3 

Atomic Matter
SIF1004:Modern Physics
Bohr’s model of the atom
 Structure of the Atom

• Pieces of evidence that scientists had in 1900 to indicate that the atom was not a 
fundamental unit:

1) There seemed to be too many kinds of atoms, each belonging to a distinct chemical 
element.
2) The problem of valence. Certain elements combine with some elements but not with 
others, a characteristic that hinted at an internal atomic structure.
3) The discoveries of radioactivity, of x rays, and of the electron.
 Thomson’s Atomic Model
 Thomson’s “plum‐pudding” model of the atom had the positive charges 
spread uniformly throughout a sphere the size of the atom, with 
electrons embedded in the uniform background.

 In Thomson’s view, when the atom was heated (with kinetic energy), 
the electrons could vibrate about their equilibrium positions (simple 
harmonic oscillation around the center of the sphere), thus producing 
electromagnetic radiation.
Radius of an Atom:
.
The number of atoms in gold :

Assume the distance between atoms is
.

.
Experiments of Geiger and Marsden

 *Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden 
conceived a new technique for 
investigating the structure of matter by 
scattering  particles from atoms. 

 Geiger showed that some  particles were 
scattered from thin gold‐leaf targets at 
backward angles greater than 90°.

Electrons can’t back-

scatter  particles.
*Rutherford was a formal student of Thomson
Scattering from 1 electron:

• The maximum scattering angle corresponding to the maximum momentum 
change.
• Maximum momentum change of the α particle is
or
• Determine θ by letting Δpmax be perpendicular to the direction of motion.

Small deflection 
angle
Multiple Scattering from Electrons
• If an α particle were scattered by many electrons and N electrons results in                   
.
• The number of atoms across the thin gold layer of 6 × 10−7 m:

• Assume the distance between atoms is

and there are .

That gives .
The deflection angle is still small
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
 even if the α particle scattered from all 79 electrons in
each atom of gold.

The experimental results were not consistent with Thomson’s

atomic model.

 Rutherford proposed that an atom has a positively charged core

(nucleus) surrounded by the negative electrons.

The positive charge is concentrated in 
a nucleus with a radius much smaller than 10‐10 m
Rutherford Scattering
 Scattering experiments help to study matter too small to be
observed directly.
 There is a relationship between the impact parameter b and the
scattering angle θ.

When b is small,
r gets small.
Coulomb force gets large.
θ can be large and the particle can be repelled backward.
Rutherford Scattering
• Any particle inside the circle of area πb02 will be similarly scattered.

• The cross section σ = πb2 is related to the probability for a particle being scattered 

by 1 nucleus.

• The number of scattering nuclei per unit area .
• The fraction of incident particles scattered is 

f = ntA/A   
The Classical Atomic Model
• Consider an atom as a planetary system.
• The Newton’s 2nd Law force of attraction on the 
electron by the nucleus is:
1 e 2 mv 2
Fe  
4 0 r 2 r
where v is the tangential velocity of the electron:

v
e e2
 K  mv 
1 2 1
4 0 mr 2 2
4 0 r

• Define potential energy, V = 0 when the electron is infinitely distant from the 
nucleus.
Negative means the system is bound, 
Coulomb force is attractive

The total energy is then:
The Planetary Model is Unstable

• From classical E&M theory, an accelerated electron radiates energy (electromagnetic 
radiation) which means the mechanical energy decreases, r decreases, the electron will spiral 
into the nucleus!!

Electron crashes into the nucleus!

