CHAPTER-01

INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I

1.1 MILITARY TRANSPORRT AIRCRAFT

Military transport aircraft or military cargo aircraft are typically fixed wing and
rotary wing cargo aircraft which are used to airlift troops, weapons and other
military equipment by a variety of methods to any area of military operations
around the surface of the planet, usually outside the commercial flight routes in
uncontrolled airspace. Originally derived from bombers, military transport aircraft
were used for delivering airborne forces during the Second World War and towing
military gliders. Some military transport aircraft are tasked to perform multi-role
duties such as aerial refueling and, rescue missions, tactical, operational and
strategic airlifts onto unprepared runways, or those constructed by engineers.
1.2 INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN
The aircraft design process is the engineering design process by which aircraft are
designed. These depend on many factors such as customer and manufacturer
demand, safety protocols, physical and economic constraints etc. For some types of
aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities. This
article deals with powered aircraft such as airplanes and helicopter designs.
Aircraft design is a compromise between many competing factors and constraints
and accounts for existing designs and market requirements to produce the best
aircraft.
Purpose:
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners
are designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel
efficiency where as fighter jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and
provide close support to ground troops. Some aircraft have specific missions, for
instance, amphibious airplanes have a unique design that allows them to operate
from both land and water, some fighters, like the Harrier Jump Jet, have VTOL
(Vertical Take-off and Landing) ability, helicopters have the ability to hover over
an area for a period of time. The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g.
as in the historical case of a British Air Ministry specification, or fill a perceived
"gap in the market"; that is, a class or design of aircraft which does not yet exist,
but for which there would be significant demand.
Aircraft regulations:
Another important factor that influences the design of the aircraft is the regulations
put forth by national aviation airworthiness authorities. Airports may also impose
limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan allowed for a conventional
aircraft is 80 m to prevent collisions between aircraft while taxiing.
Design optimization:
Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all
the constraints on their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually
headed by a Chief Designer who knows all the design requirements and objectives
and coordinated the team accordingly. As time progressed, the complexity of
military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern military and airline design projects
are of such a large scale that, every design aspect is tackled by different teams and
then brought together.
Computer-aided design of aircraft:
In the early years of aircraft design, designers generally used analytical theory to
do the various engineering calculations that go into the design process along with a
lot of experimentation. These calculations were labor-intensive and time
consuming. In the 1940s, several engineers started looking for ways to automate
and simplify the calculation process and many relations and semi-empirical
formulas were developed. Even after simplification, the calculations continued to
be extensive. With the invention of the computer, engineers realized that a majority
of the calculations could be automated, but the lack of design visualization and the
huge amount of experimentation involved kept the field of aircraft design stagnant.
With the rise of programming languages, engineers could now write programs that
were tailored to design an aircraft. Originally this was done with mainframe
computers and used low-level programming languages that required the user to be
fluent in the language and know the architecture of the computer. With the
introduction of personal computers, design programs began employing a more
user-friendly approach.
1.3 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT-I
In this aircraft design project on comparative study has been done with five
different military transport aircraft and according to the selection of parameter and
mean data sheet has been prepared for the new cargo design.
The weight of the aircraft is estimated at various stage of mission profile and the
value is founded to be similar to other operational military transport aircraft.
NACA 5-digit aerofoil are selected for the wing root and wing tip with sufficient
coefficient of lift value and NACA 4-digit symmetrical aerofoil are chosen for the
horizontal and vertical tail and then necessary calculation for the same is done. The
aerofoil is analyzed using JAVAFOIL software under various angles of attack and
the necessary graph is plotted.
The General Electric CF700 engine is selected as powerplants for the designing
aircraft because of it is higher Thrust and fuel efficiency.
The v-n Diagram for the designing aircraft is plotted and then necessary
performance analysis is done.
 CHAPTER - 02
INTRODUCTION TO AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - II

2.1 - Introduction to Aircraft Design Project - II:

The Aircraft Design Project – II is the continuation of Aircraft Design Project – I.
The Aircraft Design Project – II involves the structural design part of the airplane.
The assignments which are carried out in ADP – II are as follows:
Design of an Aircraft Wing:
Wing design is constantly evolving. The Design of aircraft wing includes the
estimation of load distribution on Aircraft wing, Bending Stress and shear flow
calculations, and buckling analysis of wing panels.
Design of an Aircraft Fuselage:
The Design of fuselage includes the estimation of load distribution on fuselage,
design of Bulkheads and longerons, Bending Stress and shear flow calculations
and buckling analysis of fuselage panels.
Design of Control Surfaces:
The Design of Control Surfaces includes the estimation of balancing and
maneuvering loads on the tail plane and ailerons, and Load acting on rudder.
2.2 MEAN DATA SHEET
SI.NO SPECIFICATION MEAN VALUES
1. PAY LOAD 81,600kg
2. CRUSING 14,000kg
ALTITUDE
3. OPERATING 0.75
MACH NO
4. RANGE 6500km
5. FERRY RANGE 10000km
6. ENDURANCE 38hrs
7. CRUISE 216.9m/sec
VELOCITY
8. (L/D)MAX 25.42
9. (L/D)CRUSIE 24.42
10. GROSS WEIGHT 323189kg
11. FUEL WEIGHT 85720kg
12. EMPTY WEIGHT 60800kg
13. CL max 3.8
14. CL cruise 0.31
15. CL climb 1.73
16. STALL 186 m/sec
VELOCITY
17. DENSITY AT 1.225
SEALEVEL Kg/m3
18. DENSITY AT 0.412
MAXIMUM Kg/m3
OPERATING
ALTITUDE
19. SFC 0.035kg/sec
20. SWEPT ANGLE 140
21. W/S 641.14kg/m2
22. TAPER RATIO 0.3
23. TIP CHORD FOR 5
WING
24. ROOT CHORD 17
FOR WING
25. TAPPER RATIO 0.23
FOR TAIL
26. TIP CHORD FOR 3
TAIL
27. ROOT CHORD 7
FOR TAIL
28. WING AREA 576m2
29. WING SPAN 68m
30. THRUST 189 KN
31. ASPECT RATIO 9.6
32. LENGTH 75.31m
33. HEIGHT 12.53m
34. MAXIMUM 381,000kg
TAKE OFF
WEIGHT
35. RATE OF CLIMB 3100ft/min
36. HORIZONTAL 5.4
 TAIL ASPECT
RATIO
37. VERTICALTAIL 3
ASPECT RATIO
38. POWER PLANT 4 turbofan 190KN
GE CF-700
39. MAXIMUM 258.8m/sec
SPEED
40. THRUST TO 0.47
WEIGHT RATIO
41. TAPPER RATIO 3.2
FOR VERTICAL
TAIL
42. TAPPER RATIO 4.3
FOR
HORZONTAL
TAIL
43. CREW 6
44. SERVICE 13000m
CEILING
45. Cdclimb 0.016
46. Cdcruise 0.015
47. Cd max 0.01537
48. L@climb 221.72 ×10 3
49. L@cruise 1663.72×10 3
50. L@descent 209.59×10 3
51. D@descent 2459.89
52. D@cruise 83.18×10 3
53. D@climb 2050.66
54. Rmin 15.19m
55. nmin 1.392
56. nmax 6.46
57. Pull up 22.44m
58. Take off 643.68m
59. Landing 313.63m

CHAPTER-03
 GUST ENVELOPE
3.1 GUST ENVELOPE:
Sudden impact of air pacts over the surface of the aircraft. Gust is arrested by
turbulence when the aircraft is in thunder stroke.
There are two types of Gust envelope
1. Horizontal Gust
2. Vertical Gust

