PRINCIPLES PRACTICE

COMMUNICATION
Face to Face Seminars – ALL ZOOM SESSIONS
 27 July 2021, Tues 7pm to 10pm
 17 August 2021, Tues 7pm to 10pm
 31 August 2021, Tues 7pm to 10pm
PCQs (10%)
 PCQ01: 27 Jul, 0000hrs to 26 Jan, 1900hrs
 PCQ02: 17 Aug, 0000hrs to 16 Feb, 1900hrs
 PCQ03: 24 Aug, 0000hrs to 2 Mar, 1900hrs

TMAs (40%)
 TMA01 (20%): 16 Aug, (Mon 11.55pm)
 TMA02 (20%): 30 Aug, (Mon, 11.55pm)

Exam (50%)
 Re-sit Revision Lecture: TO BE CONFIRMED
 Timed Online Assignment (TOA) (50%):
 Seminar 1 - Human Seminar 2 - Individual Seminar 3 - Group

• Elements of the • Listening

communication process
• Overview of each element
• Characteristics of
channels
• Denotation & Connotation
• Noise
• Managing conflicts (SU3)
• Models of Communication
• 6 characteristics of
communications
• Non-verbal
Communication • Group Communication
• 10 nonverbal cues
• 6 functions of nonverbal
communication
• Characteristics of
nonverbal communication
• Barriers to listening
• 6 stages of listening;
HURIER model
• Types of listening
• Becoming better listeners
• 3 types of conflicts
• 5 conflict management
styles
• Expressing disagreement
productively and ethically
(SU3)
• Creative and critical
thinking
• Groupthink symptoms
and preventions
• Perception and
communication (SU2)
• Presenting the self
• Factors influencing how
we present authentic self
• Principals of perception
• Steps in forming
perception; selection,
organization, interpretation
• 4 Attribution biases/errors
• Factors influencing
perception
• Model of self-awareness:
Johari’s Window
• Culture in small groups
• Leadership
•Leadership styles
•Sources of power
 SEMINAR 3 OUTLINE
1. Perception and Communication

 Presenting the self

 Factors influencing how we present authentic self
 Principals of perception
 Steps in forming perception; selection,
organization, interpretation
 4 Attribution biases/errors

 Factors influencing perception

 Model of self-awareness: Johari’s Window

2. Culture in Small Groups

3. Leadership
 Leadership styles
 Sources of power
 Self-Awareness – The consciousness of our existence and
the degree to which we understand ourselves
 Self-Concept – How you see yourself. The impressions that
you form about yourself. A relatively consistent image or a
set of perceptions that you have about yourself
 Generalized Other – You learn and you carry with you an
idea about who society thinks you should be. You share
expectations with others about the kind of person you
should be and how people will respond to you.
 Self-Fulfilling Prophecy – Tendency to live up to the
expectations created. When teachers expect students to
succeed, those expectations contribute to student’s self-
concepts eg. competency and intelligence
Identity – The
conception of
yourself as a
member of a
group or
category
Gender
Identity

Social
Identity

Cultural
Identity
 Allness – 1 single aspect of our identity to represent
or regard a person’s entire identity (without regard for
other qualities).
 Stereotypes – Specific kinds of labels that
characterize people based on the assumed traits of
others in their group.
 Identity Tags – Identifying people based on group
membership
1. Presenting Ourselves to Others
 Facework
 Confirmation
 Rejection
 Disconfirmation
2. Communicating the Self in Different Contexts
 Front context
 Back context
3. Communicating the Self to Achieve Goals
 Self-monitoring
 Role-taking – understand others
in your communication to better
understand the motives;
showing interests and actions to
others while adopting those
actions (eg. like an actor) to
understand others and
themselves
 Self-esteem – who we are and
how we communicate
 Presenting ourselves to others –
Facework, confirmation
rejection, disconfirmation
 https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=vN4U5F
qrOdQ

"Today, we're introducing three revolutionary products. The first one is a

widescreen iPod with touch controls. The second is a revolutionary mobile
phone. And the third is a breakthrough internet communications device. So,
three things: a widescreen iPod with touch controls; a revolutionary mobile
phone; and a breakthrough internet communications device. An iPod, a phone,
and an internet communicator. An iPod, a phone--are you getting it? These are
not three separate devices. This is one device, and we are calling it ... iPhone."
 Pg 111

