings include painting, plating, weld cladding, anodising and metal spraying. Paint systems are cheap and easy, but you can lose protection if the paint layer’ has any holes. When a surface coating is used there may be a risk of iflform corrosion, which is like a spider's web of corrosion below the protective coating which occurs due to water diffusion through the coating by osmosis. Surface coatings can also be metallic, for example, thermally sprayed aluminium or galvanising (zinc) and these two examples also impart CP, for instance, in galvanising, the ruptured zinc does not cause the iron underneath to corrode, but the zinc corrodes, acting as a sacrificial anode. In tin plating, where there is no CP effect, the steel will corrode beneath the tin coating if it ruptures. Change the material An effective way to avoid corrosion is to change the material to use one that is more resistant to the specific environment, eg using stainless steel or nickel alloys instead of carbon steel. Using higher alloy corrosion resistant alloys for the bulk material can be expensive for thicker sections and hence, frequently it is just the surface material that is changed. This is discussed further in the section on surfacing. Change the environment Another option to prevent corrosion is to change the environment which can be done via processes such as deaeration (commonly used for boiler feedwater) or dehydration. It is also possible to add a corrosion inhibitor, which is a chemical compound that, when added in small concentrations to the fluid stops or slows down corrosion of metals and alloys. A typical good corrosion inhibitor will give 95% inhibition at concentration of 80ppm, and 90% at 40pm. Inhibitors work by forming a thin film on the surface of the material that stops access of the corrosive substance to the metal, inhibiting either the oxidation or reduction part of the redox reaction or by scavenging the dissolved oxygen. In some circumstances it may be possible to eliminate the electrolyte to avoid corrosion, a simple way to do this is to cover carbon steel to avoid it being rained on. Rev 1 January 2010 TWI worco centre ‘orrosion UM eas Copyright © TWI Lid 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGY5.4 5.5 Cathodic protection Cathodic protection (CP) can change the potential of the material by applying a current (also known as impressed current CP). Another method of CP is to attach sacrificial anodes and use galvanic corrosion to protect the material (eg aluminium anodes on steel structures). A related protection mechanism is anodic protection, which is only for active-passive metals, but can be used in highly corrosive environments (where CP is not economical under such conditions). Anodic protection changes the potential of the material by applying a potential eg passivation of stainless steels. Passivation In different environments stainless steel may be either active or passive, which is the more desirable state. Passivity is achieved by a very thin layer of chromium oxide on the surface of the stainless steel. If scratched away it will reform (je self-healing). The passive state has a higher electrode potential than the active state, which prevents corrosion occurring. Passivation can sometimes be achieved by processes such as pickling, which involves immersing a metal or alloy in highly corrosive acids such as HF and HNOs, Pickling pastes are also available for localised areas which remove areas of lowered corrosion, such as weld oxide (high temperature scale) or chromium-depleted layers below the weld oxide. Subsequent immersion in HNO3 grows back the naturally occurring chromium oxide passive layer under controlled conditions. ASTM A380 gives details for stainless steel pickling and passivation. : Rev 1 January 2010 Corrosion WE TWI wonto cenrae Copyright © TWI Lid 2010 LMT ‘soniescctnoxosy6 Corrosion Testing There are two types of corrosion test, ranking tests which determine the relative corrosion resistance of materials in an environment, eg ASTM G48, etc, or electrochemical tests which measure properties such as the oritical pitting or crevice temperature or pitting potential, eg to ASTM G150, etc. Corrosion tests do not necessarily represent service conditions and so the effect of the specimen preparation and the testing environment should be understood with respect to the actual service environment — there is a difference between as-received and as-welded metal for example. The environment and temperature are important factors to note. Rev 1 January 2010 TWI wonto centre Corrosion WE CLM ‘onamcenas Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGYMekectee nn 3 due to chemical or (very often) electrochemical reactions with Is environment INTRODUCTION TO CORROSION «Het tat fr eomoson ota place the presence of a corositcmvonment ‘TW Training & Examination Services: q ee ee q EWFIIW Diploma Cours, j i q i a aaa ee aoe Latin aq for mater) occurs wth uid wate present. + For aqueous cooson to occur we need An anode (ul eovods) ~ Acathedo (complotes the crc, dover ovade) ~ Bec fide. ease) + seen «ral atoms faeces attedll nan 7 teeawe secon Roe : recomosion cr } + rosa drecton'in. + Gata Conn Sesto femurs atusktvai's co tyacayateeweal fede fepeceatn + Gait acum cect ete degen corte) ag crbuaatn ard ee a macinemmtin | net distr, spate, ction enéodeton ace > anodeia consumed pave cathode buldeup Ty : 7 Won. ae DY roverrwnnntton inne DY roretemnontnn serves fomune fener —— rust Fe(on), + Chemical or elactochemical reacson air wth oxygen and waier= exchango of eecers + oniseaiobe ONDISED- Is atoms ios cecvons ae 1 ‘1 yatarandcagoes we sldlabe REDUCED Mer 3 + Corrosion is a balance of reduction and i + REDOX 4 ‘oxidation = REDOX Hi q Bre + 2140 + 0, ——+ 2Fe(0H), q —e— | - ay 5 Di easyer PE Dp tener a aves* Dena ata masscre of he afin ofa substance for ‘electrons compared wth hat of hyogen Which st ato + Measured invote + Substances mote electronegative than hysiegen have pottve redox potential the ae capable! euisng + Substance las alacvonegatve than hyeogen havo agate redox polenta» thoy are capabe of reaver cee jctals and alloys can bo liste REDOX potentel In terms oftheir + Potential for corrosion wll depend on electrolyte ~o.thepolel of sans ees willbe aterent in seater tothelin avons ace! i + GALVANIC SERIES is commonly used, and is f for males In SEAWATER i ae pare Glieoee ‘Magnesim ‘More negaiive REDOX potenti Be ‘Most active anodic 5 ation 5 ats a ‘orote capared ose fincas onlays inte sts Capone one Been _comrasive envicenment. This occure in cathodic 1 Niche 3 q protection of iron with zing, Zine becomes the anode. q + Ttanium 7 + The ether apatthe vo metal, the faster wil be te 1 Heuines oe ff Morente neDox pata | Grrosimiee"cocesattcecansbyinine + ea Leastacve easy non severe etos i 2 atinun yest a eee 5 Hy Tye By mem scnennsnwn ae Dy cevgednnnnnens ay Practical Implications of the Gajvanic series | Pim eke en correcton| | corosion Tatargranaler] [Leaching ] [Hydrogen etack ecrostemical esctos ox waht any ‘tecaregoment in gave col, esl cooing in + al areas lw in oxygen below dt, scala, hn crack Mtetoataree sx" ferent strate locticaty coupled together, aferonces in compesion eg ring ‘sufacncetects Se ee ctr pagent vnc th ‘corrosion 4 {s proforental removal ot prase/lemont in ani i } Seeiemnoimcnaderashue deh , Cant om nfieean ea ' ersten sores Form zion ioamewummesirangmeann” i TwWE a et TW, oe Eee passa Gaaatt Wea conusRENIN Wise corrode > use an anode area as large as possible + Electrically insulate dissimilar metals + Elminate the elecroyte + Ina closed system, use a corrosion inhibitor + Connect a third anode (‘sacrificial anada) to {oreo the other materials to become cathodic ‘and thus be protected from corrosion Types of Corrosion 2 « General Corrosion + conve ated proved a ae vay vee ctewace “eens = fan coven cant nad me py 4 + Fetniat tics co aneteraisaynainceerorg + Bethan teedermnn pect arnt fern ea teeerntcererens eres Se Ta DY racneenmennee Bp wgsenmenaoie ‘Tynes of Cotrosion 4 Intoraranul + Corea stow alive san adacnta ga inet + Gants tren ses ue crete estan Sree ceed bin goes oa 2.90 + sian pals Wp cos steed ymnerng ‘Get cat comel Rewitng porate srbyosetona Ter Nossa Sie eaters tna aint ees Era omennemmetre ~ SIERaPiSte ssltonaurnen cr io + Atak osara lh nerow cevices led wh a id and ‘where te 0 ovals vry ow (erential aeration) ~ niente tac satin ety. kel pene, (eee = Use waidenetasd bol or Aa ~ Ayold nonremovable backing tips ~ Seal veld and svos pata penetaton welds = Design vessels to avo stagnant areas and ensue ‘completa crsinege + Proventtheenvranentin the cteioe becoming econ ll pean ce ! ne 1 ustewoceeoinartowmectams veces = Ure non-sbecringgakts } ~ srdarnansrai apent cr costings on thermal wrtacecr f Remove accuuiated deposits Froquort to alow eee tee sree ae fo relator offend aad sagarteess| | etal restart pitieg aos = Ensue complete rane | hy Ty EaypOU ee By romseennnntnn auPot ee on diforont locations affects several ypoe of corrosion + Cathodic reaction often requires oxygen + Anode reaction does not