Horizontal Gust: Change in angle of attack

Vertical Gust: Lead to phugoid motion
∆L
∆ H=
w

From trignomentrical,
u
tan ( ∆ ∝) =
v∞

Assume
tan ( ∆ ∝) =∝
u
tan ( ∝ ) ∝=
v∞

Change in lift is given by,

1
∆ L= ρ∞ v 2∞ s c L
2
1
∆ L= ρ∞ v 2∞ s c L x ∆ ∝
2
1 2 u
∆ L= ρ∞ v ∞ s c L x
2 v∞

1
∆ L= ρ∞ s c L x u
2

Change in lift load factor is given by,

∆L
∆ n=
w
 1
ρ v s c xu
2 ∞ ∞ L
∆ n=
w
1
ρ v c xu
2 ∞ ∞ L
∆ n=
w
s
1
ρ v c xu
2 ∞ ∞ L
∆ n=
2
w
s( )

GUST VELOCITY IS GIVEN BY

u=k x ue

Where,
K= Gust elevation factor
Ue= equivalent airspeed
For subsonic aircraft,
0.88 μ
k=
5.3+ μ

For supersonic aircraft,

1.03
μ
k=
6.95+ μ 1.03

1. MASS RATIO

µ=
2 ( ws )
ρg CLmax X C

C=chord length
2. GUST VELOCITY
 u=k ×ue

For low speed aircraft,

ue =30 m/s
For high speed aircraft,
ue =15 m/ s
3. CHANGE IN LOAD FACTOR

k g u e v e ρ∞ s a
∆ n=1 ±
2w
Where,
a= lift slope

Velocity,
v e=15.25m/ s
v e=7.5m/ s

C L =2 π ∝

dCl
a=
d∝

¿ 2 π (∆ ∝)

CALCULATION
MAXIMUM COEFFICIENT OF LIFT CALCULATION
1) Mass ratio

µ=
2 ( ws )
ρg C Lcruise × C

2 x 641.14
µ=
1.225× 9.81 ×3.8 ×2.34
µ=65.70
 2) Gust velocity
u=k ×ue

0.88 μ
k=
5.3+ μ

0.88× 65.70
k=
5.3+65.70

k =0.814

u=0.814 ×30

u=24.42m/ s
3) Change in load factor

k gue v e × ρ × s × a
∆ n=1 ±
2w

Where, a= lift slope

{
m
v e =15.25
velocity s
m
v e =7.5
s
C l=2 π ∝

a=2 π × 0.131
a=0.824
m
For v e=15.25 s

0.814 × 30× 15.25× 1.225× 576 ×0.824

∆ n=1 ±
2× 228635.097
∆ nmax=1.498 ∆ nmin =0.502

m
For v e=7.5 s

0.814 × 30× 7.5× 1.255× 576 ×0.824

∆ n=1 ±
2× 228635.097
 ∆ nmax=1.232∆ nmin =0.767

CRUISE COEFFICIENT OF LIFT CALCULATION

1) Mass ratio

µ=
2 ( ws )
ρg Cl cruise
C

2 ×641.14
µ=
0.412× 9.81 ×0.31 ×2.34
µ=2394.80

2) Gust velocity
u=k ×ue

0.88 μ
k=
5.3+ μ

0.88× 2394.80
k=
5.3+2394.80

k =0.878

u=0.878 x 30
u=26.34 m/ s
3) Change in load factor

k g u e v e xρx s xa
∆ n=1 ±
2w

Where, a= lift slope

{
m
v e =15.25
velocity s
m
v e =7.5
s
C l=2 π ∝

a=2 π × 0.121
a=0.76
 m
For v e=15.25 s

0.878 ×30 ×15.25 × 0.412×576 × 0.76

∆ n=1 ±
2 ×228635.07
∆ nmax=1.158 ∆ nmin =0.841

m
For v e=7.5 s

0.878 ×30 ×7.5 × 0.412×576 × 0.76

∆ n=1 ±
2 ×228635.07
∆ nmax=1.078 ∆ nmin =0.922

CLIMB COEFFICIENT OF LIFT CALCULATION

1) Mass ratio

µ=
2 ( ws )
ρg Cl C climb

2 ×641.14
µ=
1.225× 9.81 ×1.73 ×2.34
µ=144.32

2) Gust velocity
u=k ×ue

0.88 μ
k=
5.3+ μ

0.88× 144.32
k=
5.3+144.32

k =0.848

u=0.848 ×30

u=25.44 m/ s
3) Change in load factor
 k g u e v e xρx s xa
∆ n=1 ±
2w
Where, a= lift slope

{
m
v e =15.25
velocity s
m
v e =7.5
s
CL=2 π ∝

a=2 π × 0.136
a=0.855
m
For v e=15.25 s

0.848 ×30 ×576 × 1.225× 15.25× 0.855

∆ n=1 ±
2 ×228635.07
∆ nmax=1.513 ∆ nmin =0.486

m
For v e=7.5 s

0.848 ×30 ×7.5 ×1.255 ×576 × 0.855

∆ n=1 ±
2 ×228635.07
∆ nmax=1.252∆ nmin =0.747

GUST VELOCITY DIAGRAM

GUST VELOCITY@ CRUISE GRAPH
 1.6
1.498
1.4

1.2 1.232

1 1

0.8 0.76700000000000
1
0.6
0.502
0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Fig.3.1.1 Gust velocity@ cruise

GUST VELOCITY@ CLIMB

1.4

1.2
1.158

1 1 1.018
0.922
0.84100000000000
0.8 1

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18

Fig.3.1.2. Gust velocity@ climb

GUST VELOCITY@ DESCENT GRAPH

 1.6
1.523
1.4
1.252
1.2

1 1

0.8 0.74700000000000
Δn

1
0.6
0.486
0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Gust velocity @ descent

Fig.3.1.3 Gust velocity@ descent

3.2 MANUVERING VELOCITY

The maneuvering velocity in aviation, the maneuvering speed of an aircraft is an
airspeed limitation selected by the designer of the aircraft. At speeds close to, and
faster than, the maneuvering speed, full deflection of any flight control
surface should not be attempted because of the risk of damage to the aircraft
structure.
The maneuvering speed of an aircraft is shown on a cockpit placard and in the
aircraft's flight manual but is not commonly shown on the aircraft's airspeed
indicator.

v m=v +kp ( v −v )
s c s

k p=0.15+ ( w+3300
5400
)
Where,
W = cruise weight = 218449.31
V s =stall velocity

V c =cruise velocity

K p =manuvering velocity
 k p=0.15+ [ 5400
218449.31+3300 ]
k p=0.1743

Vm = 186.19 + 0.1743(216.16-186.19)
Vm = 191.41m/s
COMBINATION OF V-n DIAGRAM AND GUST VELOCITY
V-n Diagram and Gust velocity @ climb
3

