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LODJ Flood Understanding Leader
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LODJ
32,4 Understanding leader
development: learning from
leaders
358
Aoife McDermott
Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK, and
Received December 2009
Revised August 2010 Rachel Kidney and Patrick Flood
Accepted September 2010
DCU Business School, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to integrate senior managers’ personal experiences of
leadership development with theory to provide insights into leadership development for aspiring and
developing leaders.
Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative research design was adopted. Empirical data were
gathered from 11 semi-structured interviews with senior leaders in the Irish public, voluntary
(non-profit) and private sectors.
Findings – The analysis led to the identification of development-oriented themes in the leadership
literature, and the provision of insights regarding the developmental influences, core activities (vision
and mobilisation) and the contextual influences (sectoral and societal) which affect appropriate
leadership behaviour.
Research limitations/implications – Although the study is limited by its small sample it provides
a basis for further research and draws attention to personal leader development processes. In
particular the importance of formative experiences on leaders’ development, their struggle to attain
balance, the need for advanced emotional management skills, the capacity to work with collectives of
people and to adapt to contextual demands are emphasised. The study suggests that future research
investigate how contextual factors influence the adoption of certain leadership styles.
Practical implications – The study explores personal perspectives on fundamental leadership
development themes, of pragmatic value to established and aspiring leaders interested in enhancing
their capacity to lead.
Originality/value – This paper considers leader development from the viewpoint of front-line
actors. As such it adopts an intrapersonal focus, considering the development journeys of individual
leaders. The paper extends the traditional focus on the transactional and relational dimensions of
leadership behaviours to incorporate the formative experiences and contextual factors that influence
leadership.
Keywords Self development, Leaders, Leadership development
Paper type Research paper
Introduction
Leadership & Organization This article considers leader development as an ongoing process of personal
Development Journal development. As such it adopts an intrapersonal focus, considering the development of
Vol. 32 No. 4, 2011
pp. 358-378 individual leaders and their personal “human capital” (Day, 2001). McCauley and Van
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0143-7739
Velsor (2004) argue that leader development is one aspect of leadership development.
DOI 10.1108/01437731111134643 Leadership development has been defined as:
[. . .] the expansion of the organisation’s capacity to enact the basic leadership tasks needed Understanding
for collective work: setting direction, creating alignment, and maintaining commitment
(McCauley and Van Velsor, 2004, p. 22). leader
At the individual level, they view leader development as:
development
[. . .] the expansion of a person’s capacity to be effective in leadership roles and processes
(McCauley and Van Velsor, 2004, p. 2).
359
Our focus on individual leader development contrasts with the common focus on
leadership development, which is concerned with expanding the collective capacity of
organizational members to engage in leadership roles (Day, 2001; McCauley et al.,
1998).
From an organizational perspective, a growing body of evidence suggests that
leadership can affect organization performance, (Agle et al., 2006; Waldman et al.,
2004). This is reflected in the widespread investment in leadership development
(Martineau and Hannum, 2003). This investment is also echoed in the academic
literature, where leadership development has been considered from a training design
perspective (e.g. Ladyshewsky, 2007), a programmatic perspective (e.g. Boaden, 2006)
and a practice perspective (e.g. Leskiw and Singh, 2007). The common objective
underpinning such interventions is to establish processes that expand the
organizational cadre of individuals who can “assume leadership roles” and “engage
effectively in leadership processes”. (Houghton and DiLiello, 2009, p. 233).
From an individual perspective, the major focus of leadership research has been on
the human capital of individual leaders (Brass and Krackhardt, 1999 cited in Day,
2001). However, many studies consider leadership as either trait (e.g. Stogdill, 1974) or
behaviourally driven (e.g. Shamir and Howell, 1999). From a behavioural perspective,
the traditional focus has been on the transactional and relational dimensions of
leadership behaviours (Judge and Piccolo, 2004). Although it has been noted that
“critical developmental experiences such as crises, failures and achievements create
lessons that generate new perspectives or skills or a shift in character” (Wood and
Vilkinas, 2003, p. 187), with the exception of Avolio (2005), little explicit attention has
been given to the personal development processes that leaders go through. As a result,
the purpose this study was to consider the nature of individual leader development
processes, including the formative influences on and key learning experiences of, now
successful leaders.
Theoretical background
For Day (2001) the differences between leader and leadership development are marked.