require oxygen Teas to separation cfenosi end oatosio Saag ‘oactone q cei nd pting cron wire mara inf = Seaeecemner iene aaa se I saan Tyg aties ie Beran sta i mica note Tecaneretreardeishstettecaccandte et (amex tpzan heetenaa es : ay By Bi eorettemanten eae en ae rts * Blsterng, hyerogen attack (accelerated corrosion, offen accompanying SCC) + Bisterng occurs in ert ste! in hydrogen service, Hydrogen buld-up occurs in voids in the sie. Pressure neveases untl eventually a Cine simeamr in) 098 ~ Eatergee = che end ea. npn ti = Tp tran, van ne oto = pers, ‘Bo aiealcsrconeitha teasing = ~ Recgivicarner ngs args olcnodn oy bitraton Soe ea ; + Hygogen damage can occur trom plating an «cathe picking of carbonfow alloy steels } ong Ieee a syeueqnetomcnat A + Solve by baking at~200°C for 24 hours, which £ + qhstmimcartin i acts as a hydrogen release treatment ] 9° the anenment irinate electyte i ha 7 Tw : : TP verenronemereen eon tennant senchange he otf th mately spring Sore presncaret ead peta ~ Rico sari anodes fuse gos carenon 6 protect herman eg, skminism anodes onsen Enewes) + Anadis protection Heol nt for ace pseive eas t = Hecathedavay tall grouback estheatng) apie wed hl corece earzoneni (PIs a +The passive sata has a higher electrode } = Changes the potantal ofthe materia by apalyings i] Potential than the active state i soled eg. pasvatono anes es j y TW Tree i Tw ae By eeegetennanentne one By renprownnanates a = Aetie = Passive (esable) * Passivity is achieved by a very thin ayer of ‘chromium oxide onthe surface ofthe stainless Perna * Pleking Fmatel or eloy highly cortosive acids ~ HF and HNO, ~ (Pking pastes ae also aval er locales reas) + Pickling removes areas of lowered corrosion "= Weld ox (tigh temperature soa) ~ Chvemiunedepeted layers below the wel oxide + Passivation Invoives immersion in HNO, to grow back ho pase ntraysccuringeronian Seco under conte eeatons i + Dantnenny reat senioctone—ae | | cn etn. | TW ss cma Di oessommaneres fae Cie eeSection 12 Cryogenic Steels1 Cryogenic Steels There is a significant difference in. the behaviour of ferritic steels between low (sub-zero) and high temperatures. At sub-zero temperatures the dominant failure mechanism is brittle fracture, at higher temperatures (above the transition temperature) ductile fracture mode prevails. Aircraft, chemical processing equipment and liquefied gas storage equipment are required to work at sub-zero temperatures and the behaviour of metals at temperatures down to -200°C needs consideration, especially from the point of view of welded designs where changes in section and weld flaws may occur. Steels suitable for ow temperature applications are known as ‘eryogenic: steels’ and give higher toughness at subcritical temperatures compared with normal steels. Cryogenic steels fall into two main categories;“fine grained’ (aluminium Killed) steels and nickel steels. Fine grained steels can be used down to ~60°C and have low CE, hence good weldability. They can be normalised, QT or TMGP and have small additions of Al and Ti to provide grain refinement. More information is given in the notes on HSLA steels. There are four groups of nickel steels for cryogenic applications: Nickel steels are specified in several ASTM standards; ASTM A203: ‘standard specifications for pressure vessel, plates, pipes’ covers 2.25 and 3.5%Ni steels; ASTM A353: ‘standard specifications for pressure vessels, alloy steel, quenched and tempered’ is for 8 and 9%Ni steels; ASTM A645: ‘standard specifications for pressure vessel, plates’ covers 5%Ni alloy steel. These steels are characterised by good toughness down to'=196°C, low coefficient of thermal expansion, thermal conductivity and carbon content (less than 0.15%) which gives them controlled hardenabilty. Rev samnary 2010 Cryogant steels WE Wy mouacenres Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 ‘JOWING TECHNOLOGY2.2 Obtaining Cryogenic Properties Crystal structure and cryogenic steels Ductile to brittle transition temperature depends partly upon the crystal structure of the metal. Hexagonal close packed (hep) and body centred cubic (bec) metals such as iron experience a transition temperature which is sensitive to the composition of the alloy. Face centred cubic (fc) metals such as aluminium, copper-based alloys and austenitic steels remain ductile even at extremely low temperatures. This is because the fcc crystal structure provides more slip systems than the bcc structure and hence movement of dislocations is easy even at low temperatures, thus alloys in which the dominating phase has an fcc structure retain significant toughness even at sub-zero temperatures. Adding nickel to steels Nickel is the most important alloying element that imparts low temperature toughness to low carbon steels. The ability of nickel to improve low temperature properties of ferritic steel is associated with several effects including grain refinement of ferrite grains and retention of austenite at low temperature. In solid solution, nickel facilitates dislocation generation at-low. temperatures and thus lowers the flow stress (je Increased ductility) with resultant improvements in toughness. Austenitic stainless steels (up to 12%Ni and 16-26%Cr) can produce fully austenitic microstructures and are used for cryogenic applications. Austenitic steels have excellent toughness down to -273°C'since they show no phase changes, therefore no ductile to brittle transition. Rev 2 January 2010 7 Cryogenic steels WE TWI ono came Copyright © TW! Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGY2.3. Effect of nickel on iron-carbon phase diagram iE tse - As g 3 e 2 AL fertte + austenite 723°C i forrite ferrte + carbide ation Carbon content ——> Toughness is sensitive to the types of phase present and the size and morphology of the grains. Nickel provides grain refinement of ferrite (the predominant phase in nickel steel), gives a fine distribution of carbides and causes retention of austenite and generation of dislocations. At higher nickel levels, the transformation temperature range is lowered and considerable austenite may be retained at low temperature to enhance notch toughness in cryogenic service. 24 Effect of nickel on TTT diagram Nickel increases hardenability and lowers the martensite formation start (MS) and finish (MF) points thus promoting martensite formation. This also increases the amount of residual austenite in the steels and improves duetility. Temperature Ni addition Ni addition Rev 2 January 2010 if Gryoganie sets WE DAW vonpeoms Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 WZ ‘sows ectno.oo2.5 Effect of nickel on toughness transition curve Addition of nickel results in a significant shift in the transition curve. The transition curve of low carbon steel without nickel is shifted up and left with increase in Ni content, meaning that the transition temperature decreases and nickel steels show upper shelf toughness down to lower service temperature. | 160; 120} eS 3 Absorbed energy Jicm? “ 3 200 =150 100 50 0 Test temperature °C Rev 2 January 2010 Cryogenic stools WWE TWY won comes Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 LM ‘one recrox0or3.1 3.2 Weldability of Nickel Steels Any of the common arc welding processes can be used, but oxy-fuel welding is not recommended. The main weldability issues with nickel steels are © Hydrogen cracking in the HAZ due to high CE when not using Ni-based fillers, therefore use a low hydrogen welding process, appropriate preheat and cleanliness is important. / * Solidification cracking due to solidification as austenite if using a matching filler (since nickel widens the range of stability of the austenite phase). Austenite has a very low solubility for sulphur and high risk of solidification cracking, To avoid this, tise low heat input and/or multi-pass welding, ensure very low sulphur, phosphorus and carbon in the steel and cleanliness when welding and keep the residual stresses low. * Mismatch of weld and base metal strengths (especially for 9%Ni steel). * Thermal cycle from welding causing..grain coarsening in the HAZ microstructure next to the fusion tine (the layer heated to over 860°C) ‘esulting in loss of toughness, particularly in the lower nickel steels. Following correct welding procedures may reduce the likelihood of these effects. Welding low Ni steels Low Ni steels (in particular the A203°grades) typically have HAZs which contain appreciable amounts of pro-eutectoid ferrite and little or no martensite. If the carbon content is on the higher side, high hardness areas may be produced in which case PWHT is suggested (at 590-625°C) to temper them and a preheat of 150-250°C is advised to avoid cold cracking when=using- matching “fillers. Interpass temperature is kept to 350°C maximum for 2.3% or 250°C maximum for 3.5%Ni. Use low heat input processes to preserve the-fine grain structure (less than 4.5kJ/mm). Most low Ni content steels do not require PWH it Is required for 5%Ni steel, PWHT at 650°C followed by rapid cooling. Weld using matching fillers or maybe Inconel type filler for welding 3.5 and 5%Ni steels. Welding 9% Ni steel 9%Ni steel has a tempered (ductile) martensitic microstructure with about 5% retained austenite and maximum hardness around 400HV. The presence of austenite in the structure acts as a sink for any hydrogen present and no preheat is required for thickness up to 50mm, partly for this reason, but mainly because they are welded with Ni-based fillers. Since there is a very low (maximum 0.006%) sulphur content in 9%Ni steel to avoid liquation cracking, there is no risk of lamellar tearing when welding and since the nickel alloyed matrix is ductile at high temperature there is no Rev 2 January 2010 Cryogenic stools IWE TWI vonupeanree Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TecHNOLOGYtisk of reheat cracking either. The hardness is slightly increased in the HAZ —_{ near the fusion line (where the temperature has exceeded 900°C) but with little drop in toughness. Using low heat input may avoid this loss. of toughness in the high temperature HAZ (eg pulsed MIG). 