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Research article Journal of the Geological Society

Published Online First https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2019-042

Eocene arc petrogenesis in Central Chile (c. 33.6° S) and

implications for the Late Cretaceous–Miocene Andean setting:
tracking the evolving tectonic regime
Marcia Muñoz-Gómez1,2, Constanza Fuentes2,3*, Francisco Fuentes4, Felipe Tapia5,
Mathieu Benoit6, Marcelo Farías3, C. Mark Fanning7, Andrés Fock8,
Reynaldo Charrier1,3, Daniel Sellés9 & Daniela Bustamante1
1
Escuela de Ciencias de la Tierra, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad Andres Bello, Campus República, Salvador Sanfuentes
2357, Santiago, Chile
2
Advanced Mining Technology Center, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile, Av. Tupper 2007,
Santiago, Chile
3
Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Chile, Casilla 13518, Correo 21, Santiago, Chile
4
Facultad de Ingeniería y Arquitectura, Universidad Central de Chile, Santa Isabel 1186, Santiago Chile
5
Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires. Consejo
Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de Estudios Andinos ‘Don Pablo Groeber’ (IDEAN), Int.
Güiraldes 2160 (C1428EGA), Buenos Aires, Argentina
6
CNRS-UBO, UMR 6538, IUEM, Place N. Copernic, 29280 Plouzané, France
7
Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia
8
SQM S.A., Los Militares 4290, Santiago, Chile
9
AURUM Consultores, Del Inca 4446 of 701, Las Condes, Santiago, Chile
Present addresses: CF, GeoInnova Consultores Ltds., Antonio Bellet 444 of 1301, Providencia, Santiago, Chile; DS, Teck
Resources Chile Limitada, Isidora Goyenechea 2800 of 802, Santiago, Chile.
MM, 0000-0002-9175-147X; CF, 0000-0001-5619-7373; FT, 0000-0002-5397-3071; MB, 0000-0002-0134-4863;
MF, 0000-0002-3264-341X; DS, 0000-0003-1296-3499
* Correspondence: coni.fuentes93@gmail.com

Abstract: The scarce Eocene geological record in the Andean region of Central Chile (c. 33.6° S) is represented by the Estratos
del Cordón de los Ratones unit. This is a c. 450 m thick, mainly volcanic, continental series with a bimodal character that hosts
numerous subvolcanic intrusions. The igneous products show compositional features indicating a co-genetic character for the
whole suite, relatively juvenile mantle signatures and arc-like affinities. This, along with age determinations of c. 42 Ma,
indicate that the unit corresponds to the middle Eocene arc in the region. The geochemical data obtained complement the
evolving arc magmatic record throughout Andean evolution. This allows us to track: (1) the earliest Late Cretaceous orogenic
event; (2) neutral tectonic conditions from the latest Cretaceous to mid-Eocene times; (3) the Oligocene–early Miocene
extensional episode; and (4) the onset of the prevailing compression. The record also indicates that the extensional event started
no earlier than the mid-Eocene, with the deposition of the Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones, and no later than the earliest
Oligocene. In addition, orogenic processes developed from early Miocene times are highlighted relative to those developed
during the early Late Cretaceous, at least in the arc region.
Supplementary material: Analytical methods (Item 1), the full dataset of U–Pb age determinations by SHRIMP (Item 2) and
LA-ICP-MS (Item 3), and additional geochronological diagrams (Item 4) are available at https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.c.
4710305
Received 19 March 2019; revised 9 October 2019; accepted 22 October 2019

The construction of the modern Andes is classically considered to
have started after the onset of a contractional regime in early Late
Cretaceous times, which regionally affected the western margin of
South America (e.g. Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Vergani et al. 1995;
Charrier et al. 2007, 2015). The evolution of this region since then has
not been uniform, neither in time nor space, because extensional
episodes have occurred along different segments of the margin (e.g.
Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Ramos & Folguera 2005, 2011; Charrier
et al. 2007, 2015). Unravelling Andean evolution therefore requires
both (1) the identification and characterization of the different stages
of development and (2) their integrated consideration throughout a
continuously evolving palaeogeography. For the Andes of Central
Chile–Argentina (c. 30–37° S; Fig. 1), this approach has been
hampered by the scarce occurrence in the region of a Paleocene–
Eocene geological record. This attains further relevance when
considering that the evolution throughout this time span is bracketed
between two well-documented and contrasting episodes: early Late
Cretaceous orogenic deformation (e.g. Charrier et al. 1996; Cembrano
et al. 2003; Arancibia 2004; Tunik et al. 2010; Balgord & Carrapa
2014; Boyce 2015; Fennell et al. 2015; Balgord 2016; Di Giulio et al.
2016; Horton & Fuentes 2016) and Oligocene–early Miocene
extension (e.g. Jordan et al. 2001; Charrier et al. 2002, 2007, 2009,
2015; Nyström et al. 2003; Kay et al. 2005; Ramos & Folguera 2011).
We focus here on the study of the Estratos del Cordón de los
Ratones (ECLR) unit, an informal Eocene unit of mainly volcanic
nature exposed in Central Chile at c. 33.6° S (Fig. 1; Sellés & Gana
2001; Fock 2005). This unit corresponds to one of the few outcrops
of Eocene strata reported in the region and has been poorly studied
in the past. As the available record predating the Oligocene–early
Miocene extension in the margin, the ECLR offers the possibility of
investigating the early processes involved in the latter episode and/
or the palaeogeographical setting in which it developed. Moreover,

