SL:

Topic 1, 3, 5 and 6

HL:
Topic 1, 3, 5, 6, 7 and 10

SL:
Topic 1, 3, 5 and 6
The paper has 4 MC, Section A Q1 and Q2, Section B Q5
All together= 34 marks
MC = 4 Marks
Section A and B = 30 marks
Topic 1: Human factors and ergonomics

1.1a Anthropometrics

Designers consider three human factors to ensure products meet ergonomic needs.

- Design is human centred —— therefore designers need to ensure the products are in
the right size and comfortable
- Designers need to consider how users will interact with the product or service
- An important consideration: use and misuse
- Anthropometric data sets can vary significantly between populations.

Ergonomic data and measurements

Anthropometric data
- Measurements of the human body (height, weight, arm length, etc.)
- Can come in various forms, population groups, quality and sample size
- Should choose a best suited dataset

Primary data
- Data about the specific target audience that is gathered first hand by designer
- Can also be considered survey data
- Tends to consist of a relatively small numbers of samples

Secondary data
- Comes from datasets produced by government agencies/research groups
- Have a relatively large sample size

Two types of measurements for anthropometric data:

1. Static measurements - Measurements of length between points on a body
2. Dynamic measurements - Measurements of reach, movement, or strength.
- Use to determine how a person moves in a space/how much force is
required to complete an action

Reach
- Normal reach
- A distance a user could comfortably extend their arm
- a distance where objects or controls are comfortable and easy to reach with
minimal physical stress, and where they can be accessed easily and
repeatedly
- Maximal reach
- The maximum distance a user can extend their arm
- accessible, but would require some effort and not be ideal for repetitive or
frequent actions
Percentiles and percentile ranges
- Designers need to determine which percentiles their product will serve
 to determine the specifications, such as physical size, or how much force
required to operate

- Need to collect primary and secondary data

to determine which range of users they need to design for

- Percentile
a. used in statistics to show the value below which a certain percentage of a
group falls.

- The design context is important

Factors that influence the anthropometric measurements

- Age, gender, ethnicity
- Carefully consider the source of datasets and whether they are applicable to the
design context

Using anthropometric measurements

1. Decide who you are designing for
- Identify the user population (adults, women, etc.)
2. Decide which measurements are relevant
- Identify the static and dynamic measurements that will be necessary for you
to consider your design (height, reach, etc.)
3. Decide what percentile you need to design for
- Select the relevant data to guide your design specifications (average users or
extremes?)
1.1b Psychological Factors

Designers consider three human factors to ensure products meet ergonomic needs.

Scales of measurement
The collecting of psychological data involves the study of human behaviour and responses.

Nominal Scale
- Used for labelling a variable
- E.g. checkboxes for characteristics
- The items in the list have no real numerical value or relationship to one another.

Ordinal Scale
- List items in order of importance or significance
- Usually measure a feeling or perception along a continuum (unhappy to happy;
unsatisfied to satisfied)
- No numerical difference between on value and the text

Interval Scale
- Represent the order of values as well as showing the difference
- E.g. a Celsius thermometer
- Do not have an absolute zero (the zero of Celsius thermometer is set to the freezing
point of water)

Ratio Scale
- The most comprehensive scale
- In some way the perfect combination of other scales
- They show the exact difference between units and the order of units, and have
absolute zero
- Provide the most comprehensive form of quantitative data for analysis and research

Why do designers need to know about the different scales?

To help evaluate the effectiveness of your data gathering methodology

- What kind of data are you gathering? Quantitative or Qualitative?

- What type of scale are you using to gather this data? Ratio, ordinal, interval, or
nominal
- What tools are you using to gather the data? Surveys, measuring tools like rules or
scales, observation, stop watches, interviews?

Your survey should gather meaningful data.

Types of survey questions to gather meaningful primary research

- Closed questions
- Open questions
- Multiple choice questions
- Likert scale questions
1.1c Physiological Factors
Planning Ergonomic Research
Topic 3: Modelling
- Conceptual Modelling
- Graphical Modelling
- Physical Modelling
- Computer-aided Design(CAD)

Conceptual Modelling
- Descriptions or representation of an idea or system
- What a proposed design may look like or do
- Purpose is to outline the principles, processes and basic functions of a design or
system
- Explore possibilities and options
- Graphical Models, Physical Models, CAD can all be conceptual models
- Advantage & disadvantages

Graphical Modelling (drawing, CAD)

- Communicate design ideas, 2D representations & communication
- Ways to quickly explore a number of possibilities, and communicate
- Sketching & formal drawing
- Sketch —— beginning, quick, direction of thinking
- When more refined, isometric and orthographic drawings (formal drawing) may be
used to create a higher fidelity model
- Can be 2D or 3D
- Characteristics & advantages & disadvantages of different graphical models