9%Ni steel is strongly magnetic (and also has residual magnetism) so arc blow is a problem when welding; AC current and demagnetisation before welding may therefore be required. The usual welding processes are MMA, MIG and SAW. PWHT is not normally required, but interpass temperature should be kept to 250°C maximum and plates must be cleaned at least 25mm from the edge (as the oxide layer is adherent). If flame cutting is used the heated layer must be removed by grinding. Smooth blending between weld face and parent metal is required to avoid stress concentrations. Filler materials are Ni-based; 7ONI/5CriFe or S0Ni/13Cr/Fe/Mo. Fully austenitic filler of type 16Cr-13Ni- Mn ate prohibited due to the higher coefficient of thermal expansion in the weld than the parent metal, however the Ni-base filler metals give a very viscous ‘molten weld metal and under-matching in strength relative to the parent metal. ( | ( Rev 2 January 2010 Cryogeni stools WE TWIT sono censne Copyright @ TWI Ltd 2010 Le JOINING TECHNOLOGYReview Questions 1 Why is an fec structure more ductile at sub-zero temperatures than a bec structure? 2. Why is the choice of a welding procedure more critical when the component is to be used at sub-zero temperature? 3 Whats the effect of Ni on the austenite to ferrite transformation temperature? 4 How can the effect of reduction in toughness in the HAZ as a result of welding the Ni steels be minimised? Rev? January 2010, a Cryogenic steels WE TWY wono cenrne Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 Somme reenovooyCRYOGENIC STEELS “TW Training & Examination Services appl Fe grand ‘waved ied see ryonenic sees + Canbeused dounto-60% + FourgroupsofNi steels 1 Lowe > gooeweldsoiny —_Fevopenicappicions: * Normetsed, aT or TCP + N= 226 9 Ta + smallacaionsof Aland * N= 3.59% 9 Ty + Seanateeen HSLA tele + NI=8%6 2 Tua 100" Ty DY mwatenmontnses “+ A203: standard specifications for pressure ‘oose, plates, pipes 2.2 & 3.8% Ni) + £353: standaré paciications fr pressure ‘vessels, oy steel, quenched and tampered 8 ROuNI + ABA: standard specications fr prossure Mee + Good icuahness down io 188°C (9%) + Low coeticient of thermal expansion + Lew tharma conduebty + Low content less than 0.15%) -contated \vossol, plates, 5% Ni alloy stool, specialy : oe : treated i i i t Ty ay z 7 BY rorenncunrantees Ss DY racy stecmen tn even ee Nickel incre hardenabilty grartensito formation ‘Nickel owers Mg and Me points g increase the amount of rasidusl austenite and ductility Teineein enatiot> | | “ee |! | = Generator trons ‘> High toughnase at ow frie temp 7 BY mreorenmonneieEffect of a set sitabe eon ce sengeaaiicena Center apts Ines ogee ‘equivalent > use low hycrogen process, + Hot eracking n wold duo to solidifation as austenite + Mismatch of weld metal and base motal “+ Thermal cycle causes grain coarsening in HAZ. microstructure next to fusion line (layer heated ‘over 850°C) » loss of toughness i 0 TAY reratemmontee seemergon Traeeis | ‘ampere |) pete — Fecowrt op ah igh aoe nee mayb adresses 860220) Pearle (rartenatic) tute 4 appy 150250°C prohea fo aoid ead caching + lepass temperature: max. 350°C for2.9% Ny, max 2e0'C for S51 ostlow M content stele do not quire PUT; but for Was low heating mrpase, | 2 ‘5% Ni sina! PWWHT at 650°C followed by rapid cooling irdhgccrir || « Union tut receven rte sq Sle fosrbon ny = + Usnati ly, ayoe ca p 253 ay ay. a aus en ieee Welding 9% Ni Stool ay iow ‘ackeng > no lamalartearng “Teppere st) maori sutin(nax 40040) +Seyreated austenite + Nibasod Ret 9 m0 feo execng > no prehest requestor snes Sptosomn + Malye matics ducte at hightemperature > no rene acing + Hardness sightyineoase Inthe HAZ nea fusion tre (800%) but va ile opi toughess + Suondty magneto reset) > arcbiow sa Protlom AC eran’ end demagnaiation loro Cire ‘Usstow hat iput vod les oftughnose ne oh tomporatr HAz (puso) ‘eld recone vonty one: MA MO ond SAW Inerpasaonperstie mast, PUT notremay soured Pato unt be cleaned tess 25 mam he 26 {ce aes chery ar eng ss heated ye rt be emeved by andra Fre ater ree aye nda, ‘ery wcnin, ceninests aod nt rng Sroth anangbateen ved ace an prnt mata ‘sree arene oncentaion Ty eesSection 13 Welding Other Alloys - 11 Aluminium Alloys Aluminium has a foc crystal structure and forms a large number of alloys with Cu, Si, Mg, Mn, Zn, Sn, Li and Fe in various proportions. These alloys are bjfiarycternary and even more complex and many different complex phases may be present in them. Aluminium alloys are available in a variety of cast or wrought forms, with the common wrought forms being forgings, hollow and tube extrusions, sheet, plate and strips. Wrought Al alloys are further classified into two main classes / 1 Work fiardening wrought alloys 2 “Heat treatable wrought alloys Rev 2 January 2010 ‘Aluminium alloys IWE TW vono cone Copyright @ TW! Ltd 2010, Wa JOINING TECHNOLOGY1.41 1.2 Rev2 January 2010 ae TWI wonocenne Work hardening alloys They achieve strength due to solid solution hardening and cold working is also used to further increase strength in some applications. All these alloys are weldable and do not respond to:age hardening heat treatments. Heat treatable alloys Some examples of heat treatable alloys are Al-Cu-Mg'(2024), Al-Zn-Mg-Cu (7050), Al-Mg-Si (6082) and Al-Li-Cu (8090). These allloys are strengthened by the heat treatment process known as precipitation hardening (or age hardening) and are used in naturally or artificially, aged heat treated conditions. Heat treatable alloys contain small quantities of other elements. The full heat treatment typically consists of solution treatment at $20-540°C followed by quenching and then artificial ageing at 160-180°C. In natural ageing, after quenching the alloy is left at room temperature. During solution treatment, the alloy becomes a uniform single phase solid solution and retains the solute as a metastable solid solution after quenching. During ageing, the dissolved solute is precipitated as intermetallic particles and the alloy's strength depends on whether these particles are coherent, semi- coherent or incoherent with the matrix. : The ageing process is shown in the figure below, which shows the microstructural changes taking place at each stage of heat treatment. The choice of ageing temperature and time is dependent upon the composition of the alloy. Rapid cool by quenching in water Time al ageing t i > ime at ageing temperature Hoating to solution treatment followed by a slow cool ‘Annealed Solution Correctly aged Overaged ~ structure ~ treated ~ = fine dispersion coarse precipitates of procipitatos procipitates procipitates on retained in the within the tho grain eeece solution grains Aluminium alloys WE CM eens Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGY2 Weldability of Aluminium Alloys Welded aluminium has a wide range of applications in transport, pressure vessels, furniture, containers, armoured vessels, aerospace and ship- building industries. Important characteristics that may affect its weldability are: * Affinity to oxygen: Forms an adherent surface coating of AlO3 which is quite thin, dense enough to retard further chemical reaction and melts at 1926°C. whereas pure aluminium melts at 660°C: * High thermal conductivity: Heat from the welding zone is quickly extracted. «High thermal expansion coefficient: Uneven expansion and contraction are Important when welding as they cause residual stresses and distortion «No change of colour: It does not change colour before it melts, which is a drawback as colour change is a useful temperature indicator in higher melting point materials. Rev 2 January 2010 ‘Aluminium slloye IWE TW wonscenrne Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 Uma JOINING TECHNOLOGY21 Porosity is one of the major problems encountered in aluminium castings and weldments, caused by dissolved gas soluble in the molten liquid, but which is rejected as the metal is solidified. This results in porosity which reduces the strength and soundness of the weld and one of the major causes of porosity is‘hydrogen. The solubility of hydrogen with