© 2019 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved. For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions.
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.
regarding the previous early Late Cretaceous orogenic deformation
(e.g. Charrier et al. 2007; Boyce 2015), these Eocene strata become
important in elucidating the transition from contraction to extension
in this area of the Andes. In addition, several Mesozoic and
Cenozoic arc igneous units are exposed in the study region, which
makes this area suitable for tracking the evolving magmatic record
that accompanies Andean evolution.
We present the results of a detailed study performed in the ECLR,
including field observations and petrographic, geochronological
and geochemical determinations (see Supplementary Material Item
1 for the analytical methods). These data are used to study the
petrogenesis of the igneous rocks and the palaeogeographical
implications and are discussed at both local and regional scales. In
addition, we complement the geochemical results with new and
published data from the region as a proxy to characterizing the
evolving tectonic conditions that have governed the margin from the
Late Cretaceous to mid-Miocene. Our results are the first detailed
report of the Eocene in this region and place new constraints on the
coeval geodynamic setting of the Andean margin.
Geological background
The Andes of Chile–Argentina correspond to an arc orogenic
system developed along southwestern South America (Fig. 1). They
form a nearly north–south-trending belt along the continental
Fig. 1. Tectonic context and main
geological features of the study area.
(a) Satellite image showing the tectonic
setting of the Southern Central Andes.
The arrows indicate the absolute plate
motion of the Nazca and South America
plates. The red triangles correspond to
main volcanoes of the Southern Volcanic
Zone (SVZ) grouped according to the
Northern (NSVZ; 33–34.5° S),
Transitional (TSVZ; 34.5–36° S) and
Southern (SSVZ; south of 36° S)
segments. The white rectangle shows the
area where the latest Cretaceous to
Paleocene intrusive rocks were sampled in
this work. The translucent white filled
area corresponds to the Neuquén basin
domain. (b) Geological map showing the
main features and morphostructural units
of the Central Chilean Andes where the
study area is located. The black rectangle
indicates the study area shown in Figure 3.
Modified and simplified from Thiele
(1980), Wall et al. (1999), Sellés & Gana
(2001), Fock (2005) and this work.
CC, Coastal Cordillera; CD, Central
Depression; EPC, Eastern Principal
cordillera; FC, Frontal Cordillera; WPC,
Western Principal Cordillera.
margin and are a first-order result of the eastwards subduction of the
Nazca oceanic plate underneath the South American continental
plate (Fig. 1). Overall, the orogen is a doubly vergent uplifted and
deformed area involving Paleozoic to Cenozoic volcanic, sedi-
mentary and crystalline rocks. The study area is located at c. 33.6° S
in Chile at the northern end of the Southern Central Andes (c. 33–
46° S), immediately south of the so-called flat-slab segment (c. 27–
33° S; Fig. 1). The Chilean Andes margin between 33 and 37° S is
composed of several north–south-trending morphostructural units
(Fig. 1), which, from west to east, correspond to: (1) the Coastal
Cordillera, an uplifted block dominated by outcrops of Paleozoic to
Mesozoic igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic units; (2) the
Central Depression, a basin developed between the eastern Coastal
Cordillera and the western main Andes Cordillera, which
accumulates the Pliocene–Quaternary sedimentary fill; (3) the
Western Principal Cordillera, a fault-bounded, mostly Oligocene to
Miocene series block composed of up to c. 5000 m of igneous and
minor sedimentary rocks; and (4) the Eastern Principal Cordillera, a
series of sedimentary and minor volcanic Mesozoic units that are
involved in east-vergent thin- and thick-skinned fold–thrust belts
near the Chilean–Argentinean border. The margin configuration is
completed to the east with the Frontal Cordillera and the Andean
foreland, both developed in Argentina. The currently active
volcanic arc runs along the Eastern Principal Cordillera and the
easternmost Western Principal Cordillera (Fig. 1).
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Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S
The ECLR is located at c. 33.6° S, in the western foothills of the
Western Principal Cordillera, at the southern end of the Santiago
city valley (Fig. 1). At this locality, the Central Depression narrows
due to several small hills that link the Western Principal Cordillera
and the Coastal Cordillera. The only rock outcrops of the area are
exposed here (Fig. 1). The latter discontinuously cover a time span
between the Late Cretaceous and Miocene (Sellés & Gana 2001) –
that is, most of the constructional period of the modern Andes,
which is considered to have started in early Late Cretaceous times
(e.g. Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Charrier et al. 2007). The oldest
deposits are grouped in the Las Chilcas Formation, a continental
c. 3000 m thick volcanic and sedimentary series of Albian–early
Campanian age (Figs 1 and 2; Wall et al. 1999; Sellés & Gana 2001;
Boyce 2015). This unit records a compressional stage marked by the
uplift of the Coastal Cordillera and the construction of an orogenic
arc system (e.g. Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Charrier et al. 2007;
Boyce 2015). In the nearby regions, the Las Chilcas Formation is
unconformably covered by the Lo Valle Formation, a c. 1800 m
thick volcanic and minor sedimentary series of late Campanian–
early Danian age (Figs 1 and 2; e.g. Drake et al. 1976; Rivano et al.
1993; Gana & Wall 1997; Boyce 2015), which has not been studied
in detail. Its palaeogeographical significance can only be inferred
from the correlations proposed with other Late Cretaceous–early
Paleocene volcanic series exposed further south at c. 35° S (Tapia
2015; Persico 2016; Mosolf et al. 2018), for which deposition in an
extensional intra-arc basin setting has been inferred (Iannelli et al.
2018; Muñoz et al. 2018; Fennell et al. 2019). The following
evolution remains obscured by the stratigraphic hiatus between the
Mesozoic and Cenozoic series. This is represented in the Santiago
valley area by the unconformable contact between the Lo Valle
Formation and the overlying Abanico Formation (Fig. 2).
The Abanico Formation corresponds to a c. 3000 m thick
volcanic and minor sedimentary series widely exposed along the
Western Principal Cordillera (Fig. 1). Its age has been assigned to
the Eocene–early Miocene (e.g. Charrier et al. 2002, 2007), but the
numerous studies performed in this unit have mostly covered the
Oligocene–early Miocene time span. The Abanico Formation
records a regional-scale extensional episode along the margin and
its deposits represent evolution in an extensive and subsiding intra-
arc basin developed over a c. 35 km thin crust (e.g. Charrier et al.
2002, 2007; Nyström et al. 2003; Kay et al. 2005). Although
obscured by the scarce presence of Paleocene–Eocene outcrops,
studies performed at c. 35° S indicate that this extensional episode is
separate from that developed during the Late Cretaceous–early
Paleocene (Tapia 2015; Muñoz et al. 2018). Tectonic inversion of
the Abanico basin occurred during early Miocene times and was
followed by the deposition of the volcanic and minor sedimentary
series of the Farellones Formation (Fig. 2; e.g. Thiele 1980; Charrier
Fig. 2. Schematic summary of the
stratigraphy of the study area and its
surroundings (c. 33° 30′–34° 00′ S; see
Fig. 1) and the associated coeval tectonic
regimes recognized. Compiled from
Charrier et al. (2002), Boyce et al. (2014),
Boyce (2015) and this work. ECLR,
Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones unit.
et al. 2002, 2007; Nyström et al. 2003; Kay et al. 2005). Such
compressional conditions have continued since then and form the
last stage of Andean mountain building in the region (e.g. Charrier
et al. 2002, 2007; Giambiagi & Ramos 2002; Farías et al. 2008).
The ECLR is an informal designation given by Sellés & Gana
(2001) to a mainly volcanic continental series that crops out in the
Cordón de los Ratones locality (Figs 1 and 3). This unit has a
minimum estimated thickness of c. 450 m and is characteristically
intruded by numerous acid and basic intrusions (Sellés & Gana
2001; Rissetto 2015; Fuentes 2017). Its base is not exposed and an
angular discordant contact with the overlying Abanico Formation
has been inferred for its top (Sellés & Gana 2001). K–Ar
radiometric determinations performed in several stocks and dykes
that cut the stratified sequence have given ages between c. 36 and
22 Ma, which led Sellés & Gana (2001) to infer a minimum
Oligocene age for its deposition. Sellés (2000) correlated this strata
to the Lo Valle Formation based on petrological and geochemical
similarities. This formation does not crop out in the Cordón de los
Ratones area, but it is widely exposed nearly 30 km further north
(Fig. 1). Fock (2005) obtained a zircon U–Pb age of 43.0 ± 0.4 Ma
