"The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment"

Chapter 17 Reading Guide

Western Civiliza on - 9th Ed. - Spielvogel

Name: Peter Nguyen Period: 2

1.) Read the yellow sec on on p.502-3. What did the term “Enlightenment” mean in the 18th century? Who was Marie
Therese de Geoffrin? What role did women play in the Enlightenment?

“Man’s leaving his self-caUSED immaturity”

- Marie Therese de Geoffrin was the wife of a wealthy merchant that would organized the famous discussions
that included many intellectual philosophes
- Women would take the role in leading groups of men and women to discuss new ideas of philosophes

2.) How was the Enlightenment, in many ways, an extension of the Scien fic Revolu on of the previous century or so?
What fundamental beliefs carried on throughout both?

The Enlightenment is an extension of the Scien fic Revolu on as philosophes would base their thinkings off the works
of Scien fic revolu onary thinkers. The influence of science was the use of scien fic reasoning in order to understand
the world around them.

3.) Who was Bernard de Fontanelle? Why was he such a pivotal character of the Enlightenment if he never did any
actual experiments or made any new discoveries?

Bernard de Fontanelle would write the book “Plurality of Worlds” which would simplify scien fic knowledge in a clear
and humorous way that appealed to nobles and the upper class.

4.) What is skep cism? How was this “New Skep cism” different from the previous century?

Skep cism in the 18th century refers to the cri cism of all things religion, especially the Catholic Church. In “New
Skep cism” scien sts cri cize God, while the previous century had done scien fic study while having the works coexist
alongside God.

5.) Who was Pierre Bayle? What was his a tude towards religion?

Pierre Bayle was a Protestant known for leading cri cism against the Catholic “supers ons”. He believed that having
people believe in a par cular belief because of their religion is wrong and that their beliefs should be chosen based
upon their “conscious”. Bayle would cry out for religious tolera on.
6.) The term “noble savage” is of significance in the works of some philosophes. What is it? How is it important?

“Noble savage” is man that has not been plagued by the corrup ons of society. The term is important as many
philosophes would use it in order to compare their society to the Tahi an and other civiliza ons that developed
differently from Europe.

7.) How are the ideas of “skep cism” and “cultural rela vism” connected? What is “cultural rela vism” and why were
people thinking about it?

“Skep cism” were the seeds of doubt and “cultural rela vism” would be the confirma on for many Chris ans. Cultural
rela vism is the idea of beliefs being based in rela on to a par cular culture which they originate but is not absolute.
People thought about this as new cultures were being discovered the idea of basing their life around God would be
evidently wrong and in some cases pointless to many.

8.) Spielvogel credits two Englishmen, Isaac Newton and John Locke, for being the most intellectually inspira onal
pre-Enlightenment thinkers. We already learned about Newton. Who is Locke? What did he write? Why were his ideas
new and significant?

“Essay Concerning Human Understanding” Locke would deny Descartes belief in innate ideas. Proposed the idea of
tabula rasa “Blank Mind”. Our knowledge is derived from our environment & experiences, not hereditary. They were
new and significant because they were in fact new but also gave hope to a future of a new world built on reasoning.

9.) What is a “philosophe” and what kinds of roles did they play in society? What was the capital of the Enlightenment?

Literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, poli cal scien sts, and social reformists. Philosophes
played the role of changing the world around them and to be er society. The capital of Enlightenment would become
Paris.

10.) What were the ideas put forth by Baron de Montesquieu in The Spirit of the Laws? Although he was French, who did
he use as a model example of government? Why?

Baron de Montesquieu put on the ideas of what kind of ins tute was best for governing small, medium, & large states.
He used England as a model of government as he wanted the French to look at this too because their government was
trash and goofy.

11.) What class was Voltaire from and what line of work brought him early success? Of which elements in French society
and government was Voltaire most cri cal?

Voltaire was in the middle class and he was an early on writer & then a famous playwright. Voltaire would admire
 English civiliza on and cri cize many of French Society’s oppressions and lack of freedom.

12.) What was the “Calas Affair” and how did it relate to Voltaire’s opinion of the church?

The Calas Affair was the accusa on, torture, and death of Jean Calas because people believed he murdered his own
son, and tried to prevent him from becoming a Catholic, when in reality he commi ed suicide. Voltaire would write
pieces of religious tolera on and fight fantacisim, intolerance, and supers on.

13.) What is “Deism”? Are deists atheists or not? Do they believe in God? If so, how are they different than typical
Chris ans?

Deism is the belief of God & the Newtonian World Machine, deist are not atheist as they did believe in God. However,
there would be a disconnect in believing God as they didn’t see God as divine but a “good fellow”

14.) Who is Denis Diderot and what is he best known for helping create?