increasing temperature is shown in the following figure. There is an abrupt decrease in the solubility as the metal solidifies, thus gas bubbles are evolved as the metal solidifies causing pores in the solid metal. The different sources of hydrogen include the surfaces of the workpiece and filler wire, shielding gases and parent metals (especially when the alloy is sintered, it may contain residual porosity). Recommendations to avoid porosity are that electrodes should be stored in a moisture free environment, clean parent metal surfaces before welding reduces the hydrogen content to a significant extent and gas shielded welding should be used to get optimum weld quality, however the pipes carrying shielding gases must be free of moisture. Rev2Janvary2010—=~~SOSC~S~S ‘Aluminium alloys WE TWI won.o centre CIM ‘srw seto.00% Copyright © TWI Ltd 20102.2 Oxide coating The Al, coating has a very high melting point compared with aluminium alloys and during welding can affect the weld quality in two ways. Firstly, hydrated Al;O3 Is a source of hydrogen that can cause porosity. Secondly, the Al,O3 surface film remains solid:during welding so must be disrupted to form a joint and the oxide coating must be removed prior to welding, a number of mechanical and chemical cleaning methods are used to remove this layer, among them are abrasives (mechanical), etching alkaline solutions (chemical) and cathodic cleaning effects from the current when arc welding. Pre-cleaning requirements are especially stringent when using DC electrode negative TIG as the aro exerts no additional cleaning action. 2.3 Hot cracking Cracking that occurs when the strength.of the-hot metal is less than the value of stresses induced by cooling shrinkage and the restraint of the solidifying metal by the surrounding metal fixtures. The sensitivity to hot cracking is affected by variations in composition; each alloy system has a range of composition that is most susceptible to hot cracking, which must be avoided when welding. However, many alloys are welded with filler metals which do not match the composition of the parent metal. Unless care is taken in selecting the filler metal it is possible to produce a weld metal which is extremely crack sensitive: Where there is this mismatch in composition, dilution of the filler by the parent metal assumes a greater importance. Aspects.of the welding procedure which affect dilution — variations in bevel angle, root: gap, torch manipulation, etc and which may be acceptable for welding carbon steel may not be acceptable when welding aluminium alloys. Peak risk of High hot cracking Back filing of cracks due to large quantity duo to thin liquid fit q eutectic 3 Wt % solute Rev 2 January 2010 ‘Aluminium alloys (WE TW vono covrne Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 VU Bae rotrs2.4 Distortion and shrinkage High thermal conductivity combined with large expansion and low modulus of elasticity results in distortion and shrinkage of the welded structure. Dimensional loss in the HAZ due to shrinkage is greater in the heat treatable alloys than work hardening alloys and joint preparation is also important. The following figure shows recommendations for the joint preparation of aluminium welds. : Specified root gap WA | : Pormanent backing strip < sek ctl design for both thick and ae backing strip | thin plate fo 10mm 30mm to max asmm 45° Suggested weld - to 40mm thick | preparation and backing strip for ; horizontal-vertical 3mmmin. |_| [-setesmm | (PC) welding position 18° Courtesy Gene Mathers Rev2 January 2010 Aluminium alloys IWE TWI won. pesirae WM srw ‘eersovocv Copyright © TWI Lid 201025 Loss of joint strength Welding work hardened alloys gives an annealed structure in the weld and HAZ and it is not possible to recover the work hardened strength so the joint must be redesigned to accommodate this local strength loss, for example by using thicker parent material near to the joint. In addition, there will be a wide HAZ that suffers this loss of strength. When age hardened alloys are welded they ‘gWVé’ an arinealed weld metal and overfaged HAZ and the solution is the same_as for work hardened alloys, however, it is also possible to weld in the solution treated condition and then to carry out age hardening after welding. This will not be possible for large structures or if the weld metal is different from the parent metal. Rev? January 2070, ‘Aluminium alloys IWE EWE romp courts LM ‘cies eesio.00% Copyright © TWI Ltd 20102.6 Choice of a filler metal When choosing the optimum filler alloy, the application of the welded part and its desired performance must be prime considerations. Many alloys and combinations can be joined using any one of several filler alloys, but only one filler may be optimal for a specific application. The primary factors to be considered when selecting filler metals are: Ease of welding Sensitivity to weld cracking Tensile strength of the weld Weld ductility Service temperature Corrosion resistance Colour match between the weld and base alloy after anodising Filler materials used for different alloys are given in the following table Parent | Filler Heat metal_| metal(s) | treatable? Applications ‘toxx | 10804 No Chemical plant, architecture 1200 (4047 prevents weld metal 4043A cracking where there is high 047A, dilution) xxx 3103 No Buildings, heat exchangers 40434 40470, BXXX 5554 No Marine, automotive 51540 5356 5556A, Geox | 4043A Yes Structural, automotive 5356 Traxx | 5556A Yes | Aerospace, defence 2.7 Welding processes for aluminium alloys The main arc welding processes for welding aluminium and its alloys are TIG:and_ MIG, TIG is used for welding thinner sections, using AC current gives half @ cycle of cathodic. cleaning. in both manual and automatic processes. MIG is used for heavier sections. MMA is rarely used now since it has poor arc stability. It is possible to use gas welding (oxyacetylene or oxyhydrogen flame) to weld aluminium with a flux and filer using a neutral flame. The difficulties with welding aluminium alloys with traditional arc welding processes have meant that aluminium alloys are increasingly welded using newer welding processes suchas laser or friction stir welding. . Lasers have a concentrated heat source which counters the high thermal conductivity of aluminium and reduces distortion. Friction stir welding is a solid state welding process which therefore avoids the problems of porosity and cracking in welds. Rev 2 January 2010 Aluminium alloys WE TWI ono cewrne Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 LM ‘one eemo.ocy3 Titanium Alloys Titanium alloys have good strength to weight ratio and excellent corrosion resistance. The main welding problems are porosity, and atmospheric and/or surface contamination causing embrittlement. There are four families of titanium alloys; commercially pure titanium, alpha alloys, alpha/beta alloys and beta alloys. Rev 2 January 2010 T Aluminium alloys IWE T WI worcocenree FOR MATERIALS Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 CIMT siwereeio.00r4 Magnesium Alloys Magnesium alloys are similar to aluminium alloys in a number of ways (high thermal and electrical conductivity, low density, adherent oxide layer, etc). Alloying elements can give a proof strength equal to mild steel so magnesium alloys have a high strength to weight ratio. They are welded using AC TIG or MIG and the addition of 10%A\ tends to improve weldability by grain refinement. High Zn alloys are prone to hot cracking, and sometimes PWHT is required to prevent SCC, Rev 2 January 2010 Aluminium alloys WE TWI won.o canes Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOMING TECHNOLOGY5 Tantalum Tantalum is a refractory metal which is soft and ductile in pure form and has high thermal conductivity and high density. Internal contamination and surface erosion is a risk when the metal is exposed to air at elevated temperature and is therefore stored in an inert atmosphere to avoid reacting with oxygen and cleaned well prior to welding. Welding should be in an inert gas chamber using autogenous DCEN TIG with helium gas shield (to give maximum penetration), No filler wire is used and tantalum alloys produced by powder metallurgy techniques are prone to porosity. Rev 2 January 2010 TWI Aluminium alloys IWE pon ean: Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 IMM 'ssewercersovose6 Zirconium Zirconium belongs to a class known as reactive metals, can be in the form of Zr or Zr-Sn alloys or Zt-Sn-Fe-Cr and is very ductile. Since it is so reactive an inert gas environment is necessary for welding it, usually using TIG. The welding methods are the same as for titanium and cleaning is important with chemical cleaning recommended. Rev 2 January 2010 lumpia ay IWE WT ronocuns Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010. We JOINING TECHNOLOGYReview Questions 1 Rank the various types of aluminium alloys in terms of their weldabilty. 2 Explain the strengthening mechanism in heat treatable alloys? 3. What factors are considered during joint preparation? 