Physical Modelling
- 3D, tangible representation
- Ergonomics, internal & external, aesthetic
- Scale model, aesthetic model, mock-up
- Prototype
- Instrumented models
- Characteristics and advantages and disadvantages, and use

CAD
- A computer-aided design is the generation, creation, development and analysis of a
design or system using computer software.
- 2D, 3D, rendering software, and their use cases
- Surface and solid modelling
- Modelling strategies —— Bottom-up, Top-down, Hybrid
- Data models, Finite Element Analysis, Virtual prototyping
- Digital humans - digital stimulations of the biomechanics of human body, predict how
move and interact, confirm safety, comfort and efficiency
- Motion capture
- Haptic tech
- VR
 - Animation

Rapid prototyping
- Rapid prototyping is the production of a physical model of a design using
three-dimensional CAD data.
- 3D printing technologies
Topic 5 : Invention(发明) and Innovation(创新)

5.1 Invention
Essential idea:
The protection of a novel (新颖的) idea of how to solve a problem is a major factor in
commercial (商业的) design.
- A novel idea of how to solve a problem
- The protection of the idea is a major factor in commercial design

Nature and aims of design:

Nature:
- Invention by lone inventors or in collaboration creative teams is at the forefront (最前
沿) of design.
- Designers must not only be creative and innovative (创新性) but also understand the
concepts that will make a new product viable (可行的).
- A designer must use imagination and be firmly grounded in factual and procedural
(程序) knowledge while remembering the needs and limitations of the end user.
Aims:
- Inventions are often the result of an individual or group’s curiosity about whether
something can be done or a problem can be solved.
- On occasion, inventions are the result of an individual’s curiosity about something
other than the product that they finally develop. These inventions include microwave
ovens, ink-jet printers and Post-it® notes.
Guidance:
As a student of design you should understand that
- Drivers for invention include:
1. personal motivation to express creativity/for personal interest
2. scientific or technical curiosity
3. constructive discontent (建设性的不满)
4. desire to make money
5. desire to help others.
- The advantages and disadvantages of being a lone inventor
- Benefits of IP (Intellectual property) include:
1. differentiating a business from competitors
2. selling or licensing to provide revenue streams
3. offering customers something new and different
4. marketing/branding
5. its value as an asset.
- IP symbols and their application to products and services
Definitions:
Invention:
- the process of discovering a principle which allows a technical advance in a particular
field that results in a novel/new product.
Innovation:
- making an invention useful and successfully entering it into the marketplace.

Drivers for invention:

There are several drivers, or motivation, that spur invention.

- Express creativity or for personal interest

Inventors might have a creative or personal interest that motivates them to create a
new design.
- Constructive discontent
A dissatisfaction with the current state of things or status quo might motivate an
inventor to find a better solution.
- Scientific or technological curiosity
An invention may come about as a part of scientific or technical curiosity; Asking, "Is
this possible?"
- Desire to make money
Innovative designs and ideas are essential objectives for successful businesses.
Financially successful designs generate a financial return with can in turn be invested
in further research and development, creating new inventions and innovations.
- Desire to help others
Improving the world is an essential aspect of design. A desire to help others is also
fundamental to empathy and Design Thinking.

The lone inventor:

The lone inventor is an individual working outside or inside an organisation who is committed
to the invention of a novel product. They often become isolated because he or she is
engrossed with ideas that may be resisted by others.
Intellectual Property
Intellectual property (IP) is the legally recognised right to creations of the mind. Common
types of intellectual property include:
- Copyright
- Trademark
- Patents
- trade dress
- trade secrets

IP provides businesses with an important legal tool to protect and differentiate their products
and services from their competitors. Business benefit from IP by:

- differentiating themselves from competitors

- allowing the sale or licensing of technology which can generate revenue
- defining marketing and branding
- establishing a brand that has value as an asset

Strategies for protecting IP

Under IP law, several legal tools are available for companies to protect their IP rights.
- patents:
An agreement from a government office to give someone the right to make or sell a
new invention for a certain number of years. Owners of a patent can prevent others
from using, making, or selling a product that uses the idea - or they can charge a fee
to do so and earn revenue.

- trademark:

A trademark is a symbol, word, or words legally registered or established by use as

representing a company or product.
- design protection/trade dress:
A simple and cost-effective way to protect an innovative shape, appearance or
ornamentation

- copyright:

A legal right that grants the creator of an original work exclusive ownership for its use
and distribution. Usually for a limited time and within geographical boundaries,
copyright allows the creator to receive compensation for their intellectual effort.

- service mark:

A trademark used to identify a service rather than a product.