in a tuff the ECLR and thus assigned a minimum age of late Eocene
to this unit (Fig. 2).
Results
Main field characteristics and geochronological
determinations
The ECLR beds are exposed in several discontinuous outcrops
forming a nearly north–south belt for c. 30 km (Figs 1 and 3). From
north to south, they have been recognized in the following localities:
(1) the Cerro Negro hill; (2) the Cordón de los Ratones hill chain;
(3) along the western foothills of the Cerros del Principal range,; and
(4) the Portezuelo de Chada locality (Fig. 3). The main structures
present in the area correspond to open folds with wavelength scales
of hundreds of metres, which affect the ECLR unit and the east-
dipping Portezuelo de Chada thrust fault (Fig. 3). The latter strikes
north–south along the western part of the study area and corresponds
to an inverted normal fault related to the extension and later
inversion of the Oligocene–early Miocene Abanico basin system
(e.g. Fock 2005; Charrier et al. 2009; Jara & Charrier 2014). At the
Portezuelo de Chada locality this fault forces the ECLR unit over
rocks of the Abanico Formation (Fig. 3; Fock 2005).
A stratigraphic survey of the ECLR unit was carried out in the
study area (Fig. 4), although a correlation between the different
localities was precluded by the discontinuous nature and poor
exposure of the studied sequences. Overall, the ECLR unit
corresponds to a mainly volcanic series of a marked bimodal
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.
character, with minor sedimentary intercalations (Fig. 4). The main
rock types correspond to basalts, basaltic andesites, rhyolites,
volcanic breccias and tuffs; the series is characteristically intruded
by basaltic andesitic and dacitic to rhyolitic hypabyssal rocks
(Fig. 4). Acid rocks commonly show characteristics such as flow
banding, folding and rheomorphic textures (Fig. 5a, b, e) in the case
of lava flows, and columnar jointing in the case of intrusive domes
(Fig. 5d). It is noteworthy that banded rhyolitic lavas usually show
abrupt changes in flow direction (Fig. 5a, e). The latter feature
probably indicates a close proximity to the emission centre and this
is also supported by the similar ages of the extrusive and intrusive
units present in the area. The sedimentary intercalations correspond
to volcaniclastic sandstones, litharenites, breccias and conglomer-
ates and the tuffs are variably reworked (Sellés & Gana 2001;
Fuentes 2017). Both rock types occasionally show the development
of dropstone textures with the associated deformation of small-scale
layering, which signals the upright position of the studied strata
(Fig. 5f ).
New zircon U–Pb ages on four samples are reported here for
igneous rocks of the ECLR unit. At the Cordón de los Ratones
locality, age determinations were performed on rhyolitic rocks
corresponding to an intrusion with columnar jointing, a lava with
flow banding and a dome (Table 1; Figs 3 and 4). The results
correspond to 41.98 ± 0.37, 41.67 ± 0.31 and 42.14 ± 0.44 Ma,
respectively (Fig. 6), and they highlight both the contemporaneity
and genetic link of the abundant intrusive rocks characteristically
emplaced in the ECLR unit and the mid-Eocene age of this unit
(Figs 3 and 4). These results also agree with a U–Pb zircon age of
Fig. 3. Geological map of the study area
showing the locations of samples analysed
in this study for geochemical analyses and
U–Pb radiometric determinations.
Modified and simplified from Sellés &
Gana (2001) and Fock (2005).
42.96 ± 0.31 Ma obtained nearly 5 km further south at the
Portezuelo de Chada locality (Fig. 3). This was provided by Fock
(2005) and is reported in this work (Table 1; Fig. 6). All the age
determinations reported previously for this area are younger and
were obtained from intrusive rocks (Fig. 3). Several basaltic
andesitic and dacitic hypabyssal dykes and stocks intrude the series
at the Cerro Negro hill locality and for these a whole-rock K–Ar age
of 36.4 ± 1.3 Ma was reported by Sellés & Gana (2001, Fig. 3). This
determination constitutes a minimum age for the ECLR unit and
also confirms its assignation to the mid-Eocene.
Petrographic characteristics
The main petrographic characteristics of igneous rocks from the
ECLR unit are similar within the basic and acid rock groups. Basic
lava flows commonly show porphyric hipocrystalline textures, with
phenocrysts 0.2–4.5 mm in diameter. The groundmass shows
intersertal, intergranular or pilotaxitic textures of plagioclase and
pyroxene microlites with grain sizes <0.2 mm in diameter.
Phenocrysts compose between 8 and 53% of the whole rock and
consist mainly of plagioclase and subordinate pyroxene and olivine
pseudomorphs (Fig. 7a, b). The mafic phases commonly show an
intense to complete alteration to chlorite–smectite, quartz, calcite
and Fe oxides (Fig. 7a, b). The basic intrusive counterparts show
similar characteristics in addition to holocrystalline textures. In
general, the phenocrysts in these rocks reach smaller grain sizes,
ranging between 0.1 and 2.2 mm in diameter and the alteration of
the mafic phases is usually less intense. The latter is characterized
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Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S
Fig. 4. Stratigraphic sections of the Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones unit at the localities of (a) Cerro Negro hill, (b, c) Cordón de los Ratones hill chain
and (d) the foothills of the Cerros del Principal range.
by chlorite–smectite and Fe oxides, in addition to the distinctive
presence of saponite in altered olivine (Fig. 7c). Acid lava flows
show porphyric and hipocrystalline textures and are characterized
by the development of flow banding (Fig. 7d). The phenocrysts
present range between 0.1 and 3.2 mm in diameter, comprise 3–
20% of the whole rock and correspond mainly to plagioclase and
subordinate pyroxene (Fig. 7d). The groundmass is composed
mainly of glass forming devitrification spherulitic, perlitic and flow
textures (Fig. 7d, e) and contains scarce microlites representing <2%
of the whole rock in sizes of up to 0.1 mm in diameter. The acid
intrusive counterparts are characterized by porphyric and felsitic
textures (Fig. 7f ). Phenocrysts are comparatively less abundant,
ranging between 5 and 8% of the whole rock, and show grain sizes
ranging from 0.1 to 1.8 mm. The groundmass is the main
component in these rocks and is composed of minute crystalline
formations (<0.05 mm) of quartz and potassic feldspar in a felsitic
texture. Alteration in the intrusive and extrusive acid rocks
corresponds to the presence of clays, chlorite–smectite, zeolites,
Fe oxides and less titanite present in phenocrysts and in the glass
component of the groundmass (Fig. 7f ).
Geochemistry of the igneous units
Whole-rock geochemical analyses were performed on volcanic and
subvolcanic rocks of the ECLR unit (see distribution in Fig. 3).
These analyses include the major and trace element composition of
nine samples (Table 2) and Sr–Nd isotopic determinations of three
of these (Table 3). The samples correspond to two lavas, one vitric
tuff and six subvolcanic units (Table 2). The scarce representation of
extrusive igneous samples results from the low presence of lava
outcrops, the high percentage of lithic components in the tuffs and
breccias, and the intense alteration of rocks in the area. The analysed
samples were selected after a petrographic study by standard optical
microscopic techniques and show a minor degree of alteration (loss
on ignition <3% for all samples, with the exception of a vitric tuff;
Table 2). In the following descriptions and diagrams, the chemical
analyses from this study have been complemented with those
previously reported for the ECLR unit in an unpublished paper by
Sellés (2000).
Samples from the ECLR unit show a range of SiO2 contents
between 52 and 77% (all values given on an anhydrous basis),
although this is not continuous because it shows a marked
compositional gap between c. 54 and 64% SiO2 (Fig. 8). The
latter confirms the bimodal suite observed for the unit both in the
field and in petrographic studies. The rocks show a subalkaline
character with arc signatures, as shown in tectonic discrimination
diagrams based on the trace element composition (not shown) and
calc-alkaline affinities suggested by different classification criteria
(Figs 8 and 9).
Despite the 10% compositional gap in silica content, the patterns
displayed by the analysed samples in Harker diagrams still suggest
possible lines of descent for most elements (selected major and trace
element Harker diagrams shown in Fig. 9). This is consistent with a
common evolution for the whole compositional range of the unit
from fractional crystallization processes, an inference also
supported by other geochemical parameters (e.g. the Sr–Nd isotopic
composition and the rare earth element (REE) signatures). The
major elements Al2O3, CaO, MgO, FeOT and TiO2 decrease with
increasing differentiation and K2O increases with increasing
differentiation (Fig. 9). In the case of Na2O and P2O5 with
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.