4 On what criterion is an ageing process for a typical aluminium alloy chosen? (Hint: natural or artificial ageing.) 5 Howis porosity of an aluminium weld controlled? Rev 2 January 2010 Zi ‘Aluminium alloys IWE TW won cone Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 a JOINING TECHNOLOGYWELDING OTHER ALLOYS 1 ‘TWITraining & Examination Services pase aloys ~ Stenghen by alloying an ext working ~ Sed eataion hadening alr = Defersation auch sling drawing fring + Heat treatable alloys ~ Solution weaimentfotoned by = Rapid coctng = Ageing (at com tempratre cr above) ~ prcitatesprovont liocatone movin the ate, Incresing stenath and hardness Ty DY meeycemnuancen Nie aE ey Welding Aluminium Alga ine roxygen = Aluminium onde (AY0,) surface costing = Thinberd fim = Melt at 1026 + High thermal conductivity + High thermal expansion costficient + Low meting temperature (686°C) + Absence ange ih te peril + Papsty banal polo whan widrg lays > Boro woneradawunste | 1 Gad ons dh bn rect Scheabtleangpece. a + Hyerogen is he magr gas hat cause port (rom isle reauranion resco parr ele) i ‘emperatre | + Stong ofc of lay pe on Siteaton Sects Tw eee = TW BE Ht aati = By sicae aoa eae nnn Tay,Eerie ne in hat fn, melts at 1926°C * Under normal atmospheric conditions becomes thicker ~resisis further corrosive attack + Adsotbs moisture whichis @ source of hydrogen + Beneficial for most Al alloys in service ~ protects from further atmosphere attack + Not beneficial for welding —oxide fims are Included in weld, prevent fusion ~ Mecnanical removal vith sutale abrasive 09 ‘emery paper flag, burs = Chica remo + Clesring soluons stating etching coon but aloholphoepheris ao + Floccleaning~ uve of weling axes ~ Cathode sear + bass away te oxide costng~ hal eye atthe x ‘AG current inTIG weg or posive electrode ‘weg TW, : Di cen EY wwcusenensntone everson BAY rnngeemmanenae eterno Hot cracking occurs when the strength of the remaining hot metal eutectic is less than the ‘lress from shrinkage and restrain of the, soliitying metal Its appearance is cantreline cracking in the wold ‘cap or the root Often initiates at the taling end of the weld poo! 1 + The main cause is a susceptible weld metal =f ‘composition ~ based on alloying elements not § impurities Peakrik ot shun, Se Ey stent Beck fing of cracks coe ise ae veal t ~ Amount of euteccavallate intuencas servo foteracing| = Conta of aloycompostion + Choice of correct filer material ~ special care for non-matching ler metals = Diuton byte parent metal + Control the diuton ~ Correct bave ang, oot ge, torch manipulation [Papeete rene ~ High thermal eonducbty means larger thermal ‘expansion coefidect ~ Low Young's meds moans more shrinkage and Ssltion = Dimensional iss in HAZ cto shrinkage Is more heat weal aye Ty, DY rnsarsantnnenin serie“ape LE "Wing of nina ants eaybyWatha, Car, 2502 + Cantrecove the wrkharsened song “ dloeemeentnaweresonpn ne + Wide HAZ wih ow sang age grins + Welding age hardened alloys > ares weld, over agen ‘ “Ye: ret mio on eto + Not be posible or lange eructures, or wth sini eld metal Denar DY owesesscrinnsaen sutesnven [ic rare Ne Welding Processe: = Ti fr thinner enetone = MiG fer heave and thicker eetions + Gas welding with neutral flame + Laser wing + Fillion str welding faster han TIS. Fwy Oe: Tw [Boy rareseeonnanteser anion cae yer + Han weling probes are + Aloyrg elements can ve stengh equal to eran oth mts Tf + High stent to weigh rao ~ Aron rl ston etait + + ld using AC TIS or MIG + Families of Ti alloys 1 Seem r ‘Commercial pure I = 10% Altends to improve weldabilty by grain j Tasman | ‘arent | = At lye Fagn zn loys are prone oho racing ‘ane PUT te prevent Sco TW TMT, san Dp cence rea Dy ronstemnnenscee ta + High thermal consuebaty, high density + Ileal contaricattonlsurace erosion ven exposed to tiral elevated temperature + Aulogenaus weld using DCEN TIG with Ho gos shel (roax ponaveton) ‘ler in inert atmosphere to avoid reacting wth oxen £Ecioan wat porto welding lade shouts bein an ine gas chamber Perea = tanialum alloys produced by power ‘metaurayteomsques ae prone fe port + Belongs toa cass known as rectve meals + Gan Beln the foimof Zor Zen aoys or ZrSi-Fe-cr + Very dete ‘Weiding processes + Wein methods same 98 71 + Clearing is mporant ~ Cham! eag sresmmsecod + Nonmally 6 fused + Inet gas envienmantie necessarySection 14 Welding Other Alloys - 21 Copper and Copper Alloys ~~ Wer che eneplly 14 Welding pure copper Copper and copper alloys are often chosen because of their corrosion resistance and electrical and thermal conductivity. Copper metal has a close packed (fcc) crystalline structure that melts at 1083°C and its main features are outstanding thermal and electrical conductivity and good atmospheric oxidation and corrosion resistance. It is extremely tough and ductile with a thermal expansion coefficient 1.3 times than that of steel. Copper, because of its high thermal conductivity, needs substantial preheat to counteract the very high heat sink. Thin section material can be welded without preheat, however, over Smm thickness all grades need preheat to produce a fluid weld poo! and avoid fusion defects. Thick section components may need a preheat temperature as high as 600°C. Sometimes it is easier to braze pure copper than weld it, however, the preferred welding processes are TIG and MIG. Shielding gases rich in helium are used for thick sections instead of argon due to their higher arc voltage. When fusion welding tough pitch copper, high oxygen content leads to embrittlement in the. HAZ and weld metal porosity,but phosphorus- deoxidised copper Is more weldable. Porosity can also result from the presence of hydrogen in the hot solid metal, from surface water becoming trapped and is best avoided by using appropriate filler wire containing deoxidants (Al, Mn, Si, P and Ti), dry inert gases and drying electrodes and fluxes before welding. - High levels of distortion and residual stress can result when welding copper due to the high thermal expansion coefficient. Preheat and free expansion of components during welding are required to minimise this. hh aster Choy Ho hulp Ai as os we bo Ne f Aggy > eh ees Alagg —Hlaral Veblen? ~ slox Pratl Refiath~ open (Plas, oucusey WO ~ne onigan “pete Rev 1 January 2010 Welding other alloys WE. TWI onto ceurne Copyright © TW1 Ltd 2010 LM isiiser eet8io.00%1.2 1.3 Brasses Brasses are alloys of copper and zine and when considering weldability can be conveniently separated into two groups, low (<20%) Zn and high (30- 40%) Zn. Nickel silvers contain 20-45%Zn and Ni to improve strength. Low zinc alloys have higher ductility, while higher zinc brasses have lower ductility. The main problem in fusion welding these alloys is the volatilisation of zinc resulting in white fumes of zinc oxide and weld metal porosity. Only low zinc brasses are normally considered suitable for fusion welding, using the TIG and MIG processes. To minimise porosity, a zinc-free filler wire should be used, either silicon bronze or aluminium bronze and high welding speeds’ reduce pore coarseness. TIG and MIG processes are used with argon or an argon- helium mixture shielding gas, but for oxyacetylene welding an oxidising flame is used. A preheat is normally used for low (<20%) Zn brass to avoid fusion defects due to the high thermal conductivity. Although preheat is not needed in higher zinc content alloys, slow cooling reduces cracking risk. PWHT also helps reduce the risk of SCC in areas where there is high restraint. Bronzes There are several types of bronze: * Phosphor bronze contains 1-10% tin and up to 0.4% phosphorus. * Silicon bronze contains typically 3%Si and 1%Mn and is probably the easiest of the bronzes to weld * Gun metal, which is essentially a tin bronze with up to 5%Zn and may additionally have up to 5%Pb. At the higher lead levels it is considered unweldable due to hot cracking problems in the weld metal and HAZ. Bronzes are generally considered weldable and a matching filler composition is normally used. Rev 1 January 2010 TWI i ‘Welding other alloys IWE wor.o cenrae Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 SOWING TECHNOLOGY1.4 15 Aluminium bronze There are essentially two types of aluminium bronze; single phase alloys containing 5-10%Al, with a small amount of iron and more complex, two phase alloys containing up to 12%Al and about 5%Fe with specific alloys also containing nickel, manganese and silicon. Gas shielded welding processes are preferred for welding this latter group of alloys. In TIG welding, the presence of a tenacious, refractory oxide film requires AC (with argon shielding), or DC (with helium shielding gas). Because of its low thermal conductivity, preheat is not normally required except when welding thick section components. Single phase alloys can be susceptible to weld metal cracking and HAZ cracking can occur under highly restrained conditions. It is often necessary to use matching filler metals to maintain corrosion resistance but a non- matching, two phase filler will reduce the cracking risk. Two phase alloys are more easily welded and rigorous cleaning of the