American psychologists Joseph

Luft and Harry Ingham
 Pg 111

American psychologists Joseph

Luft and Harry Ingham
 Job, education Work prospect
background Education ability

Family, personal Ability to lead a

hobbies team, work
overseas

Pg 111

American psychologists Joseph

Luft and Harry Ingham
1. Adopting Roles
 Role taking is the ability to understand the motives,
interests and actions of other people and to adopt those
roles temporarily
 Humans attempt to understand motivations and adopt
the roles of others to explore their own sense of self
 Build your self-awareness by testing yourself in new
situations and surrounding yourself with others who are
able to provide insights to you
1. Adopting Roles
2. Interacting with Media
 Media facilitates social comparisons – understanding our self by
comparing it with others
 The media as windows into the motives of others, because media
such as movies, radios, advertisements, social media, novels, and
newspapers narrate stories to influence our attitudes and
experiences
 Media shows us varied portraits of others thus displaying varied
possible roles in society. Making it possible for audiences to
“experience” vicariously the multiple emotions of individuals in
different scenarios around the world
2. Interacting with Media
3. Taking charge of self-esteem
 Confidence in one’s own worth and abilities

 It is a critical part of who we are and how we

communicate

 Accept your limitations and set realistic goals, seek

mentors whom you trust to help evaluate those goals

 Create supportive communication contexts

1. Own Your Perceptions
 Realize that others might not share our perceptions or reality

2. Overcome Attributional Bias

 Avoid mind reading
 Be charitable in accounting for the actions of others

3. Use Perception Checks

 Describe the behavior you’ve observed
 Acknowledge that there is more than one way to interpret the
behavior
 Ask for clarification

4. Practice Perspective Taking

The process of assigning
meaning to sensory
information in your
surrounding
 3 BASIC STAGES OF FORMING PERCEPTIONS:
THE PERCEPTION PROCESS

(Dobkin and Pace, 2006)

Dobkin, B. A. & Pace, R. C. (2006). Communication in a changing world. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
 Selecting is the first part of the perception process, in which we focus our
attention on certain incoming sensory information/stimulus.

Interpretation is the third part of Organizing is the second part of the

the perception process, in which perception process, in which we sort
we assign meaning to selected and categorize information that have
and organized information been selected for attention
SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
1) NOVELTY
Standing out from others
Unique, unusual advertising
elements
SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
2) FAMILIARITY
Things that are recognizable or similar
to us, such as people, places, culture
that we know
SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
3) REPETITION
Repeated brand names,
message, advertisement
 SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
1) INTENSITY
Disturbing, shocking, emotional imagery and sounds

1984 Apple Commercial

SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
2) SIZE
 SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
3) FIGURE & GROUND

#followmeto - Focus on a single feature/ image

- contrast
SALIENCE VIVIDENESS
4) MOTION
Spinning, flying, moving
The 2nd part of the perception process, in which we sort and
categorize information that we perceive based on innate and
learned cognitive patterns. Three ways we sort things into
patterns are by using proximity, similarity, and difference.

Physical Role construct Interaction Constructs

constructs - - Script
Stereotypes
3rd part of the perception process, in which we assign
meaning to our experiences using mental structures known
as schemata.
OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION

1. Fundamental Attribution Error: occurs when we

overestimate the degree to which other people’s
behaviors are due to internal factors and
underestimate the significance of external forces
2. Self-serving Bias: tendency to attribute our
successes to stable, internal causes while attributing
our failures to unstable, external causes
3. Attractiveness Bias: think better of attractive
people than unattractive people and make positive
attributions about their behavior
4. Similarity Bias: attributions of our own motivations
to someone else that we think is similar to us. We
feel that our perspectives are shared.
OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION
1. Fundamental Attribution Error:

occurs when we overestimate the degree to which

other people’s behaviors are due to internal factors
and underestimate the significance of external forces
 OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION
 Our attributions are vulnerable to biases in interpretation that can hamper our
communication effectiveness, because they lock us into narrow ways of
undermining and responding to others. Attribution biases can take the form of
fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias, attractiveness bias and similarity
bias.
 Perhaps the most basic kind of perpetual bias is the fundamental attribution
error, which occurs when we overestimate the degree to which other people’s
behaviors are due to internal factors and underestimate the significance of
external factors. For example, a interviewee who arrives late to an interview may
have been involved in a traumatic event such as a traffic accident. However, some
hirers will automatically assume that the tardiness is due to rudeness or poor
planning by the candidate. In this case, the fundamental attribution error may lead
the hirer to criticize or ignore the candidate’s attempts to perform well in the
interview
 To judge the merits of an attribution, evaluating what external forces might have
motivated a person’s behavior. Good communicators recognize the tendency to
form internal attributions for people’s behaviors and they force themselves to
consider external causes that might also be influential.
OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION
2. Self-serving Bias:

Tendency to attribute our successes to stable, internal causes

while attributing our failures to unstable, external causes
 OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION

 Self-serving bias: the self-serving bias also addresses common tendencies

in the way we interpret external and internal causes of behavior. The self-
serving bias refers to the tendency to attribute external causes to our own
misfortunes, not to those of others. Self-serving bias is the idea behind the
phrase “ the devil made me do it”.
 Suppose that you just completed an important job interview. During the interview,
you gave a seemingly bizarre answer to a question, such as a 200-mile drive
would be a reasonable commute. You could explain your answer as a fluke caused
by too much caffeine or by the inattentiveness of the interviewer. Or you could
attribute the statement to your own inexperience with interviewing. The self-serving
bias suggests that you are more likely to attribute the statement to caffeine or the
demeanor of the interviewer. We are much better at finding internal reasons for our
own behavior when we want praise, whereas we often attribute our own behavior
to factors beyond our control when we have done something that might be
criticized.
 Self-serving bias, which relates primarily to how we explain our own
behavior, refers to the tendency to attribute our successes to stable,
internal causes while attributing our failures to unstable, external causes. It
suggests that our successes are deserved but our failures are not our fault.
Although the self-serving bias deals primarily with attributions we make for
our own behaviors, research shows that we often extend this tendency to
important people in our lives. In a happy relationship, for instance, people
tend to attribute their partner's positive behaviors to internal causes (“She
remembered my birthday because she is thoughtful”) and negative
behaviors to external causes (He forgot my birthday because he’s been very
preoccupied by his job”).
OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION

3. Attractiveness Bias:

Think better of attractive people than unattractive people

and make positive attributions about their behavior
 OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION
 A third common attributional bias is based on our positive
evaluation of people who are physically attractive. The
attractiveness bias suggests that we tend to think better of
attractive than unattractive people, and we tend to make
positive attributions about their behavior. Additionally, as long as
beautiful people don’t abuse the power of their looks, we will hold
them less accountable to bad behavior than their less attractive
counterparts. Interestingly, this bias doesn’t always work in favor of
attractive people; research on sexual harassment found that
attractive people are more likely to be perceived as flirtatious,
whether they intend to flirt or not.
OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION

4. Similarity Bias: attributions of our own motivations to

someone else that we think is similar to us. We feel that
our perspectives are shared.
 OVERCOMING BIASES IN ATTRIBUTION
 The fourth attributional bias is the tendency to think that the people
we like are similar to us. The similarity bias occurs when we
attribute our own motivations to someone else’s behaviors. After all,
part of liking someone is the feeling that your perspective is shared.

 For instance, suppose that Drew and Kane are co-workers who
frequently take lunch breaks together. Kane might like Drew and
assume that he would find the same joke to be funny. But Drew
might consider the joke to be offensive.