First to market:
“The first product that created a new market (such as the desktop computer), a product
category (such as the portable computer), or a substantial subdivision of a category (such as
the laptop or handheld computer).

Being first to market can have several benefits: Consumer impact by delivering a new and
innovative product to meet needs; Lack of competition means you are the sole supplier;
Name recognition as your product defines the product category.

Shelved technologies:
Occasionally a technology may be invented and developed, but not brought to market. It is
then shelved, kept as an asset, but not sold or licensed.

There are several reasons for this:

- Cost: current costs for manufacture may be too high, and thus the product is not
brought to market
- Technological: the concept may be well developed but key technical innovations are
still lacking.
- Social: Consumers may not be ready for the product as they perceive it
unnecessary, strange, aesthetically unappealing, or unsafe.
5.1 Invention
The drivers of Invention:
1. Drivers of invention
2. Personal motivation to invent
3. Assist people and make life better
4. Constructive discontent
5. To make money
6. Inquisitive scientific or technical thinking
7. Necessity

5.2 Innovation
Reasons why few inventions become successful innovations:
1. Marketability
2. Financial support
3. Marketing
4. Need for invention
5. Price
6. Resistance to change
7. Aversion to risk

Categories of Innovation :
Sustaining innovation: a newer or improved product that meets the needs of customers and sustains
manufacturing

Disruptive innovation: product or type of technology that I to ignore or embrace technical change

Process innovation: an improvement in how a product is manufactured and distributed, leading to

reduced costs or increased consumer benefits.

Innovations strategies for design

Architectural innovation: technology the components stay the same, but the configuration of
components changes to produce a new design.

Modular innovation: basic configuration stays the same, but one more key component is change

Configurational innovation: change is made in both technology and organization

Innovations strategies for the market:

Diffusion: a process where markets adopt a new idea or product, rate it accepts the new idea or
product can be increased by several factors

Suppression: active slowing or prevention of a new product entering the market. Done by incumbent
companies to protect their interests. Disagreements of patents on the new product may be causes too
5.3 Strategies for Innovation
Act of insight: An act of insight is an idea that suddenly comes to a person. 靈光乍現 / 靈感

Adaptation: how a solution in one field is used to provide a solution to a new problem in a different
field.

Technology transfer: how technology developed in one context is applied in different and new
contexts.

Analogy: idea from one context is used to stimulate ideas for solving a problem in another context

Chance: unexpected discoveries can lead to new ideas

Technology push: the driving force of the innovation, despite there not being an identified need for a
solution.

Market pull: Market pull refers to consumer demand for an innovation or solution.

5.4 Stakeholders in Invention and Innovation

Lone inventor: an individual working outside or inside an organization who is committed to the
invention of a novel product and often becomes isolated because he or she is engrossed with ideas that
imply change and are resisted by others.

They can struggle, though, for the following reasons:

- new ideas may be resisted by other employees or superiors.

- they may not fully understand the importance of the marketing and sales needs for their
product

- usually, work in isolation and thus may not have sufficient backing or support for their design.

- may lack the financial support necessary to develop or invest in manufacturing, distribution,
and marketing

Product champion: The product champion is an influential individual, usually working within an
organization, who develops enthusiasm for a particular idea or invention and “champions” it within
the organization.

The Entrepreneur: an influential individual who can take an invention to market, often by financing
the development, production and diffusion of a product into market
The multidisciplinary approach to innovation: In some cases, the inventor is also the product
champion and the entrepreneur.

Advantages

1. draw from multiple areas of expertise to address different aspects of the design

2. wide range of knowledge can be applied to the design

3. combination of different perspectives can create innovative solutions

Disadvantages

1. an individual may be reluctant to share ideas for fear of losing ownership

2. miscommunication can happen, especially with large teams working in different locations

3. individuals may not like working in a team

5.5 Product cycle life

LAUNCH, GROWTH, MATURITY, DECLI

1. Introduction / launch: slow sales and little profits

2. Growth: market gradually accept the products, diffusion happen adn sales expand
3. Maturity / stabilization: sales peak but remains steady, maximum profits is achieved
4. Decline: saturation is reached and sales start to reducs as well as profits

Obsolescence: planned, style (fashion), functional, technological: Obsolescence refers to a product

being no longer used. A product reaches this stage in several ways:
Planned Obsolescence: A product becomes outdated as a conscious act either to ensure a continuing
market or to ensure that safety factors and new technologies can be incorporated into later versions of
the product.

Planned obsolescence artificially limits the useful life of a product. Designers have a moral
responsibility to consider and reduce the environmental impact of their designs.

Technological obsolescence: When a new technology supersedes an existing technology, the existing
technology quickly falls out of use and is no longer incorporated into new products. Consumers
instead opt for the newer, more efficient technology in their products.