material surface is essential, before and after each run, to avoid porosity Copper nickel alloys Copper nickel alloys (cupronickels) contain 5-30%Ni with specific alloys having additions of iron and manganese; 90/10 and 70/30 (Cu/Ni) alloys are commonly welded grades. These alloys are single phase and generally considered readily weldable using inert gas processes and, to a lesser extent, MMA. A matching filler is normally used but 70/30 (C18) is often regarded as a universal filler for these alloys. Cupronickel alloys have a thermal conductivity similar to low carbon steel and can normally be fusion welded without preheat. ‘As the alloys do not contain deoxidants, autogenous welding is not recommended because of porosity. Filler metal compositions contain typically 0.2-0.5%Ti, to prevent weld metal porosity. Argon shielding gas is normally used for both TIG and MIG but in TIG, an ArHz mixture with appropriate filler improves weld pool fluidity and produces a cleaner weld bead. Gas backing (usually argon) is recommended, especially in pipe welding, to produce an oxide-free root underbead. L {Coscd Rev 1 January 2010 Welding other alloys IWE TWI ono cena Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 SOWING TECHNOLOGY2 21 Nickel and Nickel Alloys Nickel has a stable, foc structure at all temperatures from cryogenic up to its melting point (1455°C). Since many nickel alloys have no bulk phase transformation, the grain size can be refined only by cold work followed by annealing. Nickel alloys have a thermal expansion coefficient approximately equal to that of carbon steels and are used in a large variety of applications ina wide range of component sizes. Nickel-chromium alloys are generally chosen because of their + Excellent corrosion resistance (from 200 to over 1090°C) «High temperature properties and heat resistance «Low temperature properties Classification Pure nickel can be alloyed with various elements to produce and/or enhance the properties desired for service. Nickel alloys may be broadly classified into two groups according to the mechanism of strengthening. Solid solution strengthened alloys These alloys contain additions principally of chromium (high temperature oxidation and corrosion resistance), cobalt, copper (improved ductility), iron, molybdenum (corrosion resistance), tungsten, niobium and vanadium. Elements such as titanium, niobium and aluminium can be added to reduce ‘oxygen content and hence porosity when welding. Commercial solid solution strengthened alloys include: ‘* Monel alloy 400 (Ni + 31.5%Cu), highly corrosion resistant in seawater, sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids. © Inconel 600 (Ni + 15.5%Cr + 8%Fe) resists oxidising and reducing environments and oxidation/corrosion at high temperature. * Inconel 625 (Ni + 21.5%Cr, 2.5%Fe, 9%Mo, 3.6%Nb +Ta) which has excellent strength and toughness from cryogenic to high temperature; oxidation and excellent general corrosion, pitting corrosion and stress corrosion resistance, * Incoloy 825 (Ni + 30%Fe, 21.5%Cr, 3%Mo, 2.25%Cu) which has good general corrosion and pitting resistance and stress corrosion resistance, eg for service in reducing acids and oxidising chemicals. Welding other alloys IWE Copyright © TW Lid 2010 Sonn Teswnotoay2.2 Rev 1 January 2010 Precipitation hardened alloys Controlled precipitation of the gamma prime or gamma double prime phase within the nickel alloy matrix strengthens these alloys. Precipitation can be by heat treatment or simply during slow cooling after casting. Apart from the precipitation hardening elements (eg Al, Ti), the range of alloying elements used and the application of these elements is broadly the same as for solution hardened alloys, however, the balance of the composition of the alloy and the heat treatments used will be different. One typical commercial precipitation hardened alloy used in gas turbines is Waspaloy (NI + 19.5%Cr, 13.5%Co, 4.3%Mo, 3%Ti, 1.4%Al, 2%Fe), which has excellent high temperature strength and oxidation resistance up to at least 650°C. Weldability of nickel alloys Pure nickel has extremely good weldability and can be welded using MMA, TIG, MIG and SAW processes. The majority of the solid solution alloys may be welded using MMA, TIG or MIG, with some alloys also weldable with SAW. The precipitation hardened grades are more difficult to weld because of their high alloy content which contributes to solidification cracking sensitivity, combined with lower ductility, giving innate susceptibility to weld metal/HAZ cracking, the possibility of ageing and the formation of refractory oxides during the welding process. However, with care many precipitation hardened grades may be welded using TIG and a few grades also with MIG and MMA. SAW methods should not be used on precipitation hardened nickel alloys and for welding precipitation hardened alloys, start with the solution annealed or over-aged condition before welding and then PWHT to restore strength. Many nickel alloys are easily weldable to themselves and other similar materials using resistance welding techniques. They can also be laser and electron beam welded in a similar manner to stainless steel. When arc welding, comprehensive gas shielding, generally argon, helium or Ar-He mixtures, is needed. Ar + 5% He can only be used for single pass TIG welds, since hydrogen produces a hotter arc, but gives a danger of porosity in multi-pass welds. When welding solid solution and precipitation hardened alloys, the annealed and solution treated conditions should be used respectively. Preheat is generally neither required nor recommended, but to reduce the risk of porosity due to moisture, the joint may be warmed to above ambient temperature (20°C) to drive off any condensates. If the material is in contact with caustic soda, or HF acid, SCC is possible so residual stress can be reduced by using PWHT. As a general rule, filler material for welding nickel alloys matches the parent material, but most filler materials contain small quantities of oxygen- removing elements, such as Al, Ti and/or Nb to help reduce the risk of porosity or cracking during welding. TW wonocenne Welding other alloys IWE WT Ae Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGY2.3 Weldability problems There are a number of flaws that may occur in the weld and HAZ. As a general rule the occurrence of flaws may be minimised by improving cleanliness prior to and during welding. Solidification cracking Hot cracking results from low melting point solute elements segregating to the weld centreline. Sulphur in even in very small quantities (starting at 0.003%) forms NiS which can cause hot cracking. Mn and Nb additions in filler metals are used to combine with S to avoid this. Pb, B, P and Bi also form low melting eutectics, The problem may be minimised by reducing the welding speed to produce a deeper weld pool and improve depth to width ratio and having a small grain size (the tendency for hot cracking is increased for grain sizes coarser than ASTM no. 5). Similarly, liquation cracks are due to regions (often grain boundaries) to which low melting point solute has segregated and on reheating these regions melt and cracks form under the influence of the residual stresses from welding. Porosity The principal cause of porosity is entrapment of slag/surface oxide/air (02 and N>)/surface contamination (yielding O2 and Hz) being incorporated into the weld pool during welding, To avoid porosity attention must be paid to the cleaniiness of the joint preparation and effectiveness of the gas shield in TIG and MIG welding processes; furthermore, in TIG welding hydrogen may be added o the shielding gas to provide a reducing atmosphere. Preheat might be required in case of moisture condensation. Adding oxygen-removing agents, such as Al, Ti (also Mn, Si or Fe), can help reduce porosity. Aluminium and titanium can form small islands/slag spots so interpass cleaning is critical. Oxide Inclusions Slag and surface oxide can also cause particulate inclusions. Oxides of Ti, Nb, Cr and Ni itself all have much higher melting temperatures than the base metal, so oxides trapped in the weld pool form inclusions. Surface oxide (especially formed at high temperature) must be removed by machining or grinding; a wire brush only polishes it making it harder to see but stil present. Lack of sidewall fusion Molten nickel weld metal is very viscous which means that the bevel angle may need to be increased and accurate weld metal placement is required to avoid lack of sidewall fusion when welding. Rev 1 January 2010 Welding other alloys IWE TWI wor. cenras Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 JOINING TECHNOLOGY‘ 3 Cast Iron Cast irons are iron-based alloys containing more than 2%C (up to 7%), 1- “3%Si'and up to 1%Mn. As cast irons are relatively inexpensive, very easily cast into complex shapes and readily machined, they are an important engineering and structural group of materials. Unfortunately not all grades are weldable and special precautions are normally required even with the so-called weldable grades. 