 Or perhaps you have become friends with another member of a

club to which you belong. You mention that you would like to get
something to eat after the club meeting, thinking that the new friend
would like to continue discussing an upcoming activity. The new
friend, however, assumes that you are asking for a date.
 Attribution theory prompts us to consider the ways that we account for
our own behaviors and those of others, and the recognize the
potential biases in doing so.
 Physical
Factors

Perceptio
n

Personality Culture
 Physical

PHYSICAL Perceptio
n

1. Physical Characteristics: Age, height Personality Culture

2. Biorhythmns: Mental states

3. Physiological: Sleep, stress, hunger
4. Physical Noise
 Physical

PERSONALITY Perceptio
n

Personality Culture
Inborn traits may determine one’s degree
of comfort about communication. Closely
related to needs and desire – affects what
is perceived in a given situation
 Physical

CULTURE Perceptio
n

Personality Culture
Culture – values, beliefs, etc.

Sub-culture

Social class – Hell Joseon

https://www.straitstimes.com/asia
/s-koreas-young-lament-inequality-
in-their-society
 Physical

MEDIA Perceptio
n

Personality Culture
1. Individualism–Collectivism
2. Power Distance
3. Uncertainty Avoidance
4. Masculinity–Femininity
5. Low-and High-Context
Individualism–Collectivism
 Individualistic Culture – Culture in which the needs and wishes of the
individual predominate over the needs of the group.
 Collectivist Culture – A culture in which the needs and wishes of the
group predominate over the needs of any one individual.

Power Distance
 The degree to which a culture emphasises status and power
differences among members of the culture; status differences are
minimised in low power-distance cultures and emphasised in high
power-distance cultures.

Uncertainty Avoidance
 Uncertainty avoidance refers to how well people in a particular culture
tolerate ambiguity and uncertainty.
Masculinity–Femininity
 Masculinity refers to cultures that value stereotypical masculine
behaviours such as assertiveness and dominance. Masculine cultures
include Japan, Austria and Mexico.
 Feminine cultures value interpersonal relationships, nurturing, service
to and caring for others, particularly the poor and unfortunate.
Feminine cultures include the Scandinavian countries, The
Netherlands, and Thailand. The United States is a moderately
masculine culture.

Low-and High-Context Communication

 Low-context communication: Communication wherein the primary
meaning of a message is carried by the verbal or explicit part of the
message.
 High-context communication: Communication wherein the primary
meaning of a message is conveyed by features of the situation or
context instead of the verbal, explicit part of the message.
LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

 “Human (symbolic) communication which

modifies the attitudes and behaviors of others to
meet shared group goals and needs.”
 Leadership implies influence.
 Influence: the use of interpersonal power to
modify others’ actions–an activity of
communication.
SOURCES OF POWER AND
INFLUENCE OF THE LEADER

5.Referent
6. Information
1. Legitimate Power (influence based on member’s title or position in group) –
elected or appointed; has title

2. Reward/Punishment Power (to give or take away what they want/need or

items of value) – tangible (eg. money, bonus, promotions, off-days) or
intangible (eg. praise, acceptance) valuables

3. Coercion Power (extreme punishment: using threats of force to make

member comply) – use of direct or indirect force

4. Expert Power (stems of someone's perceived/possessed

information/knowledge/skill that is valued by group)

5. Referent Power due to a person’s ability to be liked/admired) – have charisma

and are respected

6. Information Power (degree of control a person has over information/ having

the ability to access information and control distribution of information)

7. Ecological Power (person’s ability to manipulate/control logistics of tasks

(organization of work) as well as the physical environment of a group) – form
of indirect influence
*** STYLES OF LEADERSHIP ***
 Centralized decision-
making
 Top guy makes all the
decision, believes he is
the ONE with all
authority and that he
bears all responsibility
 Consultative / Discussion
 Room for negotiation
 Non-judgemental
 Every citizen/member has
the right to participate in
decision making.
 Hands-off approach
 Promotes
independent-
thinking, and
decision making
 Delegates
subordinates to
make the major
decision
 Little direction given
 Responsive
 Carrot & Stick
Approach
 Emphasis on individual
benefits
 Focused on
organization targets
 Proactive
 Ideals / Vision-based
approach
 Emphasis on group
benefits
 Focused on impact on
the greater
ecosystem
 Eloquent
 Communicative
 Convicted
 Charms
 Motivational
 Stagemanship
Managing the group’s written
communication (meeting notice,
personal notes, minutes etc.)

Leading group discussions: initiate,

structure, giving equal
opportunities for everyone to speak
up, stimulating creative and critical
thinking.