In particular he notes that leader development focuses on human capital, an individual
model of leadership, an intrapersonal competence base and is underpinned by core
personal skills that include self-awareness, self-regulation, self-motivation and a shift
towards “relational dialogue”, rather than a traditional emphasis on “personal power”
(Brower et al., 2000). In contrast leadership development focuses on social capital, is
underpinned by a relational model, has an interpersonal competence base and is
underpinned by core social skills that include social awareness and conflict
management (Day, 2001). From the perspective of this study, the crucial differentiating
factor is the focus on the individual in leader development. However, common to both
approaches is the assumption that leaders can be developed. This assumption harks
LODJ back to the earliest debate in the leadership literature; whether leaders are born or
32,4 made. This is the first of five leader development oriented themes that we address in
the paper. The second is an ongoing issue facing leaders – achieving a work life
balance. The third examines the role emotions play in enhancing the development of
leadership skills and behaviours. The fourth theme considers whether leadership is an
individual or collective activity. Finally, the last theme addresses the assumption of
360 universality of leadership by examining the effect contextual and individual
differences have on leadership development.
These themes reflect a balance between decades of leadership research, which we
attempted to capture in our interview schedule (detailed in Table I), and the themes
that emerged as particular concerns of the leaders, based on our analysis.
Summary
Based on our review of the literature we align ourselves with the developmental
perspective of leadership (Day, 2001; Avolio, 2005). In concert with this, we credit
certain innate or personality traits as contributors to the extent to which individual’s
engage in the leadership development process.
Whilst a solid body of research illustrates the regularities that exist in leadership,
the aforementioned research indicates the influential role that context plays in leader
development. Having considered five overarching themes in leader development
research, attention now turns to the methods adopted in the study.
LODJ Methods
32,4 Research approach and interviewee selection
As this was a descriptive and exploratory study of leader development and leadership
practice, a qualitative approach was deemed most appropriate (Eisenhardt, 1989).
Qualitative methods are more flexible and sensitive to context than quantitative
methodologies (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005), an important consideration as the research
364 aimed to take account of the personal and contextual influences on leader development
and leadership enactment. The interviewees were selected from across the private,
public and voluntary sectors. Following Wood and Vilkinas (2003), leaders were
selected using a combination of sources that included high-profile leadership awards
and nomination. Specifically, we asked for the nomination of perceived “successful”
leaders by 175 post-graduate students. In addition to one health leader nominated for
his advocacy work, three further health leaders were selected by the research team on
the basis of prior personal knowledge of their participation in a range of leadership
strategies in the public sector (policy engagement; intrapreneurship and
entrepreneurship). The research team wished to explore whether personal
experiences had influenced the leadership strategies adopted. The 12 most
nominated leaders and the three additional leaders were invited in writing to
participate in the research, and 11 agreed. The inclusion of leaders from the three
sectors facilitated comparison of the similarities and differences in the characteristics
of, and barriers to, leadership in different contexts. All of the leaders were either at
CEO level or held very senior leadership roles.
Our private sector interviewees included a CEO voted as “Ireland’s most trusted
leader”; a veteran of high-profile and successful business turnarounds who has
previously held HR directorships in a number of leading Irish and international
companies; and a CEO who has previously been director of a large Irish-owned family
firm and who has successfully diversified into a range of entrepreneurial activities.
In the voluntary sector we interviewed a serial social innovator who has previously
won a “Humanitarian of the Year” award. They established and are life President of the
largest Irish voluntary sector organization in its field of service-provision. We also
interviewed the President of the largest non-profit organization in Ireland.
In the public sector we interviewed a senior public servant who has won a “Person
of the Year” award for their work; the governor of a high profile prison who has
received numerous awards and recognition for his formal role and community
development work and four individuals from the health sector who had adopted
different approaches to leadership in a similar context. The first had a national profile
for pioneering service-development work and advocacy through the national press.
The second, a consultant and former President of a Medical Foundation, had engaged
with the policy-process to develop a large-scale national strategy in his clinical area.
The third had developed a clinical unit by acquiring private funding and establishing a
charitable foundation to build and develop his service. Finally, a recipient of the Irish
College of General Practitioners award provided an example of a healthcare
entrepreneur with a social vision. Hence, five of the leaders had received awards for
their work. Four managed organizations that were among the largest organizations in
their field and four had adopted different approaches to achieving public-sector reform.
