TOPIC 5: MACHINING PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION
Machining: A Subtractive Type Manufacturing Process which
Imparts Desired Shape, Size, and Finish to the Product by Removing
Surplus Material in the Form of Chips by a Suitable Cutting Tool
and by Providing Suitable Relative Motion Between the Workpiece
and Cutting Tool
Cutting Tool: Removes Excess Material through Direct
Mechanical Contact  Tool
Machine Tool: Provides Necessary Relative Motion Between
the Workpiece and Tool
 If Workpiece Material is Metal  Metal Cutting
 Most Versatile and Most Important Basic Manufacturing
Process
 US Industries Spent More than $60 Billion Annually (1997
Figure) to Perform Material Removal Operations
 During 20th Century Machining has been the Object of
Considerable Research and Experimentation

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 In the Machining Process Material Removal Takes Place in the Form
of Small Chips  Machining of Finite Area Requires Continuous
Feeding of Uncut Portion at a Suitable Rate
 Relative Velocity between Workpiece and Cutting Tool 
Primary Cutting Motion  Cutting Velocity or Cutting Speed
(V)
Line Generated by Cutting Motion  Generatrix
 Relative Velocity Responsible for Gradual Feeding of Uncut
Portion of the Workpiece  Secondary Cutting Motion  Feed
Velocity or Feed Rate (f)
Line Generated by Feed Motion  Directrix

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 Various Geometries can be Obtained Depending on the Shapes of
Generatrix and Directrix and their Relative Directions
Generation of Various Surfaces in a Machining Operation
Generatrix Directrix Process Surface Machining
Obtained Process
Straight Line Straight Line Tracing Planar Surface Shaping,
Planing
Circular Straight Line Tracing Cylindrical Turning
Circular Straight Line Generation Planar Surface Milling
Plain Curve Circular Tracing Surface of Contour
Revolution Turning,
Boring,

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Types of Machining Processes
ACCORDING to ANGLE BETWEEN CUTTING EDGE and CUTTING
VELOCITY
Oblique Machining Orthogonal Machining
 Cutting Edge of the Tool is Inclined  Cutting Edge of the Tool is
at an Angle ‘i’ (Inclination Angle) Perpendicular to the Direction of
with Normal to the Cutting Cutting Velocity
Velocity.  Special Case of Oblique Machining
(i = 0).
 Cutting Takes Place in THREE  Cutting Takes Place in TWO
Dimensions. Dimensions.

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 Oblique Machining Orthogonal Machining
 Chip Flows on the Rake  Chip Flows on the Rake Face of
Face of the Tool at an Angle ~ the Tool with Chip Velocity
Equal to i with the Normal to Perpendicular to the Cutting
the Cutting Edge in the Edge.
Plane of Rake Face.
 Cutting Forces Act along All  Cutting Forces Act Along x and
Three Directions i.e. x, y, z Directions Only i.e. No
and z Axes. Cutting Force along y
Direction
 Examples:  Examples:
Turning, Sawing,
Milling, Broaching,
Drilling, Parting-Off a Tube Wall
Shaping

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[5.1.1.2] ACCORDING to TYPE of CUTTING TOOL
Machining Processes

Using SINGLE-Point Using MULTI-Point Using ABRASIVES

Cutting Tools Cutting Tools as Cutting Tools

 Turning  Milling  Grinding

 Step Turning  Drilling  Honing
 Taper Turning  Reaming  Lapping
 Form Turning  Knurling  Super-Finishing
 Contour Turing  Tapping  Polishing
 Facing  Hobbing  Buffing
 Necking  Broaching
 Parting-Off  Sawing
 Boring
 Counter-Boring
 Counter-Sinking
 Shaping
 Planing

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 Knowing the Terminology of a Machine Tool is Fundamental to
Understanding
 How a Machine Tool Performs the Basic Processes ?
 What are Workpiece Holding Devices ?
 How the Workpiece Holding Devices are Interchanged ?
 How the Cutting Tools are Mounted ?
 How Cutting Tool are Interfaced to the Workpiece ?