8 dole ferrite t 2e00'F if (1640'¢y Movie A 2540F (4395°¢) 5 Y °: i (austenite) fee se25 | (886°C) "PAs wer sasor | A ose | ¥ K, Eutoctoid Morrito) «(forrite) + Fes¢ feomentito? oo\ 04 Olan 20 a 5 810 60 967 3.008 Carbon thy wh) Pe Hypecutectoid | Hypereutectoid — | eee <—steols —___«_» castitons x Iron Rev { January 2010 Welding other alloys IWE Iwi por nein Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 ZL ‘sssw'reensovoor3.1 Types of cast iron Cast irons can be conveniently grouped according to their structure which influences their mechanical properties and weldability. The main groups of general engineering cast irons are shown below. © Readily weldable [J Can be welded © unweldable ‘Malleable: Grey cast iron Grey cast irons contain 2-4,5%C and 1-3%Si, Their structure consists of branched and interconnected graphite flakes in a matrix which is pearito, ferrite or a mixture of the two. The graphite flakes form planes of weakness and so strength, ductility and toughness are inferior to those of structural steels. Grey cast iron has moderate strength (up to 275MPa), excellent machinability and can be welded with difficulty, but this depends upon the alloy additions. Rev 1 January 2010 ‘Welding other alloys IWE Twi tena Copyright © TW" Le 2010 LMF sinner eeio.00rNodular cast iron The mechanical properties of grey irons can be greatly improved if the graphite shape is modified to eliminate planes of weakness. This is possible if molten iron. with a composition in the range 3.2-4.5%C and 1.8-2.8%Si, is treated with magnesium or cerium additions before casting. .This produces castings with graphite in spheroidal form instead of flakes, known as nodular, spheroidal graphite (SG) or ductile iron. Nodular Irons are avaiable with pearlite, ferrite or pearlite-ferrite matrices which offer greater ductility and higher tensile strength than grey cast irons. Nodular cast iron has good machinability, the highest strength and ductility of the cast irons and is teadily welded. White cast iron By reducing the carbon and silicon content and cooling rapidly, much of the carbon Is retained in the form of iron carbide without graphite fiakes. Iron carbide or cementite is extremely hard and brittle and is used where high hardness and wear resistance is needed but they are unweldable. Rev 1 January 2070 Welding other alloys WE TWI onunoxnrae Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010, JOMING TECHNOLOGYMalieable cast irons Produced by heat treatment of closely controlled compositions of white irons which are decomposed to give carbon aggregates dispersed in a ferrite or pearlitic matrix. As the compact shape of the carbon does not reduce the matrix ductility to the same extent as graphite flakes, a useful level of ductility is obtained. Malleable iron may be divided Into three classes; whiteheart, blackheart and pearlitic irons, Malleable cast iron Biackheart Low C white cast iron Furnace with reducing atmosphere > C% fully retained in a ferrite matrix Peariltic Low C white cast iron High C white cast on Fumace with oxidising atmesphere > high C core with decarburised skin +Non homogenous an be welded Furnace with reducing atmosphere > C% fully retained in a peariite matrix *Higher strength but lower ductility “Unweldable +Homogenous, better mechanieal properties *Unweldable Rev 1 January 2010 ‘Welding other alloys IWE TWI wor. cenrre Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 LMT ‘sis tecsno.ocv3.2 Welding cast irons Braze welding Braze welding is often called bronze welding in the UK, and is frequently used to avoid cracking. The bronze welding rod is melted by contact with the base metal after preheating by gas flame to 425-480°C. Since this process is particularly sensitive to wetting of the base metal surface by the filler and oxides on the surface are not removed by melting, cleanliness of the iron before welding is essential. This process avoids many of the disadvantages of fusion welding since the parent material is not melted, Braze welding involves introducing a filler metal which melts at a lower temperature than the iron, eg alloys based on brass which have liquidus temperatures of 800°C. The pick up by the braze metal of impurity elements such as phosphorus and sulphur from the casting is minimised since the parent material is not melted. Likewise, the maximum HAZ temperature is much lower so hardened structures are not produced and the soft braze metal is generally easily machinable. The disadvantages of the method are that the joint properties are controlled by a relatively soft braze metal or a rather weak braze/cast iron interface. The lower melting and softening temperature of the deposit compared with fusion welds also limits the maximum service temperature of braze welds, typically to around 260°C for a brass filler. There is also poor colour matching between the braze and the casting. In addition, it is more difficult to detect imperfections in braze welds than in fusion welds due to the metallurgical discontinuity along the bond line as a whole. Oxyacetylene welding Because of the relatively low temperature heat source, oxyacetylene welding will require a higher preheat than MMA, Penetration and dilution is low but the wide HAZ and slow cooling produce a soft microstructure. Oxyacetylene welding is used with a slightly reducing flame and the consumable has a slightly higher carbon and silicon content to match the weld deposit. Rev 1 January 2010 TWI Welding other aloys IWE vonupceuras Copyright © TW Cte 2010 LLM Bite eeto.00eArc welding There are two basic methods to avoid HAZ cracking when arc welding cast irons ~ welding with high preheat and very slow cooling, or welding keeping the cast iron as cool as possible «Preheat reduces residual stresses and distortion, slows the cooling rate resulting in lower hardness and less cracking. It should be based on the microstructure and strength of the casting and the higher the carbon content, the higher the preheat temperature. Malleable or nodular cast irons usually require lower preheat than grey cast irons. A casting with a complex shape usually requires a higher preheat to control residual stresses and when welding different thickness, preheat the thick member to decrease its heat sink. © PWHT improves the ductility of HAZ, improves the machinability of weld and HAZ, reduces the brittleness of martensite formed during welding, and relieves residual stresses. It is carried out by burying the entire casting in sand or vermiculite, transferring the casting to a furnace or by covering the casting with an insulated blanket. Its also possible to postheat with a torch and peening of the weld with a round ballpeen hammer after welding reduces stresses. MMA is widely used in the fabrication and repair of cast iron but the disadvantages are greater weld pool penetration and parent metal dilution, but using electrode negative polarity helps to reduce the HAZ size. A range of MMA consumables is available and it can be used on weld and repair jobs. When using the hot technique, cast iron electrodes are often used and the intense, high temperature arc enables higher welding speeds and lower preheat levels with the flux coating improving arc stabllity, reducing porosity, and adding alloying elements to give a near matching weld deposit (with nodular graphite structure). When opting for the cold technique, nickel- based electrodes are usually used (now replacing Cu-based fillers). Nickel does not form carbides so carbon is rejected from the weld area as graphite, therefore the weld metal volume increases and there is less risk of cracking, but they can be sensitive to hot cracking (especially high Ni electrodes), Which means dilution must be limited. Welds have generally higher strength and greater ductility than with cast iron electrodes. With nickel filler the bevel angle needs to be wider because nickel forms a very viscous metal weld pool. MIG and FCAW can be used to weld cast irons, mainly using dip transfer. They can be used to achieve high deposition rates, whilst limiting the amount of weld penetration. Solid wires used are nickel, Monel (70Ni-30Cu) or copper alloys; cored wires used are Ni-Fe or Ni-Fe-Mn. Rev 1 January 2010 (Molding oe ales WE TWI vonoconne Copyright @ TWI Ltd 2010 La JOINING TECHNOLOGYRevision Questions 4 Name the different kinds of bronze and state whether each is weldable. 2 What are the main weldability issues when welding pure copper? 3 Compare the weldability of nickel alloys, austenitic stainless steels and cryogenic steels, 4 Describe how you might carry out a repair weld in grey cast iron. Rev 1 January 2010 ci Welding other alloys WE. TWI ono courne | Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 WLM ‘smiesrcersovosr |WEtirRnelts * Copper Alloys WELDING OTHER ALLOYS + Nickel Alloys TW Training & Examination Services cee \ EWFAIW Diploma Course: | | a Ty aa Ee eae By vemtnernemen cmmenea Copper and Copper Alloys + FCC crystalline structure + Melting temperature = 1083°C + Outstanding thermal and electrical ‘conductivity + Extremely tough but very ductile + Thermal expansion coefficient 1.3 times than i that of etacl i + Good atmospheric oxidation and corrosion | resistance I ~ ~ ~ BOY ramos enaentean st ee a Poecci) = Hah heat, ass pat for men mines) ~ Fork componente reheat maybe ashigh 600 = Dopp ye have one nal conc 7% le) ~ fran caster nanlera + TIG and WIG oro profoed welding processes + Ho and based shiciing gates are used instoad Ar oe oeieaae ‘From pretencelafsion of Hy nt the hot sold matal + Weler vapours are rapped inside, leaing to porosty oreacking + Ayoldance: use ery net gas fee before welding High level of residual stresses/distortions + Due tothe high thormal expansion coeflent 5 ky electrodes and {higher are vokage) t + To avd porosity, uso ier ves wth dooxidants (A, | + Cantons to weKdHAZ eracka ‘Mo, Sand T) + Preheat and fre expansion of components during wong are required TWh vrmscwone 5 TW satan 2 eee vent ee engMv WN $ Low Zn (20% Zn) Lower [Bresses) sductty Figh Zn (@0-40% Za) + Znvolatity =the main problem * only lew Zn brasses are ‘oasidered weldabia, Use Zoe Mero aval porosly + TIG and MIC are preferred welaing processes i + Azand ArHe shielding gases ave used I + Use excising fame on OF W ne Phosphor |» Canon 10% 8 upoo4%P bronze” | ogra tang met tResrmevaadde pcely ‘rating ar anda65000° eee eet ceca i + Tmberwa + en +