Denis Diderot was a skilled cra sman then became a freelance writer. He was best known for helping create the
“Encyclopedia or Classified Dic onary of the Sciences, Art and Trade”

15.) Spielvogel says that many of the philosophes of the 18th century a empted to uncover “Natural Laws” pertaining to
the “Science of Man.” What did he mean by this? Were they successful? Why or why not?

Believed scien fic method could be used to understand natural laws (Social Sciences). They were rela vely successful
as they’d pioneer the modern social sciences.

16.) Who is David Hume? What was his famous work en tled and what did he argue in it?

David Hume is a Sco sh Philosopher known for being a pioneer of social sciences. He wrote “Human Nature” and
would argue systema zed common sense was conceivable science of man.

17.) Who are the “Physiocrats” and what did they study? What were the names of some notable physiocrats?

A group of enlightened thinkers that would study the economy. Their leader was Francois Quesnay & the opposi on
Adam Smith who would develop the idea of Laissez Faire.

18.) In what respect did physiocrats reject (or repudiate) mercan list economic beliefs? What did they stress as being
different from what mercan lists fundamentally believed? What is “laissez-faire” economics?
 They agree with mercan lism being the method to wealth but stressed the superiority of laissez-faire. Laissez-faire is
economics that is free of restraint from the government

19.) What did Adam Smith write in The Wealth of Na ons? How was his argument just slightly different than the
physiocrats? What is “economic liberalism” and is this term the same as what we view as “liberal” today? Why not?

Labor is the true source of wealth, while the physiocrats believed land was the source of wealth. Economic liberalism
refers to an economy free from government regula on/interven on. It’s similar to what we believe in today, however,
there is the presence of government regula on.

20.) How were Paul d’Holbach’s views considered rather extreme, or radical, for his me?

Paul believed there was no God and the universe was built upon “Ma er & Mo on” which is crazy since everyone was
literally basing off reasoning being related to religion

21.) Why is Marie-Jean de Condorcets’s view of humanity both ironic and tragic?

Marie-Jean would write the idea that humans were about to enter an era of perfec on, a place of limitless power of
man but he would die short a er composing his work.
22.) Jean-Jacques Rousseau has to be one of the more complex figures of the Enlightenment. His ideas are at mes
obscure and contradic ng. Do the best you can to describe his views on the following topics.

a.) Government:

a necessary evil
b.) The Social Contract

an a empt to reconcile & understand having both individual liberty & a government authority
c.) The General Will

How society agrees to be governed

d.) Individual Freedom

e.) Educa on

should be used to foster natural ins nct instead of restric ng them

23.) How did the Enlightenment, in some ways, reinforce the same old gender values that had been prac ced in
pre-Enlightenment mes?
 Believed that women were inferior to men.
24.) Who was Mary Astell? What were two major ideas she argued?

Mary Astell was the daughter of a wealthy merchant and would write “Serious Proposal to the Ladies” that women are
just as capable as men.
25.) Who was Mary Wollstonecra ? What did she write? What contradic ons did she point out from other male
Enlightenment thinkers?

Mary Wollstonecra is the founder of modern day feminism. She wrote Vindica on of Women in order to show that all
human beings are equal and women are not inferior to men. Said the enlightenment was based on innate in all human
beings so meaning that women have the same innate reasoning and so they’re the same.
26.) In terms of social class, who most benefited from the Enlightenment? Why? Who were most likely to oppose such a
movement? Who was least affected by the Enlightenment?

It appealed mostly to the aristocracy and upper middle class.

Peasants were least affected by the Enlightenment as they were focused on surviving.
27.) What are Salons? What func on did they serve in the 17th and 18th centuries? Who ran them? What other venues
of the me had similar func ons?

Salons are like mee ngs where philosophes and enlightened thinkers were invited to share their ideas. Usually women
ran these salons & similarly coffeeshops, cafes, reading clubs, and libraries were a similar place to exchange ideas.
28.) How is Rococo art different from the Baroque (hint, be very deliberate and specific about how you answer this one…
ALWAYS avoid using generic terms like “more detailed” or “realis c” when describing any art style)

Baroque had emphasis on majesty, power & movement, while Rococo was more focused on grace and gentle ac on. It
like smoothness and no sharp lines.
29.) What are some examples of Rococo art and architectural styles? Who are the ar sts that created each? (hint, name
at least 3)

The palace of Versailles was one of the primary Baroque-Rococo infused buildings followed by many other churches
and palaces. ANtoine Wa eau, Balthasar Neumann &

30.) Fill out the chart below describing music of the 17th and 18th centuries.

COMPOSER YEARS FAMOUS PIECES BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF WHAT THEY

(born-died) ARE REMEMBERED FOR

Johann Sebas an 1685-1750 - Mass in B Minor One of the greatest composers of all
Bach - Saint Ma hew’s Passion me and his music being a means to
worship God
 George Friedrich (1685-1759) - Fireworks Music Known for his secular temperament
Handel - Messiah and spent a majority of his life wri ng
operas and running an opera company.
“Unusual sounding pieces”

Franz Joseph 1732-1809 - The Crea on - The pieces being dedicated to

Haydn - The Seasons the common people. Wrote for
the masses and not private
patrons.

