FACTOR GROUP

COMPUTATIONS
AND
SIMPLE GROUPS
By: KAREN M. GARDOSE
To start with:
Factor groups can be a tough topic for students to grasp.
There is nothing like a bit of computation to strengthen
understanding in Mathematics. We start by attempting to improve
our intuition concerning factor groups. Since we will be dealing
with normal subgroups, we often denote a subgroup of G by N
rather than H.
To start with:
Let N be a normal subgroup of G. In the factor group G/N,
the subgroup N acts as identity element. We may regard N as
being collapsed to a single element, either to 0 in additive notation
or to e in multiplicative notation.

This collapsing of N together with the algebraic structure

of G require the other subset of G, namely the cosets of N, also
collapse into a single element in the factor group.
 To start with:
A visualization of collapsing is shown in Figure 15.1

𝐺
𝛾 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑁 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝜖𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 ℎ𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐺 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜
𝑁
We can view the line G/N at the bottom of
the figure as obtained by collapsing to a point each
coset of N in another copy of G.

Each point of G/N thus corresponds to whole

vertical line segment in the shaded portion,
representing a coset of N in G. It is crucial to
remember that multiplication of cosets in G/N can be
computed by multiplying G, using any representative
elements of the cosets.
Let us review what are factor groups and
normal subgroups:
Group: Integers ℤ which are closed under +

Subgroups: ℤ, 2 ℤ, 3 ℤ, 4 ℤ, 5 ℤ, 6 ℤ , …

5 ℤ = {…, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, …}

1 + 5 ℤ = {…-9, -4, 1, 6, 11,…}
2 + 5 ℤ = {…-8, -3, 2, 7, 12,…}
3 + 5 ℤ = { … − 7, −2, 3, 10, 13, … }
4 + 5 ℤ = {…, - 6, -1, 4, 11, 14,…}

We use 5 ℤ to partition our group ℤ.

5 ℤ is a “normal subgroup” because cosets forms a group called the factor
groups or quotient group.
 Example:
1. ℤ𝟔 /<3>
Compute:
ℤ𝟔 ={0,1,2,3,4,5} <3> = {0,3}
0+<3> = {0,3}
1+<3> = {1, 4}
2+<3> = {2, 5}
ℤ𝟔 /<3> has 3 elements
ℤ𝟔 /<3> ≅ ℤ𝟑
 Example:
1. ℤ𝟔 /<2>
Compute:
ℤ𝟔 ={0,1,2,3,4,5} <2> = {2, 4, 0}

0+<2> = {2, 4, 0}
1+<2> = {3, 5, 1}
ℤ𝟔 /<2> has 2 elements
ℤ𝟔 /<2> ≅ ℤ𝟐
 Examples 1. :

Group: Integers ℤ which are closed under +

Subgroups: 𝑁 = 0 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝

𝑁={0}
1+N={1}
2+N={2}
3+N={3}
4+N={4}
.
:
Examples 2. :
Examples 2. :
Note that every subgroup H containing just half the elements of
finite group G must be a normal subgroup.

𝑆𝑛
Example: where 𝑆𝑛 is the group of permutations on n elements
𝐴𝑛
𝐴𝑛 is the group of all even permutations on n elements.

𝑆𝑛
𝐴𝑛 = , therefore 𝐴𝑛 is a normal subgroup of 𝑆𝑛 .
2
Lemma:
If G is a finite group and N is a subