] explain and draw all venn diagram for all set operations with

example

Operations on Venn Diagrams

Just like the mathematical operations on sets like Union, Difference, Intersection, Complement, etc.
we have operations on Venn diagrams that are given as follows:

Union of Sets

Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {6, 8, 10, 12}. Represent A U B through a well-labeled Venn diagram.

The orange colored patch represents the common elements {6, 8} and the quadrilateral represents A
U B.

Properties of A U B

• The commutative law holds true as A U B = B U A

• The associative law also holds true as (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)

• A U φ = A (Law of identity element)

• Idempotent Law – A U A = A

• Law of the Universal Set U – A U U = U

The Intersection of Sets

An intersection is nothing but the collection of all the elements that are common to all the sets
under consideration. Let A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {6, 8, 10, 12} then A ∩ B is represented through a
Venn diagram as per following:

The orange colored patch represents the common elements {6, 8} as well as the A ∩ B. The
intersection of 2 or more sets is the overlapped part(s) of the individual circles with the elements
written in the overlapped parts. Example:
Properties of A ∩ B

• Commutative law – A ∩ B = B∩ A

• Associative law – (A ∩ B)∩ C = A ∩ (B∩ C)

• φ∩A=φ

• U∩A=A

• A∩ A = A; Idempotent law.

• Distributive law – A ∩ (B∩ C) = (A ∩ B) U(A ∩ C)

Difference of Sets

The difference of set A and B is represented as: A – B = {x: x ϵ A and x ϵ B} {converse holds true
for B – A}. Let, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8} then A – B = {1, 3, 5} and B – A = {8}.
The sets (A – B), (B – A) and (A ∩ B) are mutually disjoint sets.

It means that there is NO element common to any of the three sets and the intersection of any of the
two or all the three sets will result in a null or void or empty set. A – B and B – A are represented
through Venn diagrams as follows:

Complement of Sets

If U represents the Universal set and any set A is the subset of A then the complement of set A
(represented as A’) will contain ALL the elements which belong to the Universal set U but NOT to
set A.

Mathematically – A’ = U – A
Alternatively, the complement of a set A, A’ is the difference between the universal set U and the
set A. Example: Let universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and set A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, then
complement of A is given as: A’ = U – A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}

Properties Of Complement Sets

• A U A’ = U

• A ∩ A’ = φ

• De Morgan’s Law – (A U B)’ = A’ ∩ B’ OR (A ∩ B)’ = A’ U B’

• Law of double complementation : (A’)’ = A

• φ’ = U

• U’ = φ

3] explain all law in set theory

Laws of Algebra of Sets

The operations of sets are union, intersection, and complementation. The

binary operations of set union, intersection satisfy many identities. The seven
fundamental laws of the algebra of sets are commutative laws, associative
laws, idempotent laws, distributive laws, de morgan’s laws, and other algebra
laws.

1. Commutative Laws
For any two finite sets A and B

• AUB=BUA
 • A∩B=B∩A
2. Associative Laws
For any three finite sets A, B, and C

• (A U B) U C = A U (B U C)
• (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
So, union and intersection are associative.

3. Idempotent Laws
For any finite set A

• AUA=A
• A∩A=A
• A ∩ A’ = ∅
• ∅’ = U
• ∅ = U’
4. Distributive Laws
For any three finite sets A, B, and C

• A U (B ∩ C) = (A U B) ∩ (A U C)
• A ∩ (B U C) = (A ∩ B) U (A ∩ C)
Thus, union and intersection are distributive over intersection and union
respectively.

5. De morgan’s Laws
For any two finite sets A and B

•A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
• A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)
De Morgan’s Laws can also be written as

• Law of union: (A U B)’ = A’ ∩ B’

• Law of intersection: (A ∩ B)’ = A’ U B’
6. Complement Law
For any finite set A
 • A ∪ A’ = A’ ∪ A =U
• A ∩ A’ = ∅
More laws of the algebra of sets:
7. For any two finite sets A and B;

• A – B = A ∩ B’
• B – A = B ∩ A’
• A–B=A⇔A∩B=∅
• (A – B) U B = A U B
• (A – B) ∩ B = ∅
• A ⊆ B ⇔ B’ ⊆ A’
• (A – B) U (B – A) = (A U B) – (A ∩ B)
8. For any three finite sets A, B, and C;

• A – (B ∩ C) = (A – B) U (A – C)
• A – (B U C) = (A – B) ∩ (A – C)
• A ∩ (B – C) = (A ∩ B) – (A ∩ C)
• A ∩ (B △ C) = (A ∩ B) △ (A ∩ C)
5] explain logical operation with truth table
Unary Operations Truth Table
Unary operation comprises a single input, which is either True or False. There are four
unary operations for these inputs, which we are going to perform here. They are:

• Logical True (Only True)

• Logical False (Only False)
• Logical Identity
• Logical Negotiation

Logical True

The output is always true, despite any input value in logical true operation. Suppose P
signifies the input values and Q signifies the output, then we can write the table as:

P Q→T
T T
F T
Where T=True and F=False

Logical False

In comparison to the logical true, the output values for logical false are always false. It is
also known as unary falsum. The table for this operation is given below.

P Q→F
T F
F F
Where T=True and F=False

Logical Identity

The output value remains the same or equal to the input value in this operation. Let us
find out with the help of the table.

P Q→P
T T
F F
Logical Identity
We get the opposite value of the input value, as an output when we perform the logical
negotiation operation on a single logical value or propositional value. Let us see the
truth-table for this:

P Q→~P
T F
F T

Binary Operations Truth Table

Two variables are used for input values in binary operations. The output result is
dependent on the operation performed on the input or proposition values, and the value
can be true or false. Some of the most important binary operations are:

• AND
• OR
• NAND
• NOR
• XOR
• Biconditional
• Conditional, also known as "if-then"

Now, for each binary operation, we will build the consolidated truth table using the input
values X and Y.