Functional obsolescence: Over time, products wear out and break down. If parts are no longer
available, the product can no longer work in the way it originally did. Also, if a service vital to its
functioning is no longer available, it can become obsolete.

Fashion obsolescence: Fashions and trends change over time, which can result in a product no longer
be desirable. However, as evidenced by the concept of retro styling and the cyclic nature of fashion,
products can become desirable again.

Predictability of the product life cycle: It is possible to predict the length of the product life cycle.
For example, most digital devices produced today have quite short product cycles. It's common for
most device manufacturers to introduce a new product every year. This is largely a result of
technological advances proceeding at a predictable rate.

Product versioning/generations: Company can maintain a pioneering strategy in consistent revenue

phones by introducing new versions for generations of a product to market.
 Topic 10
10.1 JIT and JIC

Advantages Disadvantage

Just in time 1. Highly flexible manufacturing is ideal 1. Greater risk of manufacturing

for short runs.
2. Low waste as there is no
over-production, little idle time, and
material uses is optimized
3. Lower costs as there is little to no
inventory to manage - raw materials are
used almost immediately and products
are shipped very soon after manufacture.
delays: production problems and
quality control issues in one area
can delay the whole system;
2. Delay between ordering and
delivery: Customer must wait
longer (compared to JIC) to
receive item
3. Manufacturers cannot benefit from
economies of scale to the same
degree because they purchase
smaller quantities of raw materials.

Just in case 1. Timely distribution of parts is always 1. Large inventory must be managed
available. 2. Higher capital costs for space to
2. Higher reliability as parts in inventory store inventory
are ready to be sent. 3. Higher wastage due to spoilage
3. Buffer items in stock in case there is a (products going bad or expiring
production delay, quality control issue, such as food or some chemicals)
or sudden increase in demand. 4. The risk of changing market
4. Ability to respond to market demand as demand could mean the
the manufacturer can always meet manufacturer is left with large
needs. quantities of unsaleable goods.
5. Lower capital cost as less dependency
on complex ICT systems (compared to
JIT)

10.2 Lean production

- Lean production aims to eliminate waste and maximize a product's value based on the
consumer's perspective.

Advantages of lean production Disadvantages of lean production

- Increased productivity because of focus
on continuous improvement and waste
reduction
- The increased quality of the product
because of focus on improvement and
decrease in defects
- Cost reduction because the
manufacturer is able to pass on cost
- High capital costs due to the need to
invest in JIT systems and IT systems.
- Difficult to introduce to the existing
workforce as some workers and
managers may resist the change in
manufacturing approach (change can be
scary!)
- Dependent on a highly integrated
 savings to the customer
- Increased profits through cost reduction
and increased customer satisfaction
- Improved working conditions for
employees
- Competitive advantage because of focus
on cost reduction and productivity
- Reduced environmental impact due to
reduction of waste of materials and
resources
system. If there is a breakdown in
communication, deliveries, or
production, the whole manufacturing
system can come to a halt.
- No inventory can make it difficult to
respond to sudden increases in demand
or create a buffer in case of a production
slowdown.

Characteristics of lean production:

JIT supplies/system:

- The correct amount of material and parts delivered at the right time to eliminate inventory

- Highly trained, multi-skilled workforce:

- Using experts in production engineering to ensure no time and materials are wasted

Zero inventory:

- Manufactured products are shipped immediately, avoiding the need for managing inventory.

Zero defects:
 - Avoid defects by ensuring no that substandard materials and production practices are used.

- Quality control and continuous improvement:

- An active approach to improvement; Quality control and checks happen at all stages of the
production

Principles of lean production

- Minimizing inventory to reduce inventory management costs

- Elimination of waste: Wasted time, wasted material, reduction of errors and defects, etc.

- Designing for rapid production changeover to allow for efficient retooling and changes in
production goals

- Pulling production from customer demand: a JIT system is used to drive production rather
than a JIC system

- Partnering with suppliers in order to operate a successful and efficient JIT system

- Doing it right the first time emphasizes quality and reduces waste

- Maximizing production flow in order to take advantage of economies of scale

- Empowering workers as they are the most valuable resource in the company

- Focus on Kaizen – A philosophy of continuous improvement by all involved (managers,

designers, workers, etc.)

- Meeting customer requirements and taking seriously every single customer complaint and
opinion of the product or service; the flexibility of the lean production system determines the
degree to which a company can meet each individual customer’s needs.
Value stream mapping is concerned with the big picture of the production process. The goal is to
identify areas for improvement and optimize the overall process. Value stream mapping is a lean
production management tool used to analyze current and future processes for the production of a
product through delivery to the consumer.

Workflow analysis is concerned with the details of the production line. It considers the sequence,
tools, and even worker movement to ensure the highest possible efficiency in the system