[5.2] LATHE MACHINE and its OPERATIONS

 Lathes are Machine Tools Designed Primarily to Do Turning,
Facing, and Boring.
 Because Lathes also can Do Facing, Drilling, and Reaming, their
Versatility Permits Several Operations to be Done with a Single
Setup of the Workpiece. Consequently, the Lathe is the Most
Common Machine Tool.
 Lathes in Various Forms have Existed for More than 2000
Years,

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 But Modern Lathes Date from About 1797, when an Ingenious
Englishman Henry Maudsley Developed one with a Leadscrew,
Providing Controlled, Mechanical Feed to the Tool.
 Henry Maudsley also Developed a Change-Gear System that
could Connect the Motions of the Spindle and Leadscrew and
thus Enable Threads to be Cut.
 Engine Lathe is the Basic Lathe Used for Turning and Related
Operations.
 The Term “Engine" Dates from the Time when Lathe Machines
were Driven by Steam Engines
 An Engine Lathe is a
 Versatile Machine Tool,
 Manually Operated, and
 Widely Used in Low and Medium Production.

DESIGN and TERMINOLOGY of the ENGINE LATHE

The Essential Components of an Engine Lathe are
1. Bed
2. Headstock Assembly 5. Feed Rod
3. Tailstock Assembly 6. Leadscrew
4. Carriage Assembly 7. Quick Change Gearbox
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 Tailstock

Bed
FIG.: Diagram of an Engine Lathe, Indicating its Principal Components.
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Different operations on lathe machining (Video)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uQPCdwegXzc&list=PLd
_kVCyCUPTfnzJZrEpw0PKbfwO5FJN-L

Modern CNC Lathe Turning Machine Working, Amazing CNC

Machining Machines (Video)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-9htuGLegbI
CARRIAGE ASSEMBLY
 Carriage Assembly together with the Apron, Provides the Means
For Mounting and Moving Cutting Tools.
 Carriage Assembly Consists of CARRIAGE, CROSS SLIDE,
COMPOUND REST, TOOL POST

Fig: Rearview of Carriage of a

Lathe with Taper Attachment.

Fig: Carriage Assembly of a Lathe.

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FEED ROD
 Provides the Powered Movement of the Carriage and Cross
Slide.

LEADSCREW
 For Cutting Threads, a Leadscrew is Used.

SIZE DESIGNATION of LATHES

 Size of a Lathe is Designated by Two Dimensions:
1. Swing: This is the Maximum Diameter of Workpiece that can
be Rotated on a Lathe.
 Swing is Approximately Twice the Distance Between the
Line Connecting the Lathe Centers and the Nearest Point
on the Ways.

2. Maximum Distance Between Centers: Indicates the Maximum

Length of Workpiece that can be Mounted Between Centers.
Example: a 14 x 48 Lathe Designates that the Swing is 14 in. and
the Maximum Distance Between Centers is 48 in.

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TYPES of LATHE MACHINE
ENGINE LATHE
 Most Frequently Used in Manufacturing
 They are Heavy Duty Machine Tools with ALL the Components
 Commonly Range in Size from 12 to 24 inch Swing and from 24
to 48 inch Center Distances, but Swings Up to 50 inch and
Center Distances up to 60 ft are NOT Uncommon.
SPEED LATHE
 Speed Lathes Usually have Only a Headstock, a Tailstock, and a
Simple Tool Post Mounted on a Light Bed.
 They Ordinarily have Only Three or Four Speeds
 Mainly Used for Wood Turning, Polishing, or Metal Spinning
TOOLROOM LATHE
 Have Somewhat Greater Accuracy and usually a Wider Range of
Speeds and Feeds than Ordinary Engine Lathes.
 Designed to have Greater Versatility to Meet the Requirements of
Tool and Die Work

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TURRET LATHE
 A Longitudinally Feedable Hexagon Turret Replaces the Tailstock
 Ordinary Turret Lathes Use the 11 Station Tooling Setups for
Complete Machining of a Piece and Minimize Machine
Controlling Time.
 SIX Tools can be Mounted on the Hexagon Turret
 Turret can be Rotated about the Vertical Axis to Bring Each Tool
into the Operating Position and the Entire Unit can be Translated
Parallel to the Ways either Manually or by Power

Figure: Block Diagram (Top View) of a Ram-Type Turret Lathe.