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

Fig.3.2.1 V-n Diagram and Gust velocity @ climb

V-n diagram and Gust velocity @ cruise

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2

Fig.3.2.2 V-n diagram and Gust velocity @ cruise

V-n Diagram and Gust velocity @ Landing
3

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

Fig.3.2.2 V-n Diagram and Gust velocity @ Landing

3.3 GUST ENVELOPE USES

In aerodynamics, the flight envelope, service envelope, or performance envelope of
an aircraft refers to the capabilities of a design in terms of airspeed and load factor
or altitude. The term is somewhat loosely applied, and can also refer to other
measurements such as maneuverability. When a plane is pushed, for instance by
diving it at high speeds, it is said to be flown "outside the envelope", something
considered rather dangerous. Flight envelope is one of a number of related terms
that are all used in a similar fashion. It is perhaps the most common term because it
is the oldest, first being used in the early days of test flying. It is closely related to
more modern terms known as extra power and a doghouse plot which are different
ways of describing a flight envelope. In addition, the term has been widened in
scope outside the field of engineering, to refer to the strict limits in which an event
will take place or more generally to the predictable behavior of a given
phenomenon or situation, and hence, its "flight envelope"
 CHAPTER-04
DESIGN AND STRUCTURE ESTIMATION OF WING
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO WING:
A wing is a type of fin with a surface that produces aerodynamic forces facilitating
movement through air and other gases, or water and other liquids. As such, wings
have an airfoil shape, a streamlined cross-sectional shape producing lift. The word
"wing" referred mainly to the foremost limbs of birds (in addition to the
architectural aisle.) But in recent centuries the word's meaning has extended to
include lift producing appendages of insects, bats, pterosaurs, boomerangs, some
sail boats and aircraft, or the inverted airfoil on a race car that generates a
downward force to increase traction. A wing's aerodynamic quality is expressed as
its lift-to-drag ratio. The lift a wing generates at a given speed and angle of attack
can be one to two orders of magnitude greater than the total drag on the wing. A
high lift-to-drag ratio requires a significantly smaller thrust to propel the wings
through the air at sufficient lift.
AERODYNAMICS OF WINGS
The design and analysis of the wings of aircraft is one of the principal applications
of the science of aerodynamics, which is a branch of fluid mechanics. The
properties of the airflow around any moving object can - in principle - be found by
solving the Navier-Stokes equations of fluid dynamics. For a wing to produce
"lift", it must be oriented at a suitable angle of attack relative to the flow of air past
the wing. When this occurs the wing deflects the airflow downwards, "turning" the
air as it passes the wing. Since the wing exerts a force on the air to change its
direction, the air must exert a force on the wing, equal in size but opposite in
direction. This force manifests itself as differing air pressures at different points on
the surface of the wing.
A region of lower-than-normal air pressure is generated over the top surface of the
wing, with a higher pressure on the bottom of the wing. (See: airfoil) These air
pressure differences can be either measured directly using instrumentation, or can
be calculated from the airspeed distribution using basic physical principles—
including Bernoulli's Principle, which relates changes in air speed to changes in air
pressure. The lower air pressure on the top of the wing generates a smaller
downward force on the top of the wing than the upward force generated by the
higher air pressure on the bottom of the wing. Hence, a net upward force acts on
the wing. This force is called the "lift" generated by the wing.

TYPES OF WING
 Swept backward wing
 Swept forward wing
 Tapered wing
 Delta wing
 Up wing
 Mid wing
 Low wing
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR WING
 Fig4.1.1 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR WING

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS OF THE WING

SPAR
In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the wing,
running span wise at right angles (or thereabouts depending on wing sweep) to the
fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on the
ground. Other structural and forming members such as ribs may be attached to the
spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is
used. There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all. However, where a
single spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar.
Spars are also used in other aircraft aero foil surfaces such as the tail plane and fin
and serve a similar function, although the loads transmitted may be different from
those of a wing spar.
RIB
In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in
traditional construction. By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the ribs
attach to the main spar, and by being repeated at frequent intervals, form a skeletal
shape for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil shape of the wing, and the
skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SPAR AND RIB
 Fig.4.1.2 schematic diagram of spar and rib

STRINGERS
In aircraft fuselage, stringers are attached to formers (also called frames) and run in
the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They are primarily responsible for
transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames and formers.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF STRINGERS

Fig.4.1.3 schematic diagram of stringers

4.2 SHRENCK’S CURVE
LOAD ESTIMATION OF WING
 Span wise lift distribution
 Span wise lift distribution
πab
Planform area of the wing = 2

Where, “b” is span of wing and “a” is semi span of wing.

a = b/2
Two type of methods are available to calculate the lift distribution of the wing.
1. Span wise or planform method using shrenck’s curve
2. Chord wise or elliptical distribution method
CHORD WISE LIFT DISTRIBUTION
Angle of Semi wing Wing span X = acosα Y = bsinα
attack span
25 34 68 30.81 14.37
20 34 68 31.94 11.62
15 34 68 32.84 8.79
10 34 68 33.48 5.90
5 34 68 33.99 2.96
0 34 68 34 0
-5 34 68 33.87 -2.96
-10 34 68 33.48 -5.90
-15 34 68 32.84 -8.79
-20 34 68 31.94 -11.62
-25 34 68 30.81 -14.37

CHORD WISE LIFT DISTRIBUTION GRAPH

 Chart Title
35
33.99 34 33.87
34 33.48 33.48
33 32.84 32.84

31.94 31.94
32

31 30.81 30.81

30

29
-14.37 -11.37 -8.79 -5.9 -2.96 0 2.96 5.9 8.79 11.62 14.37

Fig.4.2.1 chord wise lift distribution graph

SPAN WISE LIFT DISTRIBUTION

Load intensity at the root
w0
×b
 Load intensity = 2
areaunder the curve

2
 Area = 3 × y max

x2 y 2
 Elliptic equation = 2 + 2 =1
a b

√
2
x
y=b 1− 2
a

2
Area(A) = 3 ×14.32

A = 9.546m2
From the elliptic equation,
Wing span (b) = 68m
Half wing span (a) = 34m
x varies from 0 to 34
 y 1=68 1−
√ 32
34
2

y 1=67.73 m

The above same step as follow y 2 to y 12,

y 2=66.93 m

y 3=65.57 m

y 4 =63.63 m

y 5=61.02 m

y 6=57.68 m

y 7=53.48 m

y 8=48.16 m

y 9=41.33 m

y 10=32 m

y 11=16.37 m

y 12=0

Chart Title
80
67.73 69.93 65.57
70 63.62
61.02
57.68
60 53.48
48.16
50
41.33
40
32
30

20 16.37

10
0
0
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 34
LOAD INTENSITY
w0
×b
 Load intensity = 2
areaunder the curve
w 0=¿228635.09 kg¿

Area = 9.546m2
Half Wing span (b) = 34m
b varies from 0 to 34
228635.09
×3
2
Load Intensity 1 (v )=
9.546
kg
LI1=35926.3 m

The above same step as follow LI 2 to LI 12 ,

kg
LI 2=71852.6
m
kg
LI 3=107778.9
m
kg
LI 4=143705.2
m
kg
LI 5=179631.5
m
kg
LI 6=215557.8
m
kg
LI 7=251484.1
m
kg
LI 8=287410.4
m
kg
LI 9=323336.73
m
kg
LI 10=359263.04
m
 kg
LI 11=395189.3
m
kg
LI 12=407164.78
m

LOAD INTENSITY AT ROOT

Chart Title
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
- - - - - - - - - -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 34
-50000 34 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12

Series1 Series2

4.3 STRUCTURAL LOAD DISTRIBUTION ALONG WING

POINT LOAD
In the field of engineering, a point load is a load applied to a single, specific point
on a structural member. It is also known as a concentrated load, and an example of
it would be a hammer hitting a single nail into a beam.
UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD
A uniformly distributed load has a constant value, for example, 1kN/m, hence the
"uniform" distribution of the load. Each uniformly distributed load can be changed
to a simple point force that can be used to determine the stresses in an object.
UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD
A uniformly varying load is usually one varying linearly, as in a triangular weight
distribution.
LIFT LOAD INTENSITY
Lift load intensity=b × LI
¿ 68 ×0
LLI 1 =0