The final sample included three men and eight women. At the time of interview, all of
the interviewees had a minimum of four years tenure in their roles. Two had recently
retired but were continuing to work in reduced-commitment roles. One had recently Understanding
changed role but predominantly discussed their previous role. Seven of the leader
interviewees had been engaged in their leadership roles for more than ten years.
development
Data collection and analysis
Interviews were typically of 40 minutes duration and were conducted by the first and
second authors, with both in attendance. The interviews took place in locations chosen
365
by the leaders. These were predominantly workplaces, but also included two homes.
The interviews were thematically segmented and the questions addressed formative
influences, leadership practice, achieving innovation and change and advice for
aspiring leaders. Interview questions are detailed in Table I.
In our analysis, our discussion of whether leaders are born or made links to
questions 3, 7 and 14; the attainment of balance emanates from questions 3 and 4; the
role of emotion in leadership emanates from questions 5, 6 and 7; leadership as an
individual or collective activity also emanates from questions 5, 6 and 7, as well as
question 9; and an integrative consideration of whether there is “one best way” of
undertaking leadership draws on the above and questions 11, 14 and 20. The responses
were further evidenced in the leaders” descriptions of achieving change. It noteworthy
that the role of emotion in leadership and the issue of whether leadership is an
individual or collective activity emerged as strong themes in response to open
questions regarding the critical things that have shaped the leaders, what leadership
means to them and how they would describe their leadership style (questions 5, 6,
and 7).
We note that as we are concerned with leader development rather than practice, we
do not consider types of leader behaviour (i.e. charismatic or directive) in-depth.
Additional prompt questions were added to reflect the particular interests of the
individual leaders, where appropriate. For example, in the case of voluntary sector
leader 2 we inserted the following question, after the “what drives you” question:
“Inclusion is a key theme in your work. Why is inclusion so important to you?”
Data analysis was undertaken by one team member, to ensure consistency. It
entailed four phases. In each instance a search for confirming and disconfirming data
was undertaken:
(1) An interview-by-interview analysis was conducted, based on the themes raised
in the interview protocol.
(2) Each interview was revisited to consider themes which emerged in the other
interviews.
(3) A cross-interview comparison was undertaken to identify patterns in the
interviews. Following Eisenhardt (1989) this entailed consideration of within
case (interview) similarities and between case differences.
(4) Finally, the findings were compared with the literature, to link the empirical
findings to existing literature.
By creating the right culture in a team you can make up for each person’s shortcomings
within a group and make the collective capability of that group much stronger than the sum
of its parts and less dependant on the unique capability of any single individual (Private
Sector, Leader 3).
When I was younger my leadership style was very much leading from the front. Curiously I
remember being irritated by people who talked about teams, because I thought the
responsibility for the delivery of the service was an individual responsibility. It was only as I
got older that I came to see that the individual is just a very small proportion of what
contributes to an institution. If you do want to deliver a service, you have to harness and
focus the individual talents of many people (Health Sector, Leader 2).
The collective dimension of leadership also emerged in the leaders’ descriptions of
what they look for in those they work with. Closer examination of the qualities sought
in others includes passionate advocates, honesty and courage. Leaders also refer to the
importance of self-awareness and low ego, which are indicative of leadership-like traits.
Therefore, activities associated with leadership can potentially be dispersed
throughout the organization and collectively held:
I look for expertise or excellence that adds to the mix. So it’s not another me. It’s somebody
who can be very different. I look for people who are self-confident and comfortable in who
they are. Preferably low ego because with that you get fewer politics. I look for energy.
Passion. I think you have to have passion in business. It’s not just a process or a methodology.
And then obviously the usual things around people skills. The ability to work with others and
to help improve the dynamics in the team (Private Sector, Leader 2).
I look for the kind of loyalty that is not just loyalty to the organization, but loyalty to their
colleagues. But I also look for honesty. If there are things wrong I want to know about them. I
want the whistle-blowers, and I want them to understand that. I look for technical skill,
because we all need technical skills. So I think that I demand an awful lot of people (Public
Sector, Leader 1).
Interestingly, leaders across all sectors emphasised the importance of leadership as a
collective activity, meaning that leader development encompasses human and social
capital development.