TYPICAL OPERATIONS PERFORMED on a LATHE
 Turning is the Process of Machining External Cylindrical and
Conical Surfaces.
 Turning and Related Operations are Usually Performed on a
Machine Tool Called Lathe.
STRAIGHT or CYLINDRICAL or PLAIN TURNING
 Turning is a Machining Process in which a Single-Point Cutting Tool
Removes Surface of a Rotating Cylindrical Workpiece.
 Primary Cutting Motion is Rotational
 Cutting Tool is Fed Linearly in a Direction Parallel to the Axis of
Rotation,

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TAPER TURNING and COUNTER BORING
 Cutting Tool is Fed at an Angle to the Axis of
Rotation Producing an External/Internal
Conical Surface.
 Tapers can be Specified Either in Degrees of
Included Angle between the Sides or as the
Change in Diameter per Unit of Length
(mm per mm).
 FOUR Methods for Turning External & Internal Tapers on a Lathe:
1. Swiveling the Compound Rest
 The Simplest Method
 Suitable for Both External and Internal Tapers.
 Since Length of Travel of the Compound Rest is Quite Limited
(Seldom over a few Inches) Only Short Tapers can be Turned or
Bored by this Method.
 Partially Useful for Steep Tapers.
 The Tool should be Set at Exactly the Height of the Axis of
Rotation of the Workpiece in all Taper Turning and Boring.
 Difficult to Make the Angle Setting with Accuracy.
 Compound Rest Cannot be Set Directly to the Correct Angle if the
Taper is Dimensioned in mm/mm or in/ft.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
 Fig: The Carriage Assembly
of an Engine Lathe.

2. Using a Taper Attachment:

 For Both External and
Internal Tapers
 An Excellent and
Convenient Method of
Machining
 Can be Used Only for
Tapers of Less than 0.5 Fig: Rearview of Carriage of an Engine
mm/mm. Lathe with Taper Attachment.
MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE
3. Setting Over the
Tailstock:
 For External Tapers Only
on Those Workpieces that
are Mounted Between
Centers
 Limited to Small Tapers
Only
 Seldom Used

4. Programming the
Movement of Two
Perpendicular Axes on
Computer Numerical
Controlled (CNC) Lathes
Fig: Method of Turning Tapers
by Offsetting the Tailstock.
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CONTOUR TURNING
 Instead of Feeding the Tool Along a
Straight Axis of Rotation as in Turning,
the Tool Follows a Contour Creating a
Contoured Form on the Turned Part

FORM TURNING
 Using a Tool having a Specific Form or
Shape and Feeding it Radially or Inward
Against the Work, External Cylindrical,
Conical, and Irregular Surfaces of
Limited Length can also be Turned.
 Shape of the Resulting Surface is
Determined by the Shape and Size the
Cutting Tool. Such Machining is called
Form Turning.

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FACING
 Cutting Tool is Fed Radially Inwards (at 90° to
the Axis of Rotation) into the Rotating
Workpiece on its Face or End Producing a Flat
Surface.
 END FACING: Facing Radially Outward from the
Center
 In Either case, the Point of the Tool must be
Set Exactly at the Height of the Center of
Rotation.
 The Cutting Speed is Determined from the
Largest Diameter of the Surface to be
Faced.
 Since the Cutting Force Tends to Push the
Tool Away from the Work, it is Usually
Desirable to Clamp the Carriage to the Lathe
Bed during Facing to Prevent it from Moving
Slightly and thus Producing a Non-Flat Surface.
 SHOULDER FACING: Facing the Stepped
Cylindrical Workpiece