Fig. 5. Example of outcrop-scale

characteristics of the Estratos del Cordón
de los Ratones unit in the study area.
(a) Dacitic lava with flow banding and
angular lithic fragments; (b) folding and
rheomorphic textures in a rhyolitic lava
flow; (c) lapilli vitric tuff with fiammes;
(d) columnar jointing in intrusive dome;
(e) banded rhyolitic lava flow showing
abrupt changes in flow direction; and (f )
development of dropstone texture over a
finely laminated tuff.

increasing SiO2 contents, the samples show a slight increase in the
basic portion of the suite, whereas the acid portion shows a
decreasing trend (Fig. 9). For the trace elements, V, Co and Sc show
compatible behaviour, whereas the large ion lithophile elements
(Rb, Ba except for Sr) and high field strength elements (Zr, Hf, Ta,
Y and most of the REEs) show incompatible behaviour (Fig. 9).
The studied samples show enriched REE signatures with respect
to chondritic values, with concentrations that increase with
increasing SiO2 content and a preferential enrichment of light
REEs over heavy REEs (Fig. 10). In the chondrite-normalized
diagram of Figure 10a, all the samples have been plotted together,
but they are grouped according to three SiO2 ranges: (1) 51–55%;
(2) 63–70%; and (3) 70–78%. The patterns displayed in the latter
diagram are sub-parallel within the three compositional groups and
also between such groups, but show the increasing development of a
preferential depletion in medium REEs and an Eu anomaly with
increasing SiO2 content. The high and unfractionated heavy REE
concentrations disregard the involvement of garnet in magma
genesis, either as a fractionating phase or as present in the magmatic
source. The REE patterns and concentrations displayed by the
ECLR unit are consistent with a co-genetic relation linking the
compositional range through the crystal fractionation of a low-
pressure mineral assemblage of olivine, pyroxene and plagioclase.
This is also supported by the co-variation patterns displayed in the

Table 1. Summary of zircon age determinations

Sample Unit Age (Ma) 2σ Rock type Locality

CR018 ECLR 41.67 0.31 Rhyolite Cordón de los Ratones hill chain, northern area
CR046 ECLR 41.98 0.37 Rhyolitic dome Cordón de los Ratones hill chain, northern area
CR052 ECLR 42.14 0.44 Rhyolitic dome Cordón de los Ratones hill chain, southwestern area
ANG01 ECLR 42.96 0.37 Lithic lapilli tuff Portezuelo de Chada
CB1 UCPI 69.90 1.10 Hornblende granodiorite SE from Salamanca town
CB3 UCPI 56.76 0.70 Hornblende quartz monzonite SE from Salamanca town

ECLR, Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones; UCPI, Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene intrusive rocks.
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 2, 2020
Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S
Harker diagrams (Fig. 9) and the modal presence of the mentioned
mineral phases in these rocks.
In a multi-element spider diagram, normalized to normal-type
mid-ocean ridge basalt (N-MORB) (Pearce 1983), samples from the
ECLR show a preferential enrichment of large ion lithophile
elements over high field strength elements and a marked Nb–Ta
trough (Fig. 10a), characteristics that are typical of subduction-
related magmas. The different compositional groups show mostly
sub-parallel patterns (Fig. 10b), also supporting a co-genetic
relation through crystal fractionation from the less differentiated
compositions. Most elements in this diagram increase in concen-
tration with increasing differentiation, except for some negative
anomalies developed in Ba, Sr, P2O5 and TiO2 (Fig. 10b), which
can be explained by the fractionation of alkali feldspar, plagioclase,
apatite and magnetite, respectively, in agreement with the
petrographic evidence. For the most basic group, the concentrations
of high field strength element are similar to that of N-MORB,
suggesting a spinel lherzolite mantle source metasomatized by a
subduction component for the ECLR magmas (sensu Pearce 1983).
Fig. 6. U–Pb age determinations in
primary igneous zircons of samples from
the Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones
units. Tera-Wasserburg plots and
corresponding frequency histograms (light
blue boxes) and relative probability
density plots are shown. Error ellipses are
indicated at the 2σ level and weighted-
average ages are indicated as insets. Only
data with a discordance <25% have been
plotted in the diagrams corresponding to
laser ablation inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry analyses (CR018,
CR046, CR052). For sample CR052,
inherited ages (two spots) were not
considered in the diagrams. For sample
ANG01, the final age considered
incorporates the external error and
corresponds to 42.96 ± 0.31 (Table 1).
Regarding the Sr–Nd isotopic composition, the samples analysed
in this study show a fairly juvenile character with values of ɛNd(i)
between +4.6 and +4.8 and 87Sr/86Sr(i) between 0.7038 and 0.7039
(Table 3 and Fig. 11). These values plot in the mantle array and
constitute signatures more enriched than that of N-MORB and in the
most juvenile spectra of the southern segment of the Southern
Volcanic Zone field (Fig. 11). The analysed samples cover a range
of SiO2 contents between c. 53 and 67%, which, along with the
restricted range in Sr–Nd isotopic values, strongly argues for a co-
genetic relation between the acid and basic members of the
magmatic suite and disregards the involvement of significant crustal
contamination throughout the evolution of the magma.
Discussion
ECLR unit: mid-Eocene arc in Central Chile
Our results establish that the ECLR beds are part of the mid-Eocene
arc of Central Chile. This is supported by the volcano-sedimentary
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.
nature of the series, the abundant coeval intrusive igneous activity,
and the radiometric and geochemical determinations performed on
the igneous units. The presence of abundant dome and subvolcanic
intrusive rocks in the upper section of the series, and the associated
pyroclastic and lava flow deposits, suggest that this could
correspond to a caldera complex facies, as previously interpreted
by Sellés & Gana (2001). In addition, the regular presence of
volcano-sedimentary deposits, most of which are derived from
reworking of the pyroclastic material, document the development of
erosional processes synchronous with the eruptive activity. These
features indicate an intra-arc tectonic setting dominated by
numerous eruptive centres and nearby depocentres allowing the
accumulation of volcanic products, which occurred coeval with
sedimentary reworking processes and the emplacement of the
abundant near-surface subvolcanic bodies.
Our U–Pb radiometric determinations only show ages of c. 42 Ma
and these were obtained in deposits at the upper section of the
studied series and in subvolcanic domes emplaced at the same
levels. These results allow a minimum mid-Eocene age to be
established for the ECLR unit and the magmatic event it represents,
although the maximum age remains open. With respect to the
documented stratigraphy in the nearby regions, the age obtained for
the ECLR unit is 8 myr older than the oldest age reported for the
overlying Abanico Formation nearly 42 km north of the study area
(minimum age 34.3 ± 2.2 Ma; Gana & Wall 1997). In addition, this
age defines a c. 23 myr hiatus between the ECLR unit and the
youngest age obtained for the Mesozoic Lo Valle Formation in
the latter area (65 ± 2 Ma; Gana & Wall 1997), thus shortening the
Fig. 7. Photomicrographs showing the
main petrographic characteristics of
igneous rock samples from the Estratos
del Cordón de los Ratones unit. (a, b)
Basaltic andesitic lava flows; (c) intrusive
rocks; (d, e) acid lava flows; and (f )
intrusive rocks; see text for further details.
Chl, chlorite; FB, flow banding; FT,
felsitic texture; Ol, olivine; Pl,
plagioclase; PPL, plane polarized light;
PT, perlitic texture; Px, pyroxene; Qz,
quartz; Sap, saponite; XPL, cross-
polarized light; Zeo, zeolite.
hiatus previously recognized in the contact between Meso-Cenozoic
units in the area (Gana & Wall 1997).
The geochemical, isotopic and petrographic characteristics
suggest a common evolution for the whole ECLR suite, despite
the 10% compositional gap in the range of documented SiO2
contents. A low-pressure mineralogy would have dominated both
the fractionation and the source region assemblages. In addition,
any significant involvement of radiogenic crustal material, either
early in the magmatic evolution or latter through AFC processes, is
precluded both by the relatively juvenile character of the magmatic
products and the indistinguishable isotopic signature shown by the
analysed acid and basic members of the suite (Fig. 11). In terms of
fractionation and isotopic characteristics (Figs 9 and 10b), the
ECLR magmas are similar to those derived from the current
southern segment of the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone (south of
36° S), which have evolved over a 30–45 km thick crust (Tassara
et al. 2006). In particular, La/Yb ratios <5 for the ECLR basic suite
are in the range of those displayed by similar magmas from the
southern segment of the Southern Volcanic Zone between 38.5 and
40.0° S (Hickey-Vargas et al. 2016a), where the crust reaches c. 35–
45 km in thickness (Tassara et al. 2006).
Palaeogeographical implications: the Late Cretaceous–
Miocene evolution of the Andean margin in Central
Chile–Argentina
The evolution of the Andean margin system has not been uniform
over time and has been almost continuously recorded in two major
Table 2. Results of whole-rock chemical analyses