LLI 2=68 ×35926.3

LLI 2=2442988.4

LLI 3 =68 ×17852.6

LLI 3 =4885976.8

LLI 4=68 ×107778.9

LLI 4=7328965.2

Similarly,
LLI 5 =97719953.6

LLI 6=12214942

LLI 7 =14657930.4

LLI 8=17100918.8

LLI 9=19543907.2

LLI 10 =21986895.6

LLI 11=24429886.7

LLI 12=26872872.4

LLI 13 =276872205.04

STRUCTURAL INTENSITY OF WING

b
2

w wing =∫ k c x dx
2

C x =a+bx

“x” varies from 0 to 34

 a = 34m, b = 68m
C 0=34+ 68 ( 0 )
C 0=34

Similarly,
C 1=238

C 2=442

C 3=646

C 4=850

C 5=1054

C 6=1258

C 7=1462

C 8=1666

C 9=1870

C 10=2074

C 11=2278

C 12 =2346

Structural load intensity

W wing=K C 2x []
b
2

Subsonic Value, k = 33
Supersonic Value, k = 30
W wing1=33× ( 34 )2 [ 34 ]
6
¿ 1.297 ×10

W wing2=33× ( 238 )2 [ 238 ]

6
¿ 63.55 ×10

Similarly,
6
W wing3 =219.19× 10
 6
W wing 4=468.22×10
6
W wing5 =810.64 ×10

W wing6 =2146.44 ×106

6
W wing7 =1775.63× 10

W wing8 =23981.21× 106

W wing9 =3114.17 ×106

6
W wing10 =3923.52 ×10
6
W wing11 =4826.25× 10

W wing12 =5822.38 ×106

6
W wing13 =6175.16× 10

STRUCTURAL LOAD INTENSITY VS WING SPAN GRAPH

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
-34-33 -30-27 -24 -21-18 -15-12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 34
RESULTANT LOAD INTENSITY
RLI =( structural load intensity )−( lift load intensity )
Resultant load intensity=W −LLI
6
¿ 1.29 x 10 −0
6
RLI =1.29 x 10
6 6
RLI 1=63.55 x 10 −4.88 x 10
6
¿ 3.74 x 10

Similarly,
6
RLI 2=58.66 x 10

RLI 3=211.86 x 106

RLI 4 =370.50 x 106

RLI 5=798.43 x 106

RLI 6 =1231.79 x 106

6
RLI 7 =1758.53 x 10
6
RLI 8 =2378.67 x 10

RLI 9 =3092.19 x 106

RLI 10=3899.09 x 10 6

RLI 11=4799.38 x 106

RLI 12=5545.50 x 106

RESULTANT LOAD INTENSITY VS WING SPAN GRAPH

 6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
-34-33 -30-27 -24 -21-18 -15-12 -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 34

4.4 SHEAR FORCE, TORQUE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

FOR CANTILEVER BEAM WITH UVL
CANTILEVER BEAM SHEAR FLOW AND BENDING MOMENT
DIAGRAM
Take a section X at a distance x from the free end B
Let Fx = Shear force at the section X, and
Mx = Bending moment at the section X
Let us first find the rate of loading at the section X. The rate of loading is
zero at B and is w per meter run at A.
The shear force and the section X at a distance x from free end is given by,
Fx = Total load o the cantilever for the length x from the free end B
= Area of triangle BCX

XB . XC
= 2 =
x ( wL. x )
2

w . x2
=
2L

Equation show s that he shear flow varies according to the parabolic law.
w ×0 2
At B, x=0 hence FB = =0
2L
2
w×L w. L
At A, x=L hence FA = =
2L 2
The bending moment at the section X at a distance x from the free end B is given
by,
Mx = -(Total load for the length)×Distance of the free end B is given by,
= -(Area of the triangle BCX)×Distance of C.G of the triangle form X.

=( )w x2 x
2L
×
3

=(
6L )
3
wx

Equation shows that the B.M varies according to the circle law
w ×0
At B, x=0 hence MB = 6 L =0
3 2
w . L −w . L
At A, x=L hence MA = =
6L 6

4.5 DESIGN OF SPARS, RIB AND STRINGERS

SPAR
In a fixed-wing aircraft, the spar is often the main structural member of the wing,
running span wise at right angles (or thereabouts depending on wing sweep) to the
fuselage. The spar carries flight loads and the weight of the wings while on the
ground. Other structural and forming members such as ribs may be attached to the
spar or spars, with stressed skin construction also sharing the loads where it is
used. There may be more than one spar in a wing or none at all. However, where a
single spar carries the majority of the forces on it, it is known as the main spar.
Spars are also used in other aircraft aero foil surfaces such as the tail plane and fin
and serve a similar function, although the loads transmitted may be different from
those of a wing spar.
RIB
In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of the structure of a wing, especially in
traditional construction. By analogy with the anatomical definition of "rib", the ribs
attach to the main spar, and by being repeated at frequent intervals, form a skeletal
shape for the wing. Usually ribs incorporate the airfoil shape of the wing, and the
skin adopts this shape when stretched over the ribs.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SPAR AND RIB

STRINGERS
In aircraft fuselage, stringers are attached to formers (also called frames) and run in
the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They are primarily responsible for
transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames and formers.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF STRINGERS
4.6 BENDING STREES AND SHEAR FLOW CALCULATON
3
−l× x
1. Bending moment =
6b
l× x 2
2. Shear flow =
2b

Where,
“l” is lift on cruise
“x” is sectional distance
“b” is wing span
 Bending moment vs Span
 Shear flow vs Span

BENDING MOMENT CALCULATION

−l× x3
Bending moment =
6b

L = 1663.72×103N
“x” varies from 0 to 34
b = 68m
B.M0 = 0
−1663.72× 103 × 33
B.M1 =
68 × 6

B.M1 = -110099.12
Similarly,
B.M2 = -880792.94
B.M3 = -2972676.16
B.M4 = -7046343.52
B.M5 = -13762389.71
B.M6 = -23781409.41
 B.M7 = -37763997.35
B.M8 = -56370748.24
B.M9 = -80262256.76
B.M10 = -110099117.6
B.M11 = -146541925.6
B.M12 = -160271693.8
BENDING MOMENT VS SPAN GRAPH

Chart Title
16000000

14000000

12000000

10000000

8000000

6000000

4000000

2000000

0
- - - - - - - - - -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 34
34 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12

SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION

2
l× x
Shear flow =
2b

S.F0 = 0
1663.72×10 3 ×3 2
S.F1 =
2 ×68

S.F1 = 110099.11
Similarly,
S.F2 = 440396.47
 S.F3 = 990892.05
S.F4 = 1761585.88
S.F5 = 2752477.90
S.F6 = 3963568.23
S.F7 = 5394856.76
S.F8 = 7046343.52
S.F9 = 8918028.52
S.F10 = 11009911.78
S.F11 = 13321993.24
S.F12 = 14141620

SHEAR FLOW VS SPAN GRAPH

Chart Title
16000000

14000000

12000000

10000000

8000000

6000000

4000000

2000000

0
- - - - - - - - - -9 -6 -3 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 34
34 33 30 27 24 21 18 15 12