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CHAMFERING
 Cutting Edge of the Tool is Used to Cut
an Angle on the Corner of the
Cylinder, Forming a Chamfer.
PARTING or CUTTING-OFF
and NECKING
 Operation of Separating One Section of a
Workpiece from the Remainder by Means
of a Cutoff Tool
 Tool is Fed or Plunged Perpendicular to
the Rotational Axis, as it in Case of Facing.
 Parting Tools are Quite Thin and have
Considerable Overhang, Parting Process is
More Difficult to Perform Accurately.
 NECKING is a Making PARTIAL CUTOFF
 A Similar Tool is Used for Necking or
Partial Cutoff.
 Tool should be Set Exactly at the Height
of the Axis of Rotation, be Kept Sharp,
have Proper Clearance Angles, and be
Fed into the Workpiece at a Proper and
Uniform Feed Rate
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DRILLING
 Drilling Operation on Lathes is Done
with the Drill Mounted in the Tailstock
of the Engine Lathes and Fed by Hand
Against a Rotating Workpiece.

BORING
 Enlarging of an Existing Hole, which
may have been Made by a Drill or may
be the Result of a Core in a Casting.

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[5.2.4.10] REAMING
 A Semi-Finishing Operation that Enlarges an Existing Hole
 Reaming on a Lathe Involves NO Special Precautions.
 Reamers are Held in the Tailstock Quill, Taper-Shank Types are
Mounted Directly and Straight-Shank Types by Means of a Drill
Chuck. Other Types of Reamers should be Held in Some Type of
Holder that will Permit the Reamer to Float
[5.2.2.11] KNURLING
 Production of a Regularly Shaped,
Roughened Surface on a Workpiece Surface
that Requires Some Gripping.
 NOT a Machining Operation but a Chipless,
Cold-Forming Process
 In Most Cases Knurling is done on External
Cylindrical Surfaces using Lathes.
 Involves Pressing Two Hardened Rolls Against the Rotating
Workpiece with Sufficient Force to Cause a Slight Outward and
Lateral Displacement of the Metal so as to Form the Knurl, a
Raised Diamond Pattern.
 Another Type of Knurling Tool Produces the Knurled Pattern by
Cutting Chips (Preferred).
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[5.2.4.12] THREADING.
 For Threading Operation on a Lathe,
A Pointed Tool is Fed Linearly
Across the Outside Surface of the
Rotating Workpiece in a Direction
Parallel to the Axis of Rotation at
Large Effective Feed Rate, thus
Creating Threads in the Cylinder.
[5.2.4.13] SPECIAL ATTACHMENTS
 Milling can be Done on a Lathe Using a Milling Attachment which is
a Special Vise that Attaches to the Cross Slide to Hold Work.
 Milling Cutter is Mounted and Rotated by the Spindle and
Workpiece is Fed by Means of the Cross-Slide Screw.
 Tool-Post Grinders are Often Used to Perform Grinding on a Lathe.
 Duplicating Attachments, Guided by a Template, Automatically
Control the Tool Movements for Turning Irregularly Shaped Parts.
 In some Cases the First Piece, Produced in the Normal Manner,
may Serve as the Template for Duplicate Parts.
 Generally, Duplicating Lathes Using Templates have been
Replaced by Numerically Controlled (NC) Lathes.
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[5.2.5] WORK HOLDING in a LATHE
Commonly Used Methods for
Supporting Workpieces in Lathes:
[5.2.5.1] LATHE CHUCKS: To
Hold a Wider Variety of Workpiece
Shapes
 Three-Jaws Self Centering
Chuck: For a Workpiece having
Round or Hexagonal Cross-
Section
 Four-Jaw Independent
Chuck: To Support a Wide Variety
of Work Shapes
[5.2.5.2] LATHE CENTERS (LIVE AND DEAD): For Relatively Longer
Workpieces

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[5.2.5.3] MANDRELS: For Disc-
Shaped Workpieces and/or for
Workpieces that are to be
Machined on Both Ends
THREE Types: Plain Solid;
Gang; and Cone Mandrel
[5.2.5.4] COLLETS: To Hold
Cold-Rolled, Drill-Rod,
Extruded Bar Stock or
Previously Machined Stock
[5.2.5.5] FACEPLATES: To Hold
Irregular Shaped Workpieces
that cannot be Gripped Easily
in Chucks or Collets