• Physics had reached a turning point in 1900 with Planck’s hypothesis of the quantum 
behavior of radiation.
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
Niels Bohr’s general assumptions: n=1
n=2
1) “Stationary states” (orbiting electrons do not 
radiate energy) exist in atoms and have well‐
defined energies, En. 
2) Transitions can occur between them, yielding 
E = E1 − E2 = hf. Classical laws of physics do 
not apply to transitions between stationary 
states.
3) The angular momentum of the nth state is 
quantized,  where n is 
called the Principal Quantum Number. n=3

n = 1,2,3,…
Consequences of the Bohr Model
•The angular momentum is:

L  mvr  n

So the velocity is: v  n / mr
e n2 2 e2 a0
But: v So: 
4 0 mr 2 2
mr 4 0 mr

4 0  2
Solving for rn: rn  n a0
2
where: a0 
me 2

a0 is called the Bohr radius. It’s the diameter of the Hydrogen atom (in its 
lowest‐energy, or “ground,” state).
Bohr Radius
• The diameter of the hydrogen atom for stationary states is

Where the Bohr radius is given by

• The smallest diameter of the hydrogen atom is

• n = 1 gives its lowest energy state (called the “ground” state)
The Hydrogen Atom Quantization of 
total energy
• The energies of the stationary states 
where E0 = 13.6 eV.
Outer shell, valence shell

 Emission of light occurs when the atom is

in an excited state and decays to a lower
energy state (nu → nℓ).
1st excited 
state h  Eu  E
where  is the frequency of a photon.
1  h
  
 c hc

R∞ is the Rydberg constant.

Inner shell
Ground state
Transitions in the Hydrogen Atom

• The atom will remain in the 
excited state for a short time 
before emitting a photon and 
returning to a lower stationary 
state. All hydrogen atoms exist in 
n = 1 (invisible).
The Hydrogen Atom
• Application of the Schrödinger Equation to the   Hydrogen 
Atom
• Solution of the Schrödinger Equation for Hydrogen
• Quantum Numbers
• Energy Levels and Electron Probabilities

The atom of modern physics can be symbolized only through a partial differential 
equation in an abstract space of many dimensions. All its qualities are inferential; no 
material properties can be directly attributed to it. An understanding of the atomic 
world in that primary sensuous fashion…is impossible.

‐ Werner Heisenberg
 General flow:

Start with Schrodinger equation in 3‐D

Identify the potential energy: eg.

Solve & find the wave functions:  Quantum Numbers (n, ℓ, mℓ)

Compute the energy levels:

Draw the probability distribution function:
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• An orthogonal system is one in which the coordinates are mutually 
perpendicular.
• Examples of orthogonal system:
• 1. Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z)
• 2. Circular cylindrical coordinates ( , , z)
• 3. Spherical coordinates (r, , )
• Choosing a coordinate system that best fits a given problem.
Application of the Schrödinger Equation to the 
Hydrogen Atom
 The approximation of the potential energy of the electron‐proton system is 
electrostatic: 

 Rewrite the three‐dimensional time‐independent Schrödinger Equation.

For Hydrogen‐like atoms (He+ or Li++)
 Replace e2 with Ze2 (Z is the atomic number).
 Use appropriate reduced mass  
∑
Application of the Schrödinger Equation
• The potential (central force) V(r) depends on the distance r between the 
proton and electron.

Transform to spherical polar 
coordinates because of the 
radial symmetry.
Insert the Coulomb potential 
into the transformed 
Schrödinger equation.

Equation 1
Application of the Schrödinger Equation
• The wave function  is a function of  , , .
Equation is separable.
Solution may be a product of three functions.
Equation 2

• We can separate Equation 1 into three separate differential equations, 
each depending on one coordinate: r , , or
Solution of the Schrödinger Equation for Hydrogen
• Substitute Eq (2) into Eq (1) and separate the resulting equation into three 
equations:  , , and .
Separation of Variables
• The derivatives from Eq (2) 

• Substitute them into Eq (1)

• Multiply both sides  by  2 sin2 /

Equation 3
Solution of the Schrödinger Equation
• Only r and θ appear on the left side and only  appears on the right side of Eq
(3)
• The left side of the equation cannot change as  changes.
• The right side cannot change with either r or θ.