X Y AND OR NOR NAND XOR Conditio

T T T T F F F T
T F F T F T T F
F T F T F T T T
F F F F T T F T
In the preceding table, T denotes true and F denotes false.

Truth Tables for NOR and OR

If any two input values are true, the operation OR statement represents that. The output
value is always true. The symbol represents it ().

In contrast to the OR operation, the NOR operation produces output values. It implies
that a statement that is true for OR is false for NOR and is denoted by (~∨).
Operational True Tables NAND and AND
According to the above and operational true table, the output is true only if both input
values are true; otherwise, the output is false. In the AND operational table, the AND
operator is represented by the symbol (∧).

Truth Table for the XOR Operation

The table specifies that the input values must be either exactly true or exactly false.
XOR is represented by the symbol (?).

Conditional Operator
The conditional operator, also known as the 'if-then' operator, returns True for all input
values except when True implies False. It is denoted by the symbol ". This operation
has the same logical meaning as the P Q operation. Let us demonstrate;

P Q ~P
T T F
T F F
F T T
F F T
You can compare the values of P⇒Q and ~P ∨ Q. Both are equivalent.

Logical equality is another name for bi-conditional. If both the values of P and Q are
either True or False, the result is True; otherwise, the result is False.
16] Expain abelian group homomorphism and
automorphism
Types of Graphs:

1. Finite Graphs
A graph is said to be finite if it has a finite number of vertices and a finite
number of edges. A finite graph is a graph with a finite number of vertices and
edges. In other words, both the number of vertices and the number of edges in
a finite graph are limited and can be counted. Finite graphs are often used to
model real-world situations, where there is a limited number of objects and
relationships between the

2. Infinite Graph:
A graph is said to be infinite if it has an infinite number of vertices as well as an
infinite number of edges.

3. Trivial Graph:
A graph is said to be trivial if a finite graph contains only one vertex and no
edge. A trivial graph is a graph with only one vertex and no edges. It is also
known as a singleton graph or a single vertex graph. A trivial graph is the
simplest type of graph and is often used as a starting point for building more
complex graphs. In graph theory, trivial graphs are considered to be a
degenerate case and are not typically studied in detail
4. Simple Graph:
A simple graph is a graph that does not contain more than one edge between
the pair of vertices. A simple railway track connecting different cities is an
example of a simple graph.

5. Multi Graph:
Any graph which contains some parallel edges but doesn’t contain any self-loop
is called a multigraph. For example a Road Map.
• Parallel Edges: If two vertices are connected with more than one
edge then such edges are called parallel edges that are many routes
but one destination.
• Loop: An edge of a graph that starts from a vertex and ends at the
same vertex is called a loop or a self-loop.

6. Null Graph:
A graph of order n and size zero is a graph where there are only isolated
vertices with no edges connecting any pair of vertices.A null graph is a graph
with no edges. In other words, it is a graph with only vertices and no
connections between them. A null graph can also be referred to as an edgeless
graph, an isolated graph, or a discrete graph
7. Complete Graph:
A simple graph with n vertices is called a complete graph if the degree of each
vertex is n-1, that is, one vertex is attached with n-1 edges or the rest of the
vertices in the graph. A complete graph is also called Full Graph.

8. Pseudo Graph:
A graph G with a self-loop and some multiple edges is called a pseudo graph. A
pseudograph is a type of graph that allows for the existence of loops (edges
that connect a vertex to itself) and multiple edges (more than one edge
connecting two vertices). In contrast, a simple graph is a graph that does not
allow for loops or multiple edges.

9. Regular Graph:
A simple graph is said to be regular if all vertices of graph G are of equal
degree. All complete graphs are regular but vice versa is not possible. A regular
graph is a type of undirected graph where every vertex has the same number of
edges or neighbors. In other words, if a graph is regular, then every vertex has
the same degree.
10. Bipartite Graph:
A graph G = (V, E) is said to be a bipartite graph if its vertex set V(G) can be
partitioned into two non-empty disjoint subsets. V1(G) and V2(G) in such a way
that each edge e of E(G) has one end in V1(G) and another end in V2(G). The
partition V1 U V2 = V is called Bipartite of G. Here in the figure: V1(G)={V5, V4,
V3} and V2(G)={V1, V2}

11. Labeled Graph:

If the vertices and edges of a graph are labeled with name, date, or weight then
it is called a labeled graph. It is also called Weighted Graph.

12. Digraph Graph:

A graph G = (V, E) with a mapping f such that every edge maps onto some
ordered pair of vertices (Vi, Vj) are called a Digraph. It is also called Directed
Graph. The ordered pair (Vi, Vj) means an edge between Vi and Vj with an
arrow directed from Vi to Vj. Here in the figure: e1 = (V1, V2) e2 = (V2, V3) e4 =
(V2, V4)
13. Subgraph:
A graph G1 = (V1, E1) is called a subgraph of a graph G(V, E) if V1(G) is a
subset of V(G) and E1(G) is a subset of E(G) such that each edge of G1 has
same end vertices as in G.

14. Connected or Disconnected Graph:

Graph G is said to be connected if any pair of vertices (Vi, Vj) of a graph G is
reachable from one another. Or a graph is said to be connected if there exists
at least one path between each and every pair of vertices in graph G,
otherwise, it is disconnected. A null graph with n vertices is a disconnected
graph consisting of n components. Each component consists of one vertex and
no edge.