4.7 BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF WING PANEL

A comparison of ‘exact’ and approximate methods for the determination of critical
buckling loads of prismatic benchmark metal and composite panels is presented.
The panels are stiffened by either J-, blade- or hat-stiffeners and are representative
of typical aircraft wing panel configurations, with in-plane shear and compression
load combinations. Buckling design curves and modes are illustrated, and
associated CPU times are given to demonstrate the accuracy and efficiency of the
approximations adopted. Initial results for the benchmarks, which are rectangular
in plan-form, are compared with rigorous finite element solutions. Thereafter,
attention is focused on results for the same panels but with parallelogram plan-
form. Two analysis methods based on Classical Plate Theory are used as follows:
an existing, ‘exact’ method, incorporating Lagrangian multipliers to constrain the
transverse (or skew) boundary conditions; and a recently developed approximate
infinite width technique, based on the previous one but analysing only a repeating
portion of the plate assembly.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BUCKLING ANALYSIS OF WING PANEL
WING DESIGN DIAGRAM
 CHAPTER-05
DESIGN AND STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF FUSELAGE
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FUSELAGE
The fuselage includes the cabin and/or cockpit, which contains seats for the
occupants and the controls for the airplane. In addition, the fuselage may also
provide room for cargo and attachment points for the other major airplane
components. Some aircraft utilize an open truss structure. The truss-type fuselage
is constructed of steel or aluminum tubing. Strength and rigidity is achieved by
welding the tubing together into a series of triangular shapes, called trusses.
The fuselage "spindle-shaped" is an aircraft's main body section that holds crew
and passengers or cargo. In single-engine aircraft it will usually contain an engine,
although in some amphibious aircraft the single engine is mounted on a pylon
attached to the fuselage which in turn is used as a floating hull. The fuselage also
serves to position control and stabilization surfaces in specific relationships to
lifting surfaces, required for aircraft stability and maneuverability.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES
 Monocoque structure
 Semi-monocoque structure
 Truss structure
 Geodesic construction
FUNCTION OF FUSELAGE
The fuselage, or body of the airplane, is a long hollow tube which holds all the
pieces of an airplane together. The fuselage is hollow to reduce weight. As with
most other parts of the airplane, the shape of the fuselage is normally determined
by the mission of the aircraft. A supersonic fighter plane has a very slender,
streamlined fuselage to reduce the drag associated with high speed flight. An
airliner has a wider fuselage to carry the maximum number of passengers. On an
airliner, the pilots sit in a cockpit at the front of the fuselage. Passengers and cargo
are carried in the rear of the fuselage and the fuel is usually stored in the wings.
For a fighter plane, the cockpit is normally on top of the fuselage, weapons are
carried on the wings, and the engines and fuel are placed at the rear of the fuselage.
The weight of an aircraft is distributed all along the aircraft. The fuselage, along
with the passengers and cargo, contribute a significant portion of the weight of an
aircraft. The center of gravity of the aircraft is the average location of the weight
and it is usually located inside the fuselage. In flight, the aircraft rotates around the
center of gravity because of torques generated by the elevator, rudder, and ailerons.
The fuselage must be designed with enough strength to withstand these torques.
A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an
airplane. Other kinds of partition elements within a ship are decks and deckheads.
In aircraft and launch vehicle construction, a longeron, or stringer or stiffener, is a
thin strip [not verified in body] of material to which the skin of an aircraft or
propellant tank may be fastened.

DIAGRAM FOR FUSELAGE

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS
SEMI-MONOCOQUE
The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-
performance aircraft. Semi-monocoque literally means half a single shell. Here,
internal braces as well as the skin itself carry the stress. The internal braces include
longitudinal (lengthwise) members called stringers and vertical bulkhead.The
semi-monocoque structure is easier to streamline than the truss structure. Since the
skin of the semi-monocoque structure must carry much of the fuselage's strength, it
will be thicker in some places than at other places. In other words, it will be thicker
at those points where the stress on it is the greatest. Some aircraft use a
combination of construction methods. The superb Mooney range of four seat
aircraft, for instance, use a steel tube truss frame around the passenger
compartment with semi-monocoque behind.
MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION
Many modern light aircraft are constructed using composite (glass fibre) materials.
This type of construction is effectively monocoque and is extremely strong. Extra
rigidity can be achieved by using glass foam sandwich construction.
BULKHEAD
A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an
aero plane. Other kinds of partition elements within a ship are decks and
deckheads. A bulkhead is practically a dividing wall between cabins on long haul
flights. In case of short flights, such a seat is commonly a sliding curtain. A
bulkhead is therefore a divider which separates the classes or sections of a plane. A
bulkhead is more than often a wall but, a curtain or a screen.
Apart from separating the business and economy classes, such bulkheads may be
encountered all over the plane, separating the seats from the galley as well as the
lavatory areas. It thus follows that bulkhead seats are the seats located directly
behind these bulkhead screens. Thus, there is will be no one to lie back in front of
you. The mere fact that there is no seat in front of you will make this happen. This
usually makes it easier to enter and exit your seat during flight too. Some of these
seats will therefore offer you extra legroom. Naturally, if the partition screen is
located at a considerable distance from the first row of seats, the passengers sitting
in the bulkhead seats will reap the benefits of the extra space provided by these
seats.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BULKHEADS

LANGERONS
In aircraft fuselage, stringers are attached to formers (also called frames) and run in
the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They are primarily responsible for
transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames and formers.
In the wings or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach between
the ribs. The primary function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on
the wings onto the ribs and spar. Sometimes the terms "longeron" and "stringer"
are used interchangeably. Historically, though, there is a subtle difference between
the two terms. If the longitudinal members in a fuselage are few in number and run
all along the fuselage length (usually 4 to 8), then they are called "longerons". The
longeron system also requires that the fuselage frames be closely spaced (about
every 4 to 6 in or 10 to 15 cm). If the longitudinal members are numerous (usually
50 to 100) and are placed just between two formers/frames, then they are called
"stringers". In the stringer system the longitudinal members are smaller and the
frames are spaced farther apart (about 15 to 20 in or 38 to 51 cm). Generally,
longerons are of larger cross-section when compared to stringers. On large modern
aircraft the stringer system is more common because it is more weight-efficient,
despite being more complex to construct and analyze. Some aircraft use a
combination of both stringers and longerons.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LONGERONS

5.2 LOAD DISTRIBUTION OF AIRCRAFT FUSELAGE

POINT LOAD
In the field of engineering, a point load is a load applied to a single, specific point
on a structural member. It is also known as a concentrated load, and an example of
it would be a hammer hitting a single nail into a beam.
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH POINT LOAD

UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

A uniformly distributed load has a constant value, for example, 1kN/m, hence the
"uniform" distribution of the load. Each uniformly distributed load can be changed
to a simple point force that can be used to determine the stresses in an object.
CANTILEVER BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY DISTRIBUTED LOAD

UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD

A uniformly varying load is usually one varying linearly, as in a triangular weight
distribution.
SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM WITH UNIFORMLY VARYING LOAD