Wolfgang 1756-1791 - The Marriage of Figaro - Child prodigy, known as the

Amadeus Mozart - Don Giovanni greatest composer ever
- The Magic Flute
-

31.) What is the significance of the development of the novel during this me? What makes novels different from other
books? To which audience were novels most appealing? What are some more notable novelists?

Grew out of medieval romances and picaresque stories of the 16th century. The novels were free of some sort of
“outline” or expecta on. They appealed mostly to women readers & writers. “Pamela” & “History of Tom Jones” were
very popular.
32.) How did the wri ng of history change in the period of the Enlightenment from how it was wri en by humanists of
the Renaissance? What was emphasized? What were the weaknesses?

History was wri en in a more secular se ng instead of how God played a role in it. Also observed economic and social
aspects of history
33.) What is the difference between “high culture” and “popular culture”? What parts of society made up each group?
What role did print media play in the 18th century?

High culture was reserved for elites and nobility while pop. Culture is like entertainment for peasants (the masses).
Print media would leak some ideas of high culture into pop. culture.
34.) How did educa on change in the 18th century? Who obtained an educa on during this era? What did their
educa on focus upon, and what reforms were made toward the end of the 18th century?

The Elites and Wealthy had educa on. Educa on focused on the old Greek-Roman liberal studies. Towards the end of
the 18th century “realschule” would become the norm
35.) How were punishments handled almost everywhere in Europe? How frequently was the death penalty invoked?
What differences existed between social classes in terms of judicial punishments?

Punishments were in most cases very cruel. The death penalty was considered to be applicable to even pe y the .
Nobles were generally beheaded while peasants were hung
36.) Who is Cesare Beccaria? What did he write? When did he write it? What did he argue about capital punishment?

Cesare Beccaria was an Italian philosophe that wrote “On Crimes and Punishments” (1764). He believed that capital
 punishment should be secular and not some sort of showing.
37.) How was medicine conducted in the 17th and 18th centuries? Was there much forward progress during this me?
What were the differences between physicians, surgeons (or barber-surgeons), and apothecaries? How were they
regarded in society?

Medicine in the 17th and 18th century was s ll conducted upon the basis of Galen’s work and La n. experience was
beginning to be a requirement. Physicians were individuals that had an official license and beneath were surgeons or
barber-surgeons, and the apothecaries would serve the common people. Medicine was viewed more as a problem
than benefit in the 17th and 18th century.
38.) What role did “fes vals” or “fetes” play in popular culture? How was “Carnival” different from other fes vals?

Fes val / fetes were used as a me of relaxa on and celebra on as peasants who par cipated in such events primarily
only worked all day long. Carnivals were celebrated in the means of Lent
39.) What func on did taverns play in places like England and Russia? What effect did alcohol have on the social classes?

Taverns were a place of gathering for common people (congregate, play games, talk business). Alcohol was generally
bad as it would effect the working output of individuals and some places in Europe would actually try to ban alcohol.
40.) What are chapbooks? How did literacy amongst the lower classes in France spread in this me?

Chapbooks are short dime novels (abt the west: Outlaws) and were generally made out of cheap & thin paper.
Concepts of elementary school were being developed (spread of volksschule). Expansion of libraries and prin ng to
the masses (cheap magazines, etc.)
41.) What was the a tude of the ruling classes of educa ng the poor? Why do you think this was the case?

Ruling class did not want to educate the poor because they wouldn’t be special anymore.
42.) Both the Catholic and Protestant churches found themselves in a similar posi on during these centuries. What roles
did they play?

Catholic and Protestant churches at the me played as the pillars of societal structure.
43.) What happened to the Jesuits during this me? What two greater trends did this collapse represent in terms of the
direc on the Catholic church was heading during the 18th century?

Jesuits were actually expelled and disbanded temporarily. The Catholic Church was heading downwards as they were
losing power.
44.) How much progress was made toward religious tolerance during this me?

Religious tolerance was seen as a necessity in order to properly govern a country.

45.) What are pogroms and who were most o en targeted by them? How did the philosophes react to this?

Pogroms are organized crimes commi ed against par cular ethnic groups. Philosophes would begin to accept the Jews
(condemned) and push for their acceptance in society.
46.) Religious devo on remained strong in the 18th century despite skep cism and deism. Spielvogel argues that because
of these movements, however, some theologians moved to a more “ra onal” Chris anity, favoring greater depths of
religious experience. What were a few approaches to accomplishing this?
Pie sm was Germany’s response to a desire for deeper devo on.
Methodism: John Wesley’s way of preaching to the masses