LODJ Addressing leadership theme five: that there is “one best way”
32,4 Although a common cadre of leadership activities, namely vision and achieving
momentum, were identified in the analysis of the discussion of leadership practice by
the leaders, personal and contextual influences affected how these activities were
enacted:
It is very important to have a vision and to work towards it. I think it’s not leadership unless
370 there is a vision (Voluntary Sector, Leader 2).
Leadership essentially means identifying what is possible to do and develop, identifying the
people who can do it and empowering them to do it, we can’t all do everything ourselves
(Health Sector, Leader 2).
Movement is always a word I associate with leadership, it’s about taking an entity from one
situation to another by helping to build a bridge that people feel they can cross (Private
Sector, Leader 3).
The difference in how the respondents described their leadership styles, detailed below,
illustrates the variation in approaches adopted by each leader:
Having very clear direction, and the ability to communicate it, to bring with you, can be done
in lots of different styles (Private Sector, Leader 2).
I think to come in and be dogmatic and dictatorial, I don’t believe would work, and it’s
certainly not a style that I have used. So I would certainly be a consensus type leader
(Voluntary Sector, Leader 1).
[My leadership style is] Direct. Robust. Inclusive. I challenge a lot. I can remember, in the
early days [of my role] when people would come to me with a problem and say “here’s a
problem” and I would sit back and I would say “ok what are my options” and they would say
“but that’s why I came to you” and I would say “no, no, no; you are the skilled person and this
is your specialist area, you think about it and you come back to me and then we’ll talk about it
(Public Sector, Leader 1).
My leadership style depends on the situation. Consultation can be a great way to lead, but
sometimes it’s a disaster. Because in a crisis you can’t be going around asking people what
you should do next. So for me my leadership style is about timing and about being able to
judge the appropriate thing to do at a particular time (Public Sector, Leader 2).
An alternative way to consider if there is “one best way” of leadership is to consider the
characteristics of effective leaders in a variety of contexts. Although one response
(detailed below) was applicable across contexts, the majority of interviewees noted
specific characteristics of leadership efficacy in their own work context (i.e. in the
health, public, private and voluntary sector):
I think leadership is about, it’s about the public face of the leader but it’s also about having
systems and processes which ensure that things happen and having quality assurance
mechanisms. So it’s about having somebody very good in the chief executive role or
something like that who understands the processes, ensures they happen and quality assures
them. And then checks back with staff (Public Sector, Leader 1).
In the health sector, effective leaders are required to manage inter-group relationships,
to have the capacity to use the media to achieve their goals and to manage the
medical-management interface. In the public sector more broadly, leaders have to deal
with transitory formal leaders in the form of politicians, as well as bureaucrats and the Understanding
media: leader
In such a disparate speciality as I was in, you had to go and talk to the other groupings and development
find out that you were in tandem, that you were all seeing things the same way (Health Sector,
Leader 1).
I think within the structure of a hospital that the goals of the management are not the same as 371
the goals of the healthcare providers and that is a critical obstruction to the optimal working
of any unit (Health Sector, Leader 3).
At the end of the day you know, these people, whoever they are, the journalists, the
politicians, the bureaucrat, they come and they go, they leave a lot of destruction sometimes
behind them. But the one consolation is they go (Public Sector, Leader 2).
In the voluntary sector, key challenges were identified as maintaining a wider vision
beyond the organization, engaging in cross-organizational cooperation and achieving
through volunteers and within a limited period of office:
It really has to be co-operative leadership, we can’t afford to be vying with one another, or in
competition with one another, we have to see the complementarities of each others work and
really be supportive in that [. . .] I think in the voluntary sector, we have to be able to let go
when we have done a certain work, it is better if we can pass it on. If the state for example can
do it, and then we move on to the next thing (Voluntary Sector, Leader 2).
Because we’re a volunteer based organization and led by volunteers, albeit with some paid
administrative staff, having appropriate communications with people is critical (Voluntary
Sector, Leader 1).
In addition to the sectoral context, further contextual influences on effective leadership
were identified. In particular, attention was brought to the broader societal context (i.e.
good and bad times) and the cultural context in which the organization is embedded:
I think the leadership agenda when times are good is much harder because you have to
convince people particularly in an industry like this for example, and in other industries as
well, you have to convince people who have been quite successful, and are still quite
successful that the way they’re doing it isn’t the best and it could be better. People often look
at you and say “Well, why do we need to do the change we’re doing fine”(Private Sector,
Leader 3).