5.3 DESIGN OF BULKHEADS AND LONGERONS

SEMI-MONOCOQUE
The semi-monocoque is the most often used construction for modern, high-
performance aircraft. Semi-monocoque literally means half a single shell. Here,
internal braces as well as the skin itself carry the stress. The internal braces include
longitudinal (lengthwise) members called stringers and vertical bulkhead.The
semi-monocoque structure is easier to streamline than the truss structure. Since the
skin of the semi-monocoque structure must carry much of the fuselage's strength, it
will be thicker in some places than at other places. In other words, it will be thicker
at those points where the stress on it is the greatest. Some aircraft use a
combination of construction methods. The superb Mooney range of four seat
aircraft, for instance, use a steel tube truss frame around the passenger
compartment with semi-monocoque behind.
MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION
Many modern light aircraft are constructed using composite (glass fibre) materials.
This type of construction is effectively monocoque and is extremely strong. Extra
rigidity can be achieved by using glass foam sandwich construction.
BULKHEAD
A bulkhead is an upright wall within the hull of a ship or within the fuselage of an
aero plane. Other kinds of partition elements within a ship are decks and
deckheads. A bulkhead is practically a dividing wall between cabins on long haul
flights. In case of short flights, such a seat is commonly a sliding curtain. A
bulkhead is therefore a divider which separates the classes or sections of a plane.
Apart from separating the business and economy classes, such bulkheads may be
encountered all over the plane, separating the seats from the galley as well as the
lavatory areas. The mere fact that there is no seat in front of you will make this
happen. This usually makes it easier to enter and exit your seat during flight too.
Some of these seats will therefore offer you extra legroom. Naturally, if the
partition screen is located at a considerable distance from the first row of seats, the
passengers sitting in the bulkhead seats will reap the benefits of the extra space
provided by these seats.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BULKHEADS
LANGERONS
In aircraft fuselage, stringers are attached to formers (also called frames) and run in
the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They are primarily responsible for
transferring the aerodynamic loads acting on the skin onto the frames and formers.
In the wings or horizontal stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach between
the ribs. The primary function here also is to transfer the bending loads acting on
the wings onto the ribs and spar. Sometimes the terms "longeron" and "stringer"
are used interchangeably. Historically, though, there is a subtle difference between
the two terms. If the longitudinal members in a fuselage are few in number and run
all along the fuselage length (usually 4 to 8), then they are called "longerons". The
longeron system also requires that the fuselage frames be closely spaced (about
every 4 to 6 in or 10 to 15 cm). If the longitudinal members are numerous (usually
50 to 100) and are placed just between two formers/frames, then they are called
"stringers". In the stringer system the longitudinal members are smaller and the
frames are spaced farther apart (about 15 to 20 in or 38 to 51 cm). Generally,
longerons are of larger cross-section when compared to stringers. On large modern
aircraft the stringer system is more common because it is more weight-efficient,
despite being more complex to construct and analyze. Some aircraft use a
combination of both stringers and longerons.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF LONGERONS
5.4 BENDING STRESS AND SHEAR FLOW CALCULATION
SHEAR FLOW FOR FUSELAGE
Fuselage is main structure of the aircraft, it provide space for passengers, cargo,
Navigation system and control surface. The power plant, wing, vertical stabilizer,
horizontal stabilizer, landing gears are embodied to the fuselage.
There are two types of fuselage structure,
1. Monocouque structures
2. Semi monocouque structures
MONOCOUQUE STRUCTURE
Largely on the strength of wing, it carry load acting. Bulkheads gives the
streamline aerodynamic shape to the fuselage
SEMI MONOCOUQUE STRUCTURE
Fuselage is constructed primarily of longerons (length wise member) and stringers.
Bulkhead located in interval to withstand concentrated load. Longerons and
stringers withstand tensile load as well as bending and torsional moment.
Thickness of the monocouque skin structure is higher compare to semi
monocouque.
 length of fuselage Lf
Slenderness ratio= =
Diameter of the fuselage d f

Slenderness is 10.3 for all model aircrafts

c
Lf =a × ω0

TYPE OF AIRCRAFT A C
Jet transport 0.287 0.43
Military cargo/ Military 0.104 0.50
bomber
Jet fighter 0.389 0.39
Agriculture 1.48 0.23
Sports 1.35 0.23
General aircraft single 1.6 0.23
engine
Twin engine 0.366 0.42

−v
Shear flow for fuselage , q=
I
∫ ytds
−v
q=
I
∑ A i yi
Where,
V – load on fuselage
I – moment of inertia
y i and y – distance from neutral axis

t – thickness
ds – area
Ai – boom area

Fuselage diameter calculation:

c
Lf =a × ω0
0.5
Lf =0.104 (228635.097)
 Lf =49.72 m

Lf
=10.3
df
d f =5.808 m

For civil aircraft application, a = 100cm2

For military aircraft application, a = 80cm2
CALCULATION
−v
I ∑ i i
q= A y

I =∑ Ai y 2i

Maximum load intensity on the wing = Maximum load act on the fuselage
V = 407164.78kg/m
A = 80cm2 = 0.08 m2
y = a×cosθ
“θ” varies from 0 to 900
A = 2πr2
r = 0.159m
y1 = 3-r
y1 = 2.841
Similarly,
y2 = (3-r)sin450
y2=2
y3 = 0
y4 = -2
y5 = -2.841
y6 = -2
 y7 = 0
y8 = 2
I 1={ 0.008 ×2.841 }
2

4
I 1=0.0227 m

Similarly,
I 2=0.032 m4
I 3=0

I 4=−0.032

I 5=−0.0227

I 6=−0.032

I 7=0

I 8=0.032

−v
q=
I
∑ A i yi
−407164.78
q AB= (0.008 ×2.847)
0.0227
kg
q AB=−407667.7 2
m
−407164.78
q BC = ( 0.008 ×2 ) +q AB
0.032
q BC =−203582.39−407667.7

kg
q BC =−611249.39 2
m

Similarly,
kg
q CD =−611249.39
m2
kg
q DE =−814831.78 2
m
 kg
q EF =−1222498.79 2
m
kg
q FG =−1426081.18 2
m
kg
q GH =−1426081.18
m2
kg
q HA =−1629663.57
m2