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[5.2.5.6] STEADY AND FOLLOW
RESTS: To Support Long
Slender Workpiece between the
Centers
Steady Rest (Three Movable
Contact Fingers) is Clamped to
the Lathe Ways, It can Replace
Tailstock also
Follow Rest (Two Contact
Fingers) is Bolted to the Lathe
Carriage
[5.2.5.7] MOUNTING WORK ON
CARRIAGE: When No Other
Means is Available, Boring is
Occasionally Done on a Lathe by
Mounting the Workpiece on
the Carriage while Boring Bar is
Mounted Between the Centers

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[5.2.6] CUTTING TOOLS USED In a LATHE
 Single Point Cutting Tools
 Bit-Type Cutting Tools: Throwaway or Mechanically Held
Used for Expensive Tool Materials such as HSS, Carbides, Ceramics,
CBN
 Form Tools (Threading Tool)
[5.2.6.2] COMMON CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
 For Conventional Machining Processes, Cutting Tool Material
must be at Least 35% to 50% Harder than Work Material at the
Actual Temperature of Machining
1. Tool Steels  High Carbon Steel
 Low/Medium Alloy Steel
2. High Speed Steel (HSS)
3. Cast Cobalt Alloys (Phased Out)
4. Cemented Carbides
5. Coated Carbides
6. Coated HSS
7. Ceramics
8. Cermets (Ceramic Material in a Metallic Binder)
9. Sintered Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)
10.Sintered Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)
11.Single Crystal Natural Diamond
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[5.3] DRILLING
[5.3.1] FUNDAMENTALS of DRILLING OPERATIONS
 Drilling is a Machining Operation of Creating a Hole in a Workpiece.
 Drilled Holes are Either
 Through Holes: Drill Exits from the Opposite Side of the
Workpiece  Hole Depth is EQUAL to the Workpiece
Thickness or Height
 Blind Holes: Drill Does NOT Exit from the Opposite Side of the
Workpiece  Hole Depth is LESS than Workpiece Thickness or
Height
 Drilling is Usually Performed with a Rotating Cylindrical Tool that
has TWO Cutting Edges on its Working End (Called a Twist Drill).
 Rotating Drill is Fed into the Stationary Workpiece to Form a Hole
whose Diameter is Determined by the Drill Diameter.
 Drilling Makes Up about 25% of All the Machining Processes
Performed.
 Drilling is a very Important Process. One Estimate has U. S.
Manufacturing Companies Consume ~ 250 Million Twist Drills
per Year.
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 Although Drilling Appears to be a Relatively Simple Process, But it is
Really a Complex Process, because
 Cutting Action Takes Place Inside the Workpiece.
 Only Exit for the Chips is the Hole that is Filled by the Drill.
 Friction Results in Heat in Addition to that Due to Chip
Formation.
 Counter Flow of Chips Makes Lubrication and Cooling Difficult

[5.3.2] OPERATIONS RELATED to DRILLING

[5.3.2.1] REAMING: A Semi-Finishing Operation to
 Slightly Enlarge an Existing Hole
 To Provide Better Tolerance on Hole Diameter
 To Improve Surface Finish
 Reamer has Straight Flutes

[5.3.2.2] TAPPING: To Make

INTERNAL Screw Threads on
an Existing Hole Using Dies or
Taps

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[5.3.2.3] COUNTER-BORING:
 Making of INTERNAL STEPPED HOLE in
which a Lager Diameter Follows a
Smaller Diameter Partially into the Hole
 A Counter-Bored Hole is Used to Seat Bolt
Heads into a Hole so the Heads do not
Protrude Above the Surface
[5.3.2.4] COUNTER-SINKING:
 Similar to Counter-Boring, Except that
the Step in the Hole is Cone Shaped for
Flat-Head Screws and Bolts.
[5.3.2.5] CENTERING or CENTER-DRILLING:
 Drilling of a Starting Hole to Accurately
Establish its Location for Subsequent
Drilling.
 Tool is Called Center-Drill.

MI-102: Manufacturing Techniques I. I. T. ROORKEE

[5.3.2.7] TYPICAL
SEQUENCE of OPERATIONS
in a HOLE MAKING

FIGURE: Sequence of
Operations Required to Make
a Hole that has Accurate Size
and Aligned on Center.

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