• Each side needs to be equal to a constant for the equation to be true.
Set the constant −mℓ2 equal to the right side of Eq (3) 
‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐ azimuthal equation Equation 4

• It is convenient to choose a solution to be        .
Solution of the Schrödinger Equation
• satisfies Eq (4) for any value of mℓ.
• The solution must be single valued in order to have a valid solution for 
any  , which is  2

• mℓ to be zero or an integer (positive or negative) for this to be true.

• If Eq (4) were positive, the solution would not be normalized.
Solution of the Schrödinger Equation
• Set the left side of Eq (3) equal to −mℓ2 and rearrange it. 

• Everything depends on r on the left side and θ on the right side of the 

equation.

Equation 5
Solution of the Schrödinger Equation
• Set each side of Eq (5) equal to constant ℓ ℓ .

‐‐‐‐Radial equation
Equation 6

‐‐‐‐Angular equation
Equation 7

• Schrödinger equation has been separated into three ordinary second‐order 
differential equations [Eq (4), (6), and (7)], each containing only one 
variable.
Solution of the Radial Equation
• The radial equation is called the associated Laguerre equation and the 
solutions R that satisfy the appropriate boundary conditions are called 
associated Laguerre functions.

• Assume the ground state has ℓ = 0 and this requires mℓ = 0.
Eq (6) becomes

• The derivative of          yields two terms and V is the Coulomb potentials. 

Write those terms:
Equation 8
 Solution of the Radial Equation
• Try a solution
A is a normalized constant.
a0 is a constant with the dimension of length.
Take derivatives of R and insert them into Eq (8).

Equation 9

• To satisfy Eq (9) for any r is for each of the two expressions in parentheses to be zero.

Set the second parentheses equal to zero and solve for a0.

Set the first parentheses equal to zero and solve for E.

Both equal to the Bohr result.
Quantum Numbers (n, ℓ, mℓ)
• The appropriate boundary conditions to Eq (6) and (7) leads to the 
following restrictions on the quantum numbers ℓ and mℓ:
• ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
• mℓ = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, . . . , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, . ℓ . , ℓ − 1, ℓ
• |mℓ| ≤ ℓ and ℓ < 0.

• The predicted energy level is

n = 1,2,3…..
n > l
Hydrogen Atom Radial Wave Functions
• First few radial wave functions Rnℓ
Table 1

• Subscripts on R specify the values of n and ℓ.

Solution of the Angular and Azimuthal Equations
• The solutions for Eq (4) are .
• Solutions to the angular and azimuthal equations are linked because both 
have mℓ.
• Group these solutions together into functions.

‐‐‐‐ spherical harmonics
Normalized Spherical Harmonics
Solution of the Angular and Azimuthal Equations
• The radial wave function R and the spherical harmonics Y
determine the probability density for the various quantum states. 
The total wave function  , , depends on  , ℓ, and ℓ. The 
wave function becomes
Quantum Numbers
The three quantum numbers:
• n Principal quantum number
• ℓ Orbital angular momentum quantum number
• mℓ Magnetic quantum number

The boundary conditions:
• n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .  Integer
• ℓ = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , n − 1 Integer
• mℓ = −ℓ, −ℓ + 1, . . . , 0, 1, . . . , ℓ − 1, ℓ Integer

The restrictions for quantum numbers:
• n > 0
• ℓ < n
• |mℓ| ≤ ℓ
Principal Quantum Number n
• It results from the solution of R(r) in Eq (2) because R(r) includes the 
potential energy V(r).
The result for this quantized energy is

• The negative means the energy E indicates that the electron and proton 
are bound together.
 Radial probability density

Radial probability density
r 2 Rnl2 ( r )

Orbital n l <r> (au)

1s 1 0 1.5 n2ao

2s 2 0 6.0

2p 2 1 5.0

3s 3 0 13.5

r   d 3r  nlm
*
(r )r nlm (r )

  dr r 3 Rnl  r 
2

0
 Shapes of the spherical harmonics

Y00 Y11 Y10

z
y

x
Re[Y11 ] l  1, m  0
l  0, m  0
3
1 Y10  cos 
Y00  4
4

l  1, m  1
3
Y11   sin  exp(i )
8

(Images from http://odin.math.nau.edu/~jws/dpgraph/Yellm.html)
 Shapes of spherical harmonics (2)