You have to be I think respectful of what is acceptable in different cultures and adapt your
style to suit that. You can still be who you are underneath it all. But I think you have to adapt
to those cultural norms. But the thing underneath it all, which is knowing where you’re going,
being able to communicate it, putting the right people in the right roles, that for me stays the
same. Regardless of where you work (Private Sector, Leader 2).
As in the closing quote, this section has emphasised that although there are common
components to effective leadership, namely vision and achieving movement through
people, the manner in which this is achieved varies according to personal style and the
demands of the cultural, sector and organizational context. As a result the capacity to
analyse and operate in different contexts must be considered in leader development.
Next, the findings presented in this section are discussed with regards to extant
literature.
LODJ Discussion
32,4 This study focused on individual leader development, and drew out five themes
emphasised in prior literature and which were salient features of the leaders”
developmental experiences – and ongoing struggles. Based on our learning from the
findings presented above and the associated literature, we identify five considerations
for leaders, in their personal processes of leader development.
372
1. Using your drive to make the most of early life and career experiences
The first theme considered was whether leaders were born or made, underpinned by
the interaction between personal characteristics and life experiences. Our findings
align with the developmental model of leadership in which life experience contributes
to the development of leadership behaviour (e.g. Bass and Avolio, 1994). In particular,
our respondents emphasised that they were often strongly influenced by events in their
early childhood or careers. Interventions by individuals, key learning experiences,
transformative experiences and chance events were all described as critical incidents
by the interviewees. In addition, the leaders were influenced by personal qualities and
underlying drivers, including values, faith and personal drive. According to Avolio
(1994) such underlying drivers are often influenced by the moral standards of parents
and early role models. Although we note the importance of early experience in shaping
leaders, we also recognise that antecedents of leadership skills, such as some aspects of
personality (i.e. ambition and motivation as per Atwater and Yammarino, 1993;
Barbuto et al., 2000) may affect how an individual uses these opportunities or
experiences. The salient discussions of the personal qualities underpinning leadership
– as well as the chance events that influence development, make the balance between
personality and opportunity clear. The challenge for individuals is to capitalise on
personal career experiences that provide opportunities for leadership development.
Limitations
A clear and significant limitation of this paper is the small number of interviewees on
which the paper is based. However, it is our belief that the paper has begun to reveal
the personal journeys of leaders as they develop – and the value of this approach. As a
result we believe that our work will serve to generate further research in this vein and
to highlight its potential pragmatic value. In addition we note that an alternative
approach could have been adopted in the presentation of this research – one that
explores the development journey of individual leaders in the form of coherent and
in-depth narratives.
LODJ Conclusion
32,4 This study begins to shed light on individual processes of leader development,
including key learning points and their associated challenges for individuals. These
include the difficulty of attaining balance, the role of emotion and the collective nature
of leadership. The paper has also drawn attention to the personal experiences and
characteristics underpinning leader development – and to the importance of sector
374 context to the leadership activities required. These issues are of significant pragmatic
interest to organizational leaders interested in further enhancing their leadership
capacity. However, they also pose challenges to researchers and educators in the field
of leadership. They emphasise the significant demands placed on leaders, reflected in
their struggle to attain balance and their need for advanced emotion management
skills, in conjunction with managing collectives of people and adapting to contextual
demands.
In considering the formative experiences, underlying drivers, leadership style and
contextual influences of each leader the paper has begun to draw attention to the very
personal nature of leader development, which has to date been lacking from the trait,
behavioural and intervention-focused nature of much leadership development
research. Although the assumption that leaders can be developed underpins the
significant investment in leader and leadership development by organizations, we have
begun to move away from the sanitised “zero to hero” narratives evident in the
practitioner literature, and to illustrate the messy and personal nature of leader
development. This shift raises the issue of how leadership development programmes
are currently undertaken and the best way to develop leaders. Inline with Byrne and
Rees (2006), we argue that leadership development requires a tailored and
individual-focused approach to meet needs of the individual leader and the
organizational context in which s/he is embedded as opposed to a generic “one size
fits all” development model. In moving forward, attention must now turn to how
individual leaders can be supported in addressing the development themes identified
above – and the personal and organizational challenges that accompany them.
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Corresponding author
Aoife McDermott can be contacted at: mcdermott@cardiff.ac.uk