FUSELAGE DESIGN DIAGRAM

 CHAPTER-06
DESIGN OF CONTROL SURFACE
6.1 INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SURFACE
Aircraft flight control surfaces allow a pilot to adjust and control the aircraft's
flight attitude. Development of an effective set of flight control surfaces was a
critical advance in the development of aircraft. Early efforts at fixed-wing aircraft
design succeeded in generating sufficient lift to get the aircraft off the ground, but
once aloft, the aircraft proved uncontrollable, often with disastrous results. The
development of effective flight controls is what allowed stable flight. This article
describes the control surfaces used on a fixed-wing aircraft of conventional design.
Other fixed-wing aircraft configurations may use different control surfaces but the
basic principles remain. The controls (stick and rudder) for rotary wing aircraft
(helicopter or autogyro) accomplish the same motions about the three axes of
rotation, but manipulate the rotating flight controls (main rotor disk and tail rotor
disk) in a completely different manner.
AXES OF MOTION
"Pitch" is a nose-up/nose-down rotation, "roll" is a rotation lifting one wing and
lowering the other, "yaw" rotation moves the nose in a left/right direction.
Rotation around the three axes
An aircraft is free to rotate around three axes that are perpendicular to each other
and intersect at its center of gravity (CG). To control position and direction a pilot
must be able to control rotation about each of them.
Lateral axis
The lateral axis, also known as transverse axis, passes through an aircraft from
wingtip to wingtip. Rotation about this axis is called pitch. Pitch changes the
vertical direction that the aircraft's nose is pointing. The elevators are the primary
control surfaces for pitch.
Longitudinal axis
The longitudinal axis passes through the aircraft from nose to tail. Rotation about
this axis is called roll. The angular displacement about this axis is called bank. The
pilot changes bank angle by increasing the lift on one wing and decreasing it on the
other. This differential lift causes rotation around the longitudinal axis. The
ailerons are the primary control of bank. The rudder also has a secondary effect on
bank.
Vertical axis
The vertical axis passes through an aircraft from top to bottom. Rotation about this
axis is called yaw. Yaw changes the direction the aircraft's nose is pointing, left or
right. The primary control of yaw is with the rudder. Ailerons also have a
secondary effect on yaw. It is important to note that these axes move with the
aircraft, and change relative to the earth as the aircraft moves. For example, for an
aircraft whose left wing is pointing straight down, its "vertical" axis is parallel with
the ground, while its "lateral" axis is perpendicular to the ground.
CONTROL SURFACES
 Primary Control surface
 Secondary Control surface
PRIMARY CONTROL SURFACE
The main control surfaces of a fixed-wing aircraft are attached to the airframe on
hinges or tracks so they may move and thus deflect the air stream passing over
them. This redirection of the air stream generates an unbalanced force to rotate the
plane about the associated axis.
Ailerons
Ailerons are mounted on the trailing edge of each wing near the wingtips and move
in opposite directions. When the pilot moves the stick left, or turns the wheel
counter-clockwise, the left aileron goes up and the right aileron goes down. A
raised aileron reduces lift on that wing and a lowered one increases lift, so moving
the stick left causes the left wing to drop and the right wing to rise. This causes the
aircraft to roll to the left and begin to turn to the left. Centering the stick returns the
ailerons to neutral maintaining the bank angle. The aircraft will continue to turn
until opposite aileron motion returns the bank angle to zero to fly straight.
Elevator
The elevator is a moveable part of the horizontal stabilizer, hinged to the back of
the fixed part of the horizontal tail. The elevators move up and down together.
When the pilot pulls the stick backward, the elevators go up. Pushing the stick
forward causes the elevators to go down. Raised elevators push down on the tail
and cause the nose to pitch up. This makes the wings fly at a higher angle of attack,
which generates more lift and more drag. Centering the stick returns the elevators
to neutral and stops the change of pitch. Many aircraft use a fully moveable
horizontal stabilizer called stabilator or all-moving tail. Some aircraft, such as an
MD-80, use a servo tab within the elevator surface to aerodynamically move the
main surface into position. The direction of travel of the control tab will thus be in
a direction opposite to the main control surface. It is for this reason that an MD-80
tail looks like it has a 'split' elevator system.
In the canard arrangement, the elevators are hinged to the rear of a foreplane and
move in the opposite sense, for example when the pilot pulls the stick back the
elevators go down to increase the lift at the front and lift the nose up.
Rudder
The rudder is typically mounted on the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer, part
of the empennage. When the pilot pushes the left pedal, the rudder deflects left.
Pushing the right pedal causes the rudder to deflect right. Deflecting the rudder
right pushes the tail left and causes the nose to yaw to the right. Centering the
rudder pedals returns the rudder to neutral and stops the yaw.
SECONDARY CONTROL SURFACE
Spoilers
On low drag aircraft such as sailplanes, spoilers are used to disrupt airflow over the
wing and greatly reduce lift. This allows a glider pilot to lose altitude without
gaining excessive airspeed. Spoilers are sometimes called "lift dumpers". Spoilers
that can be used asymmetrically are called spoilerons and can affect an aircraft's
roll.
Flaps
Flaps are mounted on the trailing edge on the inboard section of each wing (near
the wing roots). They are deflected down to increase the effective curvature of the
wing. Flaps raise the Maximum Lift Coefficient of the aircraft and therefore reduce
its stalling speed.[5] They are used during low speed, high angle of attack flight
including take-off and descent for landing. Some aircraft are equipped with
"flaperons", which are more commonly called "inboard ailerons"[citation needed].
These devices function primarily as ailerons, but on some aircraft, will "droop"
when the flaps are deployed, thus acting as both a flap and a roll-control inboard
aileron.
Slats
Slats, also known as leading edge devices, are extensions to the front of a wing for
lift augmentation, and are intended to reduce the stalling speed by altering the
airflow over the wing. Slats may be fixed or retractable - fixed slats (e.g. as on the
Fieseler Fi 156 Storch) give excellent slow speed and STOL capabilities, but
compromise higher speed performance. Retractable slats, as seen on most airliners,
provide reduced stalling speed for take-off and landing, but are retracted for
cruising.
Air brakes
Air brakes are used to increase drag. Spoilers might act as air brakes, but are not
pure air brakes as they also function as lift-dumpers or in some cases as roll control
surfaces. Air brakes are usually surfaces that deflect outwards from the fuselage (in
most cases symmetrically on opposing sides) into the airstream in order to increase
form-drag. As they are in most cases located elsewhere on the aircraft, they do not
directly affect the lift generated by the wing. Their purpose is to slow down the
aircraft. They are particularly useful when a high rate of descent is required or the
aircraft velocity needs to be retarded.
DIAGRAM FOR THE CONTROL SURFACES
6.2 MANEUVERING LOADS ON CONTROL SURFACE
Maneuvering velocity, Vm
Maneuvering load on elevator,
39× n × ( n−1.5 )
Positive pitching acceleration of elevator = v∞

−26 ×n × ( n−1.5 )
Negative pitching acceleration of elevator = v∞

POSITIVE PITCHING ACCLERATION @ LOAD FACTOR

39× n × ( n−1.5 )
Positive pitching acceleration of elevator = v∞

“n” varies from 2.5 to 3.8

v∞ = 216.9 m/s (cruise velocity)

n1 = 2.5, n2 = 3, n3 = 3.5, n4 = 3.8

39× ( 2.5 ) × ( 2.5−1.5 )

Positive pitching acceleration of elevator@1 = 216.9

Positive pitching acceleration of elevator@1 = 0.45

Similarly,

Positive pitching acceleration of elevator@2 = 0.81

Positive pitching acceleration of elevator@3 = 1.26

Positive pitching acceleration of elevator@4 = 1.57

NEGATIVE PITCHING ACCLERATION @ LOAD FACTOR

 −26 ×n × ( n−1.5 )
Negative pitching acceleration of elevator = v∞

“n” varies from -1 to -1.5

n1 = -1, n2 = -1.1, n3 = -1.2, n4 = -1.3, n5 = -.14, n6 = -.15

−26 × (−1 ) × (−1−1.5 )