Y22 Y21 Y20

z
y

x Re[Y22 ] Re[Y21 ]
l  2, m  0
5
Y20  (3cos 2   1)
16

l  2, m  2 l  2, m  1
15 15
Y22  sin 2  exp(2i ) Y21   sin  cos  exp(i )
32 8

(Images from http://odin.math.nau.edu/~jws/dpgraph/Yellm.html)
Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number ℓ
• It is associated with the R(r) and f(θ) parts of the wave function. 

• Classically, the orbital angular momentum with L = 
mvorbitalr. 

• ℓ is related to L by .

• In an ℓ = 0 state, .

It disagrees with Bohr’s semiclassical “planetary” model of electrons 
orbiting a nucleus L = nħ.
Orbital Angular Momentum Quantum Number ℓ
• A certain energy level is degenerate with respect to ℓ when the energy is 
independent of ℓ.

• Use letter names for the various ℓ values.
• ℓ = 0 1 2 3 4 5 . . .
• Letter = s p d f g h . . .

• Atomic states are referred to by their n and ℓ.
• A state with n = 2 and ℓ = 1 is called a 2p state.
• The boundary conditions require n > ℓ.
 Classical angular momentum
For a classical particle, the angular momentum is
defined by L
L  rp
p
 Lx i  Ly j  Lz k
r
In components F
Lx  ypz  zp y
Ly  zpx  xpz
Same origin for r and F
Lz  xp y  ypx

Angular momentum is very important in problems  dL d dr dp
 (r  p)   p  r ×
involving a central force (one that is always directed  dt d t dt dt
towards or away from a central point) because in that  p
case it is conserved  (  p)  (r  F )  0.
m
Magnetic Quantum Number mℓ
• The angle    is a measure of the rotation about the z axis.
• The solution for specifies that mℓ is an integer and related to the z
component of L.

 The relationship of L, Lz, ℓ, and

mℓ for ℓ = 2.
 is fixed
because Lz is quantized.
 Only certain orientations of
are possible and this is called
space quantization.
 The vector model
This is a useful semi‐classical model of the quantum results.
Imagine L precesses around the z‐axis. Hence the magnitude of L and the z‐
component Lz are constant while the x and y components can take a range of 
values and average to zero, just like the quantum eigenfunctions. 

A given quantum number l determines the  z
magnitude of the vector L via

L2  l (l  1) 2
L  l (l  1)
L
The z‐component can have the 2l+1 values 
θ
corresponding to
Lz  m, l  m  l
In the vector model this means that only particular 
special angles between the angular momentum 
vector and the z‐axis are allowed
Magnetic Quantum Number mℓ
• Quantum mechanics allows  to be quantized along 
only one direction in space. Because of the relation 
2 2 2 2 the knowledge of a second 
component would imply a knowledge of the third 
component because we know  .
• We expect the average of the angular momentum 
components squared to be 
3
3 1
2 1
 Energy Levels and Electron Probabilities
• The energy levels of an hydrogen atom according to the principle quantum number 
& ℓ:
 In ground state an atom cannot emit
radiation. It can absorb
electromagnetic radiation, or gain
energy through inelastic
bombardment by particles.
Selection Rules
• We can use the wave functions to calculate transition probabilities for 
the electron to change from one state to another.

Allowed transitions:
• Electrons absorbing or emitting photons to change states when Δℓ = ±1.
Forbidden transitions:
• Other transitions possible but occur with much smaller probabilities 
when Δℓ ≠ ±1.  
Probability Distribution Functions 
• We must use wave functions to calculate the probability distributions 
of the electrons.

• The “position” of the electron is spread over space and is not well 
defined.

• We may use the radial wave function R(r) to calculate radial probability 
distributions of the electron.
• The probability of finding the electron in a differential volume element 
dτ is .
Probability Distribution Functions
• The differential volume element in spherical polar coordinates is

Therefore,

• We are only interested in the radial dependence.