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Detection
Sample: CR020 CR024 CR031 CR034 CR038 CR039 CR046 CR044 CR047 CB1 CB3 CB5 CB6 limit
Unit: ECLR ECLR ECLR ECLR ECLR ECLR ECLR ECLR ECLR LCPI LCPI LCPI LCPI
Rock type Intrusive Intrusive Lava Lava Intrusive Pyroclastic Intrusive Intrusive Intrusive Intrusive Intrusive Intrusive Intrusive
Classification Pyroxene Pyroxene Pyroxene– Pyroxene Olivine Vitric ash Rhyolitic Rhyolitic Rhyolitic Hornblende Hornblende Hornblende Hornblende
dacite dacite olivine andesite gabbro tuff porphyry porphyry porphyry granodiorite quartz granite quartz
andesite monzonite monzodiorite
Composition* Dacite Dacite Basaltic Basaltic Basaltic Dacite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Rhyolite Andesite Dacite Andesite
andesite andesite andesite
UTM-N 6 274 319 6 276 781 6 270 479 6 270 443 6 277 929 6 278 033 6 275 061 6 275 040 6 274 739 6 398 937 6 422 776 6 448 376 6 460 027
UTM-E 347 774 344 883 345 396 345 470 344 757 344 670 348 121 348 095 348 128 344 162 340 112 331 216 349 869
Major elements in (wt.%)

Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S

SiO2 62.85 66.12 52.88 50.77 52.79 62.74 71.37 72.21 75.04 72.29 57.10 70.09 57.76 0.01
TiO2 0.75 0.61 0.84 0.90 0.95 0.47 0.18 0.17 0.09 0.26 0.82 0.46 0.78 0.001
Al2O3 16.42 15.66 20.06 19.88 18.02 13.87 14.15 13.75 12.09 13.82 16.97 14.24 17.44 0.01
Fe2OT3 5.01 4.42 7.75 8.69 9.06 3.52 2.23 2.30 1.44 2.19 6.91 3.41 6.75 0.01
MnO 0.13 0.10 0.13 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.03 0.06 0.02 0.04 0.18 0.06 0.12 0.001
MgO 1.54 0.84 3.21 4.11 5.51 0.82 0.16 0.29 0.11 0.43 2.84 0.77 2.80 0.01
CaO 4.20 2.71 9.36 9.89 9.07 4.30 0.37 0.53 0.52 1.46 6.50 2.16 5.52 0.01
Na2O 4.58 4.83 2.93 2.70 3.26 2.50 3.65 3.47 0.89 3.90 4.09 3.40 4.16 0.01
K2O 1.92 2.63 0.95 0.20 0.41 2.52 5.26 5.67 7.73 4.49 1.93 5.16 2.93 0.01
P2O5 0.25 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.18 0.11 bdl bdl bdl 0.02 0.2 0.08 0.15 0.01
Loss on 2.22 1.84 2.07 2.96 1.28 8.55 2.19 1.92 2.42 0.94 1.10 0.84 1.78
ignition
Total 99.86 99.91 100.30 100.40 100.70 99.47 99.59 100.30 100.40 99.84 98.64 100.70 100.20 0.01
Trace elements (ppm)
Sc 14 14 22 26 28 11 6 6 5 5 21 8 19 1
Be 1 2 bdl bdl bdl 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
V 67 20 176 219 225 26 5 bdl 18 33 177 53 139 5
Cr bdl 20 bdl 30 90 bdl 50 90 60 50 50 50 70 20
Co 6 4 21 24 29 4 16 10 15 4 15 7 17 1
Ni bdl bdl bdl 20 60 bdl 20 50 30 20 30 30 30 20
Cu 30 30 110 120 100 30 20 30 20 20 80 20 60 10
Zn 80 70 70 70 70 50 50 50 40 50 70 30 70 30
Ga 19 19 19 19 18 17 21 19 9 15 20 18 21 1
Ge 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 1
As 7 6 5 bdl 5 bdl 14 7 23 bdl bdl bdl bdl 5
Rb 35 61 17 bdl 22 90 164 190 229 138 32 319 101 2
Sr 338 227 482 482 514 381 34 43 56 121 455 169 388 2
Y 22 31 16 16 16 32 45 41 32 15 18 32 27 1
Zr 137 199 64 64 69 235 318 294 136 117 108 279 246 2
Nb 3 5 1 1 2 5 4 3 3 bdl bdl 3 4 1
Mo bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 2 bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 2
Ag bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 1.1 1.1 0.7 bdl 0.7 0.7 1 0.5
(continued)
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Table 2. (Continued)

Detection
Sample: CR020 CR024 CR031 CR034 CR038 CR039 CR046 CR044 CR047 CB1 CB3 CB5 CB6 limit
Sn 1 2 bdl bdl bdl 2 3 3 1 bdl bdl bdl 1 1
Sb bdl bdl 0.9 bdl bdl 0.5 4.1 3.4 2.9 2.2 2.2 3.5 1.8 0.5
Cs 0.6 0.8 bdl bdl 41.1 110 3 2.7 3.3 1.6 0.9 12.9 4.1 0.5
Ba 516 604 250 142 311 608 707 762 167 600 506 453 447 2
La 15.8 20.5 7.8 7.5 9.7 21.3 31.8 30.8 30 14.5 13.7 21.8 20.4 0.1
Ce 34.6 45.3 18.7 17.9 22.1 46.8 63.3 70 63.7 27.4 30.6 51.9 46.2 0.1
Pr 4.46 5.82 2.6 2.52 2.95 5.84 7.99 8.37 7.74 3.19 4.11 6.65 5.79 0.05