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@1 =
216.9

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@1 = -0.299

Similarly,

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@2 = -0.342

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@3 = -0.388

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@4 = -0.436

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@5 = -0.486

Negative pitching acceleration of elevator@6 = -0.539

 CHAPTER-07
DESIGN OF WING ROOT ATTACHMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO WING ROOT ATTACHMENT
The fuselage expands and contracts over the wings, as it does for the 601 HDS,
then this increases drag and reduces lift, particularly for large payloads or high
angles of attack. The negative effects can be mitigated by a fairing that simulates a
constant width fuselage. The fairings significantly improve climb rate, ceiling, stall
speed, sink rate at low speeds, optimum glide ratio, minimum power to stay aloft,
and stability of the plane when CG is close to the rear limit. Generally, the required
angle of attack in level flight is significantly reduced at or below cruise power
settings. This manifests itself by a much lower nose, particularly at gross weight.
The design of the fairing is not difficult. One draws on the fuselage the points of
attachment of the fairing in a reasonable curve. On the wing, one draws a straight
line that is at 90 deg with the spar and that just touches the fuselage at its widest
point. Now one connects the line on the wing with the curve on the fuselage, thus
getting a surface. The fairing must have that surface. For creation of the fairing,
one protects the wing and fuselage with masking tape, then establishes the fairing
surface using plaster. Once the plaster is cured and dried, one lays the fiberglass.
When the resin has set, the fairing is removed, trimmed, and the fairing surface is
finished using light-weight filler. Of course, the plaster and masking tape are
removed as well.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF WING ROOT ATTACHMENT
WING ROOT ATTACHMENT DIAGHRAM
 CHAPTER-08
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO LANDING GEAR
Aircraft landing gear supports the entire weight of an aircraft during landing and
ground operations. They are attached to primary structural members of the aircraft.
The type of gear depends on the aircraft design and its intended use. Most landing
gear has wheels to facilitate operation to and from hard surfaces, such as airport
runways. Other gear feature skids for this purpose, such as those found on
helicopters, balloon gondolas, and in the tail area of some tail dragger aircraft.
Aircraft that operate to and from frozen lakes and snowy areas may be equipped
with landing gear that have skis. Aircraft that operate to and from the surface of
water have pontoon-type landing gear. Regardless of the type of landing gear
utilized, shock absorbing equipment, brakes, retraction mechanisms, controls,
warning devices, cowling, fairings, and structural members necessary to attach the
gear to the aircraft are considered parts of the landing gear system Numerous
configurations of landing gear types can be found. Additionally, combinations of
two types of gear are common. Amphibious aircraft are designed with gear that
allows landings to be made on water or dry land.

Fig 8.1.1 Landing gear system

TYPES OF LANDING GEAR:

 Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear
 Detachable landing gear
 Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear
 Tandem Landing Gear
 Tricycle-Type Landing Gear
1. Fixed and Retractable Landing Gear:
Further classification of aircraft landing gear can be made into two categories:
fixed and retractable. Many small, single-engine light aircraft have fixed landing
gear, as do a few light twins. This means the gear is attached to the airframe and
remains exposed to the slipstream as the aircraft is flown. As the speed of an
aircraft increases, so does parasite drag. To decrease drag in flight some
undercarriages retract into the wings and/or fuselage with wheels flush against the
surface or concealed behind doors; this is called retractable gear. If the wheels rest
protruding and partially exposed to the airstream after being retracted, the system
is called semi-retractable. Most retraction systems are hydraulically operated,
though some are electrically operated or even manually operated.
On slow aircraft, the penalty of this added weight is not overcome by the reduction
of drag, so fixed gear is used. A great deal of the parasite drag caused by light
aircraft landing gear can be reduced by building gear as aerodynamically as
possible and by adding fairings or wheel pants to streamline the airflow past the
protruding assemblies. A small, smooth profile to the oncoming wind greatly
reduces landing gear parasite drag. The thin cross section of the spring steel struts
combine with the fairings over the wheel and brake assemblies to raise
performance of the fixed landing gear by keeping parasite drag to a minimum.

2. Detachable landing gear:

Some aircraft use wheels for takeoff and then jettison (throw or drop something
from aircraft) them soon afterwards for improved aerodynamic streamlining
without the complexity, weight and space requirements of a retraction mechanism.
In these cases, the wheels to be jettisoned are sometimes mounted onto axles that
are part of a separate "dolly" (for main wheels only) or "trolley" (for a three-wheel
set with a nose wheel) chassis. Landing is then accomplished on skids or similar
other simple devices. A related contemporary example are the wingtip support
wheels on the Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, which fall away after take-off
and drop to earth; the aircraft then relies on titanium skids on the wingtips for
landing.
3. Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear:

Fig 8.1.2 Tail Wheel-Type Landing Gear

Tail wheel-type landing gear is also known as conventional gear because many
early aircraft use this type of arrangement. The main gear are located forward of
the center of gravity, causing the tail to require support from a third wheel
assembly. A few early aircraft designs use a skid rather than a tail wheel. This
helps slow the aircraft upon landing and provides directional stability. The
resulting angle of the aircraft fuselage, when fitted with conventional gear, allows
the use of a long propeller that compensates for older, underpowered engine
design. The increased clearance of the forward fuselage offered by tail wheel-type
landing gear is also advantageous when operating in and out of non-paved
runways. Today, aircraft are manufactured with conventional gear for this reason
and for the weight savings accompanying the relatively light tail wheel assembly.

4. Tandem Landing Gear:

Fig 8.1.3 Tandem Landing Gear

Few aircraft are designed with tandem landing gear. As the name implies, this type
of landing gear has the main gear and tail gear aligned on the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft. Sailplanes commonly use tandem gear, although many only have one
actual gear forward on the fuselage with a skid under the tail. A few military
bombers, such as the B-47 and the B-52, have tandem gear, as does the U2 spy
plane. The VTOL Harrier has tandem gear but uses small outrigger gear under the
wings for support. Generally, placing the gear only under the fuselage facilitates
the use of very flexible wings

5. Tricycle-Type Landing Gear: 

Fig 8.1.4 Tricycle-Type Landing Gear

The most commonly used landing gear arrangement is the tricycle-type landing
gear. It is comprised of main gear and nose gear. Allows more forceful application
of the brakes without nosing over when braking, which enables higher landing
speeds. Provides better visibility from the flight deck, especially during landing
and ground maneuvering. Prevents ground-looping of the aircraft. Since the
aircraft center of gravity is forward of the main gear, forces acting on the center of
gravity tend to keep the aircraft moving forward rather than looping, such as with a
tail wheel-type landing gear. The nose gear of a few aircraft with tricycle-type
landing gear is not controllable. It simply casters as steering is accomplished with
differential braking during taxi. On light aircraft, the nose gear is directed through
mechanical linkage to the rudder pedals. Heavy aircraft typically utilize hydraulic
power to steer the nose gear. Control is achieved through an independent tiller in
the flight deck.
 CHAPTER - 09
CONCLUSION
Thus in this Aircraft Design Project – II gust and combined V-n diagram for the
aircraft is estimated and is plotted in graphical form.
The structural estimation of wing includes the estimation of load intensity at root,
chord wise lift distribution, Load Intensity, Lift load intensity, Shear Force and
bending moment diagram and the graphs are plotted for the same.
After the completion of Wing design the Structural design of the Aircraft fuselage
is carried with estimation of various factors such as Structural load distribution
over fuselage, design of Bulkheads and longerons, Shear Force and bending
moment diagram and the graphs are plotted for the same.
On the successful completion of the fuselage design the design and estimation of
the Control Surfaces is carried out and the maneuverability loads on the same is
calculated for it.
On completion of Aircraft Design Project – II the design of aircraft wings,
fuselage, landing gears, etc and also design in terms of structural point of view is
successfully completed for Long Range Passenger Aircraft.
REFFERENCE

1. Houghton, E.L., and Caruthers, N.B., “Aerodynamics for Engineering student”,

Edward Arnold publisher Ltd., London, 1989.

2. Anderson, J.D., “Fundamentals of Aerodynamics”, McGraw Hill book Co.,

1999.

3. Clancy, LJ, “Aerodynamics”, Pitman, 1986.

4. Nelson, R.C. “Flight Stability and Automatic control”, McGraw Hill books Co.,
2004.

5. Mc Cornick.W., “Aerodynamics, Aeronautics Flight Mechanics”, John Wiley,

NY, 1979.

6. Anderson, J.D, “Modern Compressible Flow”, McGraw-Hill & Co., 2002.