• The radial probability density  2| |2 and it depends only 
on  and .
Probability Distribution Functions
 R(r) and P(r) for the lowest-lying states of the
hydrogen atom.
Probability Distribution Functions
• The probability density for the hydrogen atom for three different 
electron states.
Electron Spin
• Electrons have spin with values of s
• Like orbital angular momentum, spin angular momentum  is also 
quantized, thus:
1
2
• With it’s magnitude given by:
1 1 3
1
2 2 4
Spin‐Orbit Coupling
• Interaction energy can be expressed in terms of a the scalar product 
of the angular‐momentum vectors  and  → spin‐orbit coupling
• Define the total angular momentum

• We can then have states in which  , corresponding to 
whether  and S have parallel z‐components or not
• E.g. For  1,  or → in spectroscopic nota on, these  states 
are labeled 2P1/2 and 2P3/2 , respectively, with P indicating  1
Pauli Exclusion Principle and Many e‐ Atoms

• This principle applies not only to electrons but also to protons and 
neutrons, all of which have spin, s=½. The principle is known as the Pauli 
exclusion principle after Wolfgang Pauli, who formulated it in 1925
• For many‐electrons atoms, no two electrons in an atom can have the same 
values for all quantum numbers ( , , , )
• Each quantum state corresponds to a certain distribution of the electron 
“cloud”
Spin‐Orbit Coupling
Spin‐Orbit Coupling
The Periodic Table
• Applying the exclusion principle, construct an imaginary atom of bare
nucleus with Z protons, then adding Z electrons
• For the ground state, we fill the lowest‐energy electrons states first,
then successively higher states until all electrons are in place
• The chemical properties of an atom are determined by the interaction
of the outermost (valence) electrons, allowing us to construct the
periodic table
• E.g.
• He ( 2): 1; 0, ;
• Li ( 3): 1,2; 0,1; ,
Many e‐ Atoms
Characteristic X‐Ray 
Spectra and Atomic 
Number
Shells have letter names:
K shell for n = 1
L shell for n = 2

The atom is most stable in its 
ground state.

An electron from higher 
shells will fill the inner‐shell vacancy at lower energy.

When it occurs in a heavy atom, the radiation emitted is an X‐ray.
It has the energy E (X-ray) = Eu − Eℓ.
Atomic Number 
K K
and Moseley
The X‐rays have names:
L shell to K shell:   Kα X‐ray
M shell to K shell:  Kβ X‐ray
etc.

G.J. Moseley studied X‐ray 
emission in 1913.
Atomic number Z = number of protons in the nucleus.
Moseley found a relationship between the frequencies of the 
characteristic X‐ray and Z.

3cR
Moseley found this relation 
holds for the Kα X‐ray:  K  ( Z  1) 2
4
Moseley’s Empirical Results

• The X ray is produced from n = 2 to n = 1 transition.

• In general, the K series of X‐ray wavelengths are

Moseley’s research clarified the importance of the electron shells for all the elements, not 
just for hydrogen.
Atomic Bonding: Ionic
• Between 2 charged/ionized
atoms
• e.g. NaCl
• Na gives one 3s e‐ (EreqNa = 5.138
eV)
• Cl receives one 3p e‐ (EreqCl = 3.163
eV)
•Δ 1.525
eV
• ∃ a minimum for NaCl
bonding = ‐5.7 eV at 0.24
nm
Atomic Bonding: Covalent
• Attraction supplied by a pair of
electrons (c.f. Pauli)
• Charge clouds concentrated
primarily in the region between
the two molecules
• Due to exclusion principle, it is
highly directional
• E.g. 2, one atom provides one
, with 4.48 eV
Atomic Bonding: van der Waals and Hydrogen

van der Waals
• Interaction between electric
dipole moments of atoms or
molecules
• 0.1 eV
• Attraction drops of quickly ∝
Hydrogen
• Created by proton (H ion) 
between 2 atoms
• Polarization induces dipoles to 
form, attracting them to H ion
• 0.5 eV
Crystal Structure
• Crystal lattice: repeating mathematical points that extends
throughout space
• 14 types (examples next slide)
• In a crystal structure, a single atom or group of atoms is associated
with each lattice point
• This atom/group of atoms is called a basis
• E.g. NaCl = fcc crystal
• Crystals with defects = polycrystals
Crystal structure
Conduction of Electricity in Solids
The Electrical Properties of Solids:

Figure 
Energy Levels in a Crystalline Solid:
Figure
When we bring two sodium atoms
together, the 3s energy level splits
into two separate energy levels.

When we bring five sodium atoms

together, the 3s energy level splits
into five separate energy levels.

There are now 5 electrons occupying these energy levels.

When 1 mole of metal are brought A Band Diagram is
together. generated
 Electronic structure of Solids

Overlapping levels
Outer levels begin to interact
Individual atoms

Electron energy
Simplify energy levels of an atom and energy 
bands in solids

Figure 
In the discussion of the electrical properties of solid materials, what is
a band?

a) a collection of closely-spaced energy levels

b) a linear defect in the lattice of the solid

c) the paths electrons follow when moving in the solid

d) lines of atoms in the lattice of the solid

e) the class of electrical materials the solid falls into, such as metal,
semiconductor, etc.
In the discussion of the electrical properties of solid materials, what is
a band?

a) a collection of closely-spaced energy levels

b) a linear defect in the lattice of the solid

c) the paths electrons follow when moving in the solid

d) lines of atoms in the lattice of the solid

e) the class of electrical materials the solid falls into, such as metal,
semiconductor, etc.
Conduction band: Conduction
Empty band
band
First empty band above 
the highest filled band
Bandgap
Electron
energy Outermost
band Valence band
Valence band: Partially full containing
elelectrons
Outermost band  Bandgap
containing electrons Full
Bandgap
Full

nucleus
 Conductor Semiconductors Insulators
• Outermost band not  • Similar to insulators  • Valence band full or 
completely filled but narrow band gap nearly full
• Essentially no band  • Wide band gap with 
gap, band overlap empty conduction 
band
Metallic Conductor Semi Conductor Insulator

Empty
bands

conduction small Large

band no band Band
band gap Gap
valence band
gap

filled
bands
Which of the following features most closely defines a metal?

a) The energy bands are much larger than the gaps between them.

b) The band gap between the highest occupied level and the next free
level is small.

c) The highest occupied level falls near the middle of an energy band.

d) The energy bands have no gaps between them.

Which of the following features most closely defines a metal?

a) The energy bands are much larger than the gaps between them.

b) The band gap between the highest occupied level and the next free
level is small.

c) The highest occupied level falls near the middle of an energy band.

d) The energy bands have no gaps between them.

Which of the following features is the main difference between
insulators and semiconductors?

a) The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band
is larger for insulators.

b) The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band
is smaller for insulators.

c) The width of the valence band is larger for semiconductors.

d) The width of the conduction band is larger for semiconductors.

e) The width of the conduction band is smaller for semiconductors.

Which of the following features is the main difference between
insulators and semiconductors?

a) The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band
is larger for insulators.

b) The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band
is smaller for insulators.

c) The width of the valence band is larger for semiconductors.

d) The width of the conduction band is larger for semiconductors.

e) The width of the conduction band is smaller for semiconductors.

Energy Levels in a Crystalline Solid:
Metals:

If the electric potential energy U of a conduction

electron is uniform throughout the lattice, let’s set
U = 0, so that the mechanical energy E is entirely
kinetic. Then the level at the bottom of the partially
filled band of Fig. 41-5 corresponds to E =0. The
highest occupied level in this band at absolute zero
(T =0 K) is called the Fermi level, and the energy
corresponding to it is called the Fermi energy EF;
for copper, EF =7.0 eV.