Clenlness is extealy poral + Shielding gaeoe: As, He or Ar Ho misures ‘+ Use fshgo pa IG wal Hy eaice 2 eter abi eager rresty nmutpase wl: + Welding sequence er ppt hardened alloy: alton annealing of everageing » welding + PHT to Fealoro siongth + fmaterialis in contac with caus soda or HF asi 900 is posse» reduce resiual stress by PHT Siow Ste Os Gace COON GALI Een ‘+ Eyon in vory Geyetton + Send macht ‘Stent day te casthone (ok prvi sy bgt + Di orp exoig, carbon fms Foxe et ith poor dctity + Highest hanes, god wea rexitance » Unviatle Malieabo castiron ‘above 870°C for more than 80h) te Info forte er poariio mat, + Good ductiy Blaceiaan or poatts * Produced by heat teatrent of white east ron fennealing i hope graphta nodules procptate and grow} + Depending upon the mati, can be whitest, Tat Tat Te Tw EY worm cennnontee OY vorar enemas Tavewina] — [Tovyninam) [Low eyaioor Fasc Temauioaiig |[reaeewneaia|| "wins snopes Wane || atosptoe “CU amelehae ox coewohcacstute! || eeintrtenate || era I peat Tainan] [yma sreram FRantemspems | meres ores ||" tla cuty eanbeveled || Umetnie Gena Tw ifPeete) Mielled - avolds disadvantages Braze Weld of fusion welding + Filler matal melts at lower temperature than the. iron, e.g. brass alloys, which melt at ~B00°C. + Minimal pick up of impurities + Softer HAZ which is machineable + Soft braze metal controls joint strength & service. | ‘tomporature (up to ~280°C) + Poor colour match i = Wier hes np ver gabe reared Derpereeneesan, gestion Was ang teens set onal nero te + MiIGrECAW Mati tarter vet apetion te = Gerdes wo NifaoFotin + Ory el welding Nhat ipl aque a Moher aest Sip reaicg for Welding Processes for Gastiror S Geldresme nt Manel osOCy er CuaReys owaton weet coin» ster most (ster Gener en ‘Cast iron electrodes + Ficecoating moves ae sabi, duce porsty, & adée along elements + Natcing weld deoost (nodular rapt suture) Nibase electrodes ial uso ws cast rons placing Cubase fos) + No Neate Cvelected fom wal area ae grape» ‘etd metal elu inease lose ako sacking + Hard a inspect jon for defects = Geen pny casos Dy, 7 Ty oH ~ DY rnmssonnontrne semnnnon BY ronson nen Fy 62D robes reduces resicualsvesces and. the preheat Maleabe o nodular cast rons usualy Dreteal tan grey cast ros Drsheat to contol residual sires Protieat of Cast Irons. tho coolng rate Iouor hardnoss, les oracking + Preheat shoud be based onthe microstructure enc sirength of the casting > the higher the carbon te Higher Casting vith 2 complex shape vil usualy requle a high distortion, slows require ower “Improve the ductity & mechinebilty of wold and HAZ Ape enet : * Sonsnetrotccsro spec nonnitecoses» |||» hon waking torn hitnesae,pebeat oth meme monte doseeo fo hea ont +s aver senha er cuey han cat ben Tw Et 7 TW eet 7 DD romstneneren nm Ty manstememeran comms Ciche coitiry = las Hr ony oll box huis Ceicmcciemrn < We sfoeesia abel steaes eat input Parentmetal | [ Type of welding ‘+ Reduce the britaness of martensite formed dung fom eling rmiestuture | | sonsumabis welding + Cantals a anct + Notlscandmaleao + Casthon ebcoes How? Fxzeratweanomt " ferlesetiaytofom equ phen, + Buty the entra casting in and ot vermicute Yinaroaefamet mene, moira poets. + Cover the casting wth an insulted blanket £] | toneogatny "+ Geersomraae takes + Nite eo a + Transfering the casting toa furnace f Rabperneits . Faupneene mwseahin | + Postheating vat a tereh 1 mere inh wtistrec pret mes + Peering ofthe veld with @ round alipoen harm rma Twn ~ “Fwy — BOY rows rennmaoentan exec BOG ronvesenonsne roan SeSection 15 Surfacing1 Changing Surface Properties It is offen desirable to change the surface properties of materials to give better protection from the environment at the surface, whilst maintaining bulk strength and toughness of the parent material. Improved surface properties may be required for oxidation or corrosion resistance, as a thermal barrier, or hardfacing for wear or abrasion resistance. Coatings can be paints, films, polymers, ceramics, or metal (ie galvanising, weld cladding). For this course the main issue is weld cladding (for wear or corrosion resistance). One of the main considerations with the cladding process is achieving correct composition at the outer surface, achieved by selecting the most appropriate surfacing alloy, but in addition, the amount of parent metal (melted: and. mixed in with the filler metal is of crucial. importance: This is generally expressed asa” percentage dilution of parent metal in the surfacing and varies from process to process and is influenced by welding parameters, in particular electrode polarity, welding current and travel speed. Rev 2 January 2070 Surfacing WE Twi nee Copyright © TW Ltd 2010 LM ‘cnwerrecie.co2 Cladding and Strip Cladding Cladding provides a corrosion resistant surface on a less corrosion resistant material. One advantage is the cost saving when surfacing a relatively inexpensive metal, such as a carbon steel with a more expensive corrosion resistant layer of stainless steel and material and weight savings may also be made. All the common arc welding processes (MMA, MIG, FCA, TIG, PA, SA) can be adapted for cladding or surfacing. Friction and laser processes can be used for cladding, but for high deposition rate, strip cladding can be by SA or electrosiag (ESW) welding. an | Courtesy of ESAB AB Rev 2 January 2010 Surfacing IWE TWI wonto centae Copyright © TWI Lid 2040 ZF ‘ons eemo.0cyStrip cladding (either SAW or ESW) is similar to conventional welding, but the wire filler metal is replaced by a flat strip of the surfacing material. ESW is a good alternative to SAW for strip cladding and has the advantage of giving lower dilution (so can surface in a single layer), and higher deposition rates. The strip cladding process is usually confined to relatively large and thick components which need to be manipulated to enable welding in the flat position. It is used for surfacing internal surfaces of pressure vessels and large diameter pipe for corrosion resistance and in the reclamation of steel mill rolls using weld hardfacing: Rev 2 January 2010, fH Surfacing IWE TWI wonocenree Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010, Y Uy, V JOINING TECHNOLOGY3 Buttering Buttering is the term used when depositing a layer of weld metal on to the face of a weld preparation or surface which will then form part of a welded joint. The objective is to engineer the composition of the buttered weld metal (with dilution of parent) to prevent cracking when the subsequent weld is made. For example depositing a weldable lower, carbon buttered surface to tmake repairs to medium/high carbon steel vesséls or buttering an alloy steel weld preparation.with.a:nickel-based weld metal and postweld heat treating it before making the joining weld between the buttering and a steel which would be degraded by heat treatment. Hardfacing and cladding are as a rule not included in the calculations for component design but weld build-up frequently is, and buttering must be included since it forms part of the load-carrying portion of a joint. Rev 2 January 2010 TWI sono cere Surfacing WE FOR MATERIALS Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 WM ‘swserecsovoor4 Cutting Clad or Lined Plates Many of the standard cutting methods can be used on clad or lined plate, including thermal cutting (using plasma or laser) or mechanical cutting (water jet cutting or shearing with machining). The one concern when cutting by shearing is to cut from the clad side so that the shear deformation forces the clad layer and carbon steel together, rather than peeling apart. Ez Correct Wrong Sheared from clad side. Sheared from carbon ste! side. Ber gee ant TWI won cennee Surfacing IWE FOR MATERIALS: Copyright © TWI Ltd 2010 WLM ‘enn rectnio.00v