M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.
Nd 18.9 24.4 11.6 11.9 13.2 24.0 31.4 32.8 29.7 12.6 17.3 27.4 24.7 0.1
Sm 4.4 5.7 3.2 3.0 3.4 5.6 7.3 6.9 6.5 2.7 3.8 6.6 5.5 0.1
Eu 1.34 1.37 1.04 1.04 1.08 1.17 0.54 0.53 0.25 0.58 1.46 0.84 1.14 0.05
Gd 4 5.5 3.3 3.2 3.2 5.5 6.5 6.5 5.5 2.3 3.9 5.3 5 0.1
Tb 0.6 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.9 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.4 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.1
Dy 4.2 6 3.3 3.2 3.2 5.6 6.8 7.1 5.6 2.4 3.4 5.1 4.8 0.1
Ho 0.8 1.2 0.7 0.7 0.6 1.1 1.4 1.5 1.1 0.5 0.7 1.1 1 0.1
Er 2.5 3.6 2 1.9 1.8 3.5 4.5 4.5 3.5 1.5 2 3.2 2.7 0.1
Tm 0.38 0.54 0.28 0.28 0.26 0.53 0.73 0.7 0.57 0.26 0.29 0.48 0.41 0.05
Yb 2.6 3.7 1.9 1.7 1.8 3.6 5 4.9 3.9 1.9 2.1 3.4 3.2 0.1
Lu 0.43 0.59 0.29 0.29 0.27 0.57 0.8 0.85 0.62 0.32 0.36 0.55 0.49 0.01
Hf 3.5 5.3 1.9 1.8 1.8 6.4 9.3 8.1 5.1 3.3 3.3 9.1 6.5 0.2
Ta 0.2 0.3 0.1 bdl 0.1 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 bdl 0.5 0.3 0.1
W bdl bdl bdl bdl bdl 2 67 68 99 6 6 6 5 1
Tl 0.2 0.2 bdl bdl bdl 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.7 bdl bdl 0.2 bdl 0.1
Pb 10 15 5 6 5 15 16 18 21 10 6 10 8 5
Th 3.4 6.4 1.4 0.9 1.6 7.2 14.8 15.1 14.9 12.2 3.9 40.2 10 0.1
U 1 1.9 0.4 0.3 0.4 2.1 4.2 4.3 3.5 2.7 1.1 8.8 1.9 0.1

bdl, below detection limit; ECLR, Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones; UCPI: Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene intrusive rocks.
§
Chemical classification according to silica contents on an anhydrous basis.
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Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S

Table 3. Results of whole-rock Sr–Nd isotopic analyses

Sample CR020 CR024 CR031

Rock type Intrusive Intrusive Lava
Classification Pyroxene dacite Pyroxene dacite Pyroxene–olivine andesite
Locality Cordón de los Ratones Cerro Negro Hill Cordón de los Ratones
Estimated age (Ma) 42.0 42.0 42.0
SiO2 (wt.%)* 64.4 67.4 53.8
Rb† 38.0 63.0 11.4
Sr† 369.1 232.7 400.0
Sm† 4.6 5.8 2.5
Nd† 20.5 25.3 9.8
87
Rb/86Sr 0.268265 0.715360 0.080371
87
Sr/86Sr 0.7040 0.7043 0.7039
2σ 0.000004 0.000005 0.000004
87
Sr/86Sr(i) 0.7038 0.7038 0.7038
147
Sm/144Nd 0.136438 0.139490 0.156874
143
Nd/144Nd 0.512868 0.512863 0.512863
2σ 0.000005 0.000004 0.000006
143
Nd/144Nd(i) 0.512831 0.512825 0.512820
ƐNd 4.5 4.4 4.4
ƐNd(i) 4.8 4.7 4.6
−12 147 −11 87 143 144
Isotopic ratio calculations made with decay constants of 6.54 × 10 for Sm and 1.42 × 10 for Rb. For ƐNd(i) values the chondritic ratios of Nd/ Nd = 0.512638 and
147 144
Sm/ Nd = 0.1968 (Jacobsen & Wasserburg 1980) were used, together with the corresponding estimated formation ages.
*Values on anhydrous basis.
†Trace element contents measured in the same powder sample analysed for isotopic ratios.

complementary and interplaying regions: the arc and the rear-arc
domains. Constructional processes of the modern orogen are
classically considered to have started in the early Late Cretaceous,
a time marked by the onset of a compressional regime and
characterized by the passage of the rear-arc domain from a back-arc
Fig. 8. General compositional features of igneous rocks from the Estratos
del Cordón de los Ratones unit (Sellés 2000; this work). (a) total alkalis–
silica diagram and (b) AFM diagram, with magmatic series subdivisions
after Irvine & Baragar (1971).
to a foreland basin (e.g. Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Charrier et al.
2007, 2015), the so-called Neuquén basin. The records of this
domain can currently be recognized in outcrops exposed mostly
from the Eastern Principal Cordillera in Chile into the current
foreland in Argentina (Fig. 1). In turn, the records of the coeval arc
activity are exposed in outcrops in Chile from the Western Principal
Cordillera to the west (Fig. 1). Considered within this temporal and
spatial frame, our results complement the evolving arc magmatic
record for the Andes margin and provide valuable information for
regional palaeogeographical reconstructions and their tectonic
controls.
Figure 12 presents the La/Yb, Sm/Yb and La/Sm ratios displayed
by Andean arc igneous units covering a time span from the early
Late Cretaceous up to mid-Miocene times. The two former
parameters have been chosen for their use as proxies for crustal
thickness (e.g. Haschke et al. 2002; Nyström et al. 2003; Kay et al.
2005; Mamani et al. 2008; Hickey-Vargas et al. 2016a) and the
latter for aiding in the evaluation of differentiation in fractionating
particularly the La/Yb ratios. From older to younger, the plotted
units correspond to the upper section of the Las Chilcas Formation
(Albian–early Campanian; Sellés 2000), the Lo Valle Formation
(late Campanian–early Danian; Sellés 2000), the latest Cretaceous
to Paleocene intrusive units (c. 70 and c. 56 Ma; this work), the
ECLR unit (Sellés 2000; this work), the Abanico Formation
(Oligocene–early Miocene; Nyström et al. 2003) and the Farellones
Formation (early to mid-Miocene; Nyström et al. 2003). The plotted
data have all been collected from the study area and nearby regions
(c. 33–34° S), except for the latest Cretaceous to Paleocene intrusive
units, the known outcrops of which only occur in the region further
north. To complete the arc record, samples from those units were
collected at c. 32° 30′ S (Fig. 1) and we determined the whole-rock
geochemistry (Table 2) and U–Pb zircon ages (Table 1;
Supplementary Material Items 3, 4). Remarkable inferences can
be drawn for the area when considering the pattern displayed by the
evolving magmatic arc units throughout the considered time span
(Fig. 12). A first-order observation is that, as shown by the La/Yb
ratios and, to a lesser extent, the Sm/Yb ratios, several variations are
recorded in the crustal thickness framing the evolution of the arc
magmas (Fig. 12). The initial period, during the early Late
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.

Fig. 9. Selected major and trace element Harker diagrams for igneous rocks from the Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones unit (Sellés 2000; this work).
Fields defined by the current Andean Southern Volcanic Zone magmas (SVZ) are included as reference. The latter have been grouped in the northern
(NSVZ), transitional (TSVZ) and southern (SSVZ) segments, as indicated in Figure 1. The data were taken from Hickey et al. (1986), Futa & Stern (1988),
Hildreth & Moorbath (1988), Stern (1988), Sruoga et al. (2005), Holm et al. (2014) and Hickey-Vargas et al. (2016a, b).

Cretaceous, is characterized by a high crustal thickness relative to
the following period extending from the latest Cretaceous to
Eocene. It is also remarkable that the latter period shows no
significant variation in these conditions. The arc magmas record
even further crustal attenuation in the Oligocene to earliest Miocene,
the most pronounced throughout the whole considered time span.
The record shows continuous crustal thickening from the early
Miocene onwards (Fig. 12).
These observations fit well with the known geological evolution
of the margin at this latitude and provide new complementary
constraints (Fig. 13). The high La/Yb values observed for the Late
Cretaceous (Fig. 12) record the orogenic processes framing the
deposition of the Albian–early Campanian Las Chilcas Formation.
Such processes represent the initial stage of Andean evolution in the
study region, which is characterized by the construction of an arc
orogenic system along the current western border of the Coastal
Cordillera (Figs 1 and 2; Mpodozis & Ramos 1989; Charrier et al.
2007; Boyce et al. 2014; Boyce 2015). In this setting, the Las Chilcas
Formation has been interpreted as the the foreland basin most
proximal deposits as indicated by its location and the important
volcanic component it includes (Charrier et al. 2007; Boyce et al.
2014; Boyce 2015). Coevally, and to the east, the deposition along the
distal portions of the foreland domain was also governed by
continental sedimentary and subordinate volcanic sequences, as
represented by several units of this age in both Chile and Argentina
(e.g. the equivalents of the BRCU series, the Diamante Formation and
the Cristo Redentor Formation; Balgord & Carrapa 2014; Tapia 2015;
Balgord 2016; Horton & Fuentes 2016; Mackaman-Lofland et al.
2019). The identification of such Upper Cretaceous syn-orogenic
deposits has allowed to delimitate the boundaries of the coeval
foreland basin from the eastern slope of the present day Coastal
Cordillera to the western side of the Frontal Cordillera (Figs 1 and 13;
Boyce et al. 2014; Boyce 2015; Mackaman-Lofland et al. 2019).
The evolution during the Campanian–Maastrichtian is character-
ized by two major features: (1) an eastwards migration of the arc into
the previous foreland region (e.g. Charrier et al. 2007; Boyce et al.
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Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S
Fig. 10. (a) Multi-element diagrams and selected rare earth element ratios
for igneous rocks from the Estratos del Cordón de los Ratones unit (Sellés
2000; this work). (a) Rare earth element concentrations normalized to
chondrite (Sun & McDonough 1989) and the spider multi-element plot
normalized to normal mid-ocean ridge basalt (N-MORB) (Pearce 1983).
(b) Fields defined by the current Andean Southern Volcanic Zone
magmas are included as reference (abbreviations as in Fig. 9).
2014; Boyce 2015) and (2) a foreland region with diminished
tectonic subsidence and reduced shortening (Fig. 13; Horton &
Fuentes 2016; Mackaman-Lofland et al. 2019). The former is
evidenced in the volcanic deposits of the upper Campanian–lower
Danian Lo Valle Formation, which unconformably overlies the Las
Chilcas Formation and also extends further to the east along the
Central Depression in Chile (Figs 1 and 13; Drake et al. 1976;
Rivano et al. 1993; Gana & Wall 1997; Boyce et al. 2014; Boyce
2015). In turn, the latter is evidenced in the deposition of <300 m of
Maastrichtian marine and continental deposits of the Saldeño
Formation, which crop out near the international Argentina–Chile
border (e.g. Tunik 2003). In terms of the magmatic record of the arc,
the passage from the Las Chilcas Formation to the Lo Valle
Formation shows a decrease in crustal thickness (Fig. 12). The latter
should result, at least in part, from the deposition of this unit into the
previous foreland region at the end of the main compressive
Fig. 11. Sr–Nd isotopic composition of igneous rocks from the Estratos
del Cordón de los Ratones unit. The field defined by the mantle array
(Wilson 1989) is shown as reference and the fields for different igneous
units from the Chilean margin are shown for comparison. The latter
correspond to (1) the Abanico and Farellones formations from Nyström
et al. (2003), (2) ɛNd(i) data from Fuentes (2004) and (3) the Andean
Southern Volcanic Zone (abbreviations as in Fig. 9).
orogenic pulse, or after this pulse had ceased (Fig. 13). This process
could have also occurred along with extensional deformation, but
this cannot be resolved solely by the current arc data or the scarce
information available on the Lo Valle Formation. Extensional
conditions for the arc area during the latest Cretaceous–Danian have
been reported for numerous localities along the margin, at least
between c. 20 and 35° S (e.g. Marinovic et al. 1996; Marinovic &
García 1999; Cornejo & Matthews 2001; Cornejo et al. 2003, 2009;
Espinoza et al. 2009; Matthews et al. 2010; Blanco et al. 2012;
Bergoeing 2016; Jones et al. 2016; Iannelli et al. 2018; Muñoz et al.
2018), including for the Lo Valle Formation (e.g. Charrier et al.
2007). A model of extensional deformation in the hinterland of the
earliest Late Cretaceous Andean orogen has been proposed for
the area at 35° S (Muñoz et al. 2018). It must be noted that the
extensional conditions were not widespread across the margin and
seem to have been restricted to the arc region (e.g. Horton & Fuentes
2016; Muñoz et al. 2018; Fig. 13).
The magmatic arc record for the latest Cretaceous to Eocene
shows neither a significant variation in its location (Fig. 1) nor
variations in the La/Yb ratios until the mid-Eocene – that is,
including the episode of ECLR magmatism (Fig. 12). This
observation is, however, hampered between the Paleocene to early
Eocene by the 23 myr hiatus, which we have only partly filled with
data from intrusive rocks from c. 32° 30′ S (Fig. 13). The latter has
long been recognized in Central Chile, between c. 33 and 36° S, in
the nature of the contact between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic series,
along with the absence of exposed intrusive units of these ages
(Thiele 1980; Gana & Wall 1997; Godoy et al. 2009; Muñoz et al.
2018; Contreras & Schilling in press). Nevertheless, the evidence of
quiescence in the arc record is consistent with the neutral tectonic
regime proposed in recent studies, which have shown a period of
slow accumulation for the foreland domain broadly bracketed
between c. 60 and 40 Ma (Balgord 2016; Horton & Fuentes 2016).
Similar conditions have also been reported for the regions further
north until at least 29° S (Bergoeing 2016; Jones et al. 2016).
The geological record from the Oligocene to Miocene has been
more intensively studied in central Chile (33-34° S), both in the arc
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.

Fig. 12. Selected rare earth element ratios shown by igneous rocks comprising the evolving arc magmatic record between early Late Cretaceous and mid-
Miocene in the Central Chile Andes margin. (a–c) The La/Sm, Sm/Yb and La/Yb ratios, respectively, in Harker diagrams. (d) La/Yb ratio displayed in a
box and whisker plot (only for units with SiO2 contents between 52 and 77%). The numbers indicate the total data plotted and the black dot indicates the
average. The lower inset shows the age span of the different units plotted. Data for Andean Southern Volcanic Zone magmas are included for comparison
(abbreviations as in Fig. 9).
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Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S

Fig. 13. Palaeogeographical reconstruction of the evolution of the Andean margin between the earliest Late Cretaceous and mid-Miocene.

and foreland domains, and the overall evolution throughout this
period has been well characterized. This encompasses an
Oligocene–early Miocene extensional regime, represented by the
development of the intra-arc Abanico basin system, followed by a
compressional regime responsible for basin inversion (Fig. 13; e.g.
Jordan et al. 2001; Charrier et al. 2002; Nyström et al. 2003; Kay
et al. 2005). Coevally, the foreland region records an apparent
depositional hiatus between 40 and 20 Ma and then a renewed
Neogene flexural subsidence (Fig. 13; Balgord 2016; Horton &
Fuentes 2016). As shown in previous studies (Nyström et al. 2003;
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M. Muñoz-Gómez et al.
Kay et al. 2005), these episodes are well represented in the arc
magmatic record as the progressive increase in crustal thickness
indicated by La/Yb and Sm/Yb ratios and also in the significantly
low values for these parameters displayed by the Oligocene–early
Miocene units (Fig. 12). The evolution of these parameters from the
Late Cretaceous onwards shows other remarkable characteristics,
which are also supported by the available Sr–Nd data (mid-Eocene
onwards; Fig. 11). First, the Oligocene–early Miocene rocks of the
Abanico Formation record the most pronounced crustal attenuation
of the time span considered and are also preceded by a long-term
neutral tectonic regime apparently devoid of changes in crustal
thickness (Fig. 12). These observations suggest that the associated
extensional event must have started no earlier than the mid-Eocene,
with the deposition of the ECLR unit, and no later than earliest
Oligocene given the youngest age of the considered section of the
Abanico Formation (c. 31 Ma; Nyström et al. 2003). Another
characteristic that must be highlighted is that the crustal thickness
conditions that framed the evolution of the latest Cretaceous–
Eocene arc magmas are similar to those recorded by the earliest
Miocene units (c. 22–18 Ma, the lower and middle Farellones
Formation; Nyström et al. 2003). In addition, the highest crustal
thickness is recorded in the youngest units (18–16 Ma; the upper
Farellones Formation; Nyström et al. 2003), which highlights the
magnitude of orogenic processes developed during the early
Miocene with respect to those developed during the early Late
Cretaceous, at least in the arc region.
Overall, the evolution can be tracked northwards from the studied
latitude to 29° S. This is evidenced in studies based on Late
Cretaceous to early Miocene magmatic units at c. 31.5° S
(Bergoeing 2016) and between 29 and 31° S (Jones et al. 2016).
For the Paleocene to Early Miocene period in particular, these
results restrict the development, at least in the arc area, of the so-
called Incaic orogeny, a contractional deformation episode of this
age well documented north of c. 29° S (see Charrier et al. 2007,
2015 for reviews). It has been shown for the area at c. 31° S in
particular that the arc igneous units of the Late Cretaceous,
Paleocene and early Eocene share similar characteristics, suggesting
that the compressive Incaic phase did not generate significant
changes in crustal thickness in the region (Bergoeing 2016).
With respect to the Eocene in Central Chile, the new data for the
ECLR do not clearly resolve whether such a unit was deposited in an
extensional or neutral tectonic regime. However, several considera-
tions that shed light on this issue must be noted. The marked
bimodal character of the ECLR magmatism is a characteristic that
commonly, but not exclusively, has been associated with extensive
conditions worldwide. For the Andean margin in particular, this
association has also frequently been recognized during Permo-
Triassic (e.g. Maksaev et al. 2014 and references cited therein) and
Early Cretaceous times (Charrier et al. 2007 and references cited
therein). In addition, this association has also been reported further
south, at 35° S, for latest Cretaceous units than can be correlated
chronologically to the Lo Valle Formation (Muñoz et al. 2018).
Considered together with the full evolution tracked for the studied
region (Figs 12 & 13), these observations indicate that the observed
bimodal magmatism could be signalling the initial stages of
extensive conditions. In this scenario, the Lo Valle Formation and
the following evolution would represent the case in which such
conditions developed no further. By contrast, the ECLR would
represent the initial stages of the widespread development of
extensive conditions seen in the margin during Oligocene times
(Figs 12 & 13).
Summary and conclusions
The ECLR unit corresponds to a predominantly volcanic series,
intruded by numerous subvolcanic bodies, cropping out in the
western foothills of the Andean range in Central Chile at c. 33.6°
S. Our radiometric determinations indicate an age of c. 42 Ma for
the upper portions of the sequence, thus assigning a minimum mid-
Eocene (Lutetian) age for its deposition. This age, along with the
field, petrographic and chemical characteristics, indicates that the
ECLR unit represents the mid-Eocene arc series in the region. The
geochemical and isotopic characteristics indicate that the associated
arc magmatism records: (1) the involvement of low-pressure
mineral assemblages, both in the source and during fractionation;
(2) a relatively juvenile character; and (3) no significant
involvement of evolved crustal material in the genesis of the
magmas, either in the source or later through crustal contamination.
This along with the similarity of the La/Yb ratios with those
displayed by the current Andean Southern Volcanic Zone suggests a
normal to thin crust of 35–45 km framing the formation and
evolution of the corresponding arc magmas.
The geochemical data presented in this work, both for the middle
Eocene ECLR unit and other latest Cretaceous–Paleocene igneous
units, complement the evolving Andean arc record in the region.
Considering a time span from the early Late Cretaceous to mid-
Miocene, remarkable characteristics arise from the temporal pattern
displayed by the arc igneous units in terms of the REE ratios and
isotopic composition. These show variations in the crustal thickness
framing the evolution of coeval magmas and such information,
along with that available from studies in the complementary back-
arc domain, further constrain regional palaeogeographical recon-
structions and their tectonic controls. The orogenic event developed
in the earliest Late Cretaceous is followed in this region by a period
of apparent neutral tectonic conditions from the latest Cretaceous
until mid-Eocene times at least (Fig. 13). The following evolution is
marked by the extensional episode of the Oligocene–early Miocene
Abanico basin system until the onset of the compressive conditions
responsible for basin inversion, which dominate at least until the
mid-Miocene (Fig. 13). Among other inferences, it has to be noted
that the evolving arc magmatic record also indicates that the
Abanico basin extensional event started in the region no earlier than
the mid-Eocene, with the deposition of the ECLR unit, and no later
than earliest Oligocene. These results also highlight the magnitude
of orogenic processes developed during the early Miocene relative
to those in the early Late Cretaceous, at least in the arc region at this
latitude.
Acknowledgements This is contribution R-304 of the Instituto de
Estudios Andinos Don Pablo Groeber. The thorough comments of two
anonymous reviewers are gratefully acknowledged
Funding This work was supported by CONICYT (Comisión Nacional de
Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, Chile) through the projects Fondecyt
11140012 and 1161806, and PAI79160139. Additional support from the
Universidad Andrés Bello is gratefully acknowledged.
Author contributions MM: conceptualization (lead), data curation
(lead), formal analysis (supporting), funding acquisition (lead), investigation
(equal), methodology (lead), project administration (lead), resources (lead),
supervision (lead), writing – original draft (equal), writing – review and editing
(equal); CF: data curation (equal), formal analysis (equal), investigation
(supporting), writing – original draft (equal), writing – review and editing
(supporting); FF: conceptualization (supporting), data curation (equal), formal
analysis (supporting), funding acquisition (supporting), investigation (support-
ing), resources (supporting), supervision (equal), writing – original draft
(supporting), writing – review and editing (supporting); FT: conceptualization
(supporting), formal analysis (supporting), investigation (supporting), visualiza-
tion (supporting), writing – original draft (supporting), writing – review and
editing (supporting); MB: data curation (supporting), investigation (supporting),
methodology (equal), resources (supporting), writing – review and editing
(supporting); MF: conceptualization (equal), formal analysis (supporting),
funding acquisition (equal), investigation (supporting), resources (equal),
writing – review and editing (supporting); CMF: data curation (supporting),
formal analysis (supporting), methodology (equal), writing – review and editing
(supporting); AF: data curation (supporting), formal analysis (supporting),
 Downloaded from http://jgs.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on January 2, 2020
Eocene arc petrogenesis and Andean evolution, 33° S
writing – review and editing (supporting); RC: formal analysis (supporting),
investigation (supporting), writing – review and editing (supporting); DS:
data curation (supporting), investigation (supporting), writing – review and
editing (supporting); DB: data curation (supporting), investigation (supporting),
writing – review and editing (supporting).
Scientific editing by Linda Kirstein
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