The electron speed corresponding to the Fermi

energy is called the Fermi speed vF. For copper the
Fermi speed is=1.6 x106 m/s. All motion does not
cease at absolute zero; at that temperature the
conduction electrons are stacked up in the partially
filled band of Fig. 41-5 with energies that range
from zero to the Fermi energy.
What is the Fermi energy?

a) 13.1 eV

b) the width of the largest band in the solid

c) the energy needed to initiate a current in a metal

d) the average total energy of the electrons within the solid

e) the highest occupied energy level of a solid when its at absolute

zero
What is the Fermi energy?

a) 13.1 eV

b) the width of the largest band in the solid

c) the energy needed to initiate a current in a metal

d) the average total energy of the electrons within the solid

e) the highest occupied energy level of a solid when its at absolute

zero
At absolute zero, electrons occupy energy levels up to a certain energy.
Which famous physicist is this energy named after?

a) Feynman

b) Bohr

c) Maxwell

d) Einstein

e) Fermi
At absolute zero, electrons occupy energy levels up to a certain energy.
Which famous physicist is this energy named after?

a) Feynman

b) Bohr

c) Maxwell

d) Einstein

e) Fermi
Metals: How Many Conduction Electrons Are There?

The number density n of conduction electrons in a sample is the 
number of conduction electrons per unit volume:
Example, Number of conduction electrons in a metal:

Given that magnesium has mass density of 1.738 g/cm3 and molar mass of 24.312 g/mol. 
Calculate how many conduction electrons are in a cube of magnesium of volume 2.00 x 10‐6
m3. Magnesium atoms are bivalent. 
Metals: Density of States
Example, Number of states per electron volt in a metal:
Metals: The Occupancy Probability P(E):
 Metals: How Many Occupied States Are There?

Fig. 41-8 (a) The density of occupied states No(E) for copper at absolute zero. The area under the curve is the number density of electrons n. Note
that all states with energies up to the Fermi energy EF =7 eV are occupied, and all those with energies above the Fermi energy are vacant. (b) The
same for copper at T =1000 K. Note that only electrons with energies near the Fermi energy have been affected and redistributed.
Example, Probability of occupancy of an energy state in a metal :
Example, Number of occupied states in an energy range in a metal:
Metals: Calculating the Fermi Energy:

(The number of occupied states per unit volume at

T = 0 K for all energies between E=0 and E=EF).

(Here m is the mass electron mass)

Semiconductors:

Fig. 41-9 (a) The band–gap pattern for a semiconductor. It resembles that of an
insulator except that here the energy gap Eg is much smaller; thus electrons,
because of their thermal agitation, have some reasonable probability of being able
to jump the gap. (b) Thermal agitation has caused a few electrons to jump the gap
from the valence band to the conduction band, leaving an equal number of holes in
the valence band.
Semiconductors: Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity:

(Here  is the resistivity)

The resistivity of copper increases with temperature (that is, d/dT >0) because
collisions of copper’s charge carriers occur more frequently at higher
temperatures. This makes  positive for copper. The collision frequency also
increases with temperature for silicon.

In contrast, the resistivity of silicon actually decreases with temperature (d/dT

<0) since the number of charge carriers n (electrons in the conduction band and
holes in the valence band) increases so rapidly with temperature. (More electrons
jump the gap from the valence band to the conduction band.) Thus, the fractional
change  is negative for silicon.
Doped Semiconductors:

Aluminium atom

Phosphorus atom
Doped Semiconductors:

A rough rule of thumb: a band gap of less

than 3 eV gives rise to a semiconductor.
Doped Semiconductors:
Example, Doping silicon with phosphorus:
The p-n junction:
Energy band diagram for p-n junction at equilibrium

Ecp eV0
Ecn
Efp
Efn
Evp
Evn

Apply eV0 to get diffusion

-
W +
- Depletion width
+
-
p + n
- Direction of built-in field
+
-
+
-
+
-
Space-charge layers
Energy band diagram for p-n junction – applied forward bias

Ecp eV
Ecn
Efp
Efn
Evp
Evn
Depletion width reduced
Built-in field reduced
Apply small V to get diffusion Barrier height reduced
Diffusion current increased
+ -
-
W + If Vforward = V0
- Depletion width
+ No barrier
-
p + n
- Direction of built-in field Pass large
+ current in one
-
+ direction
-
+
-
Space-charge layers
 Energy band diagram for p-n junction – applied reverse bias

Ecp eV

Evp
Ecn
Depletion width increased
Built-in field increased
Barrier height increased Evn
- +
-
W + Becomes
- Depletion width
Capacitor
+
-
p + n No current
- Direction of built-in field passed
+
-
+
-
+
-
Space-charge layers
The Junction Rectifier:

If a potential difference is applied across a

p-n junction in one direction (here labeled
and “Forward bias”), there will be a
current through the junction.

However, if the direction of the potential

Difference is reversed, there will be
approximately zero current through the
junction.
Which of the following statements best describes an n-type semiconductor?

a) An n-type semiconductor is one in its natural, undoped state.

b) An n-type semiconductor has more holes in the conduction band than in

its valence band.

c) An n-type semiconductor has more electrons in the conduction band than

holes in its valence band.

d) An n-type semiconductor has more electrons in the valence band than in

its conduction band.

e) An n-type semiconductor has more holes in the valence band than

electrons in its conduction band.
Which of the following statements best describes an n-type semiconductor?

a) An n-type semiconductor is one in its natural, undoped state.

b) An n-type semiconductor has more holes in the conduction band than in

its valence band.

c) An n-type semiconductor has more electrons in the conduction band than

holes in its valence band.

d) An n-type semiconductor has more electrons in the valence band than in

its conduction band.

e) An n-type semiconductor has more holes in the valence band than

electrons in its conduction band.
What type of semiconductor is made by adding impurity atoms that
contribute mobile positive holes?

a) a-type

b) f-type

c) m-type

d) n-type

e) p-type
What type of semiconductor is made by adding impurity atoms that
contribute mobile positive holes?

a) a-type

b) f-type

c) m-type

d) n-type

e) p-type
The Junction Rectifier, An Example:
 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

In some semiconductors, including gallium

arsenide, the energy can be emitted as a photon of
energy hf at wavelength
The Light-Emitting Diode (LED):

The Junction 
Photodiode Laser

A p‐n junction can act as a 
junction laser, where its light 
output being highly coherent 
and much more sharply defined 
in wavelength than light from an 
LED.
Shining light on a suitably arranged 
p‐n junction can produce a current 
in a circuit that includes the 
junction. This is the basis for the 
photodiode.
Example, Light Emitting Diode (LED):
The Transistor:
A transistor is a three-terminal semiconducting device that can be used to amplify input signals.
• Types
• p‐n‐p 
• n‐p‐n
• No current in left loop:
• only small current passing through resistor R
• Forward bias in left loop (from emitter to
base):
• most holes travelling from emitter to base travel
through the base to the second junction
• Comes into the influence of the collector‐to‐base
potential difference, creating current through R
• The collector current is controlled by the emitter
current
• If , power dissipated in R is much larger
than the power supplied by the emitter circuit →
power amplifier
• Types
• p‐n‐p 
• n‐p‐n
• No current in left loop:
• only small current passing through resistor R
• Forward bias in left loop (from emitter to
base):
• most holes travelling from emitter to base travel
through the base to the second junction
• Comes into the influence of the collector‐to‐base
potential difference, creating current through R
• The collector current is controlled by the emitter
current
• If , power dissipated in R is much larger
than the power supplied by the emitter circuit →
power amplifier
Which one of the following devices converts an ac voltage signal into
a dc voltage?

a) solar cell

b) transistor

c) rectifier circuit

d) generator

e) heterodyne detector
Which one of the following devices converts an ac voltage signal into
a dc voltage?

a) solar cell

b) transistor

c) rectifier circuit

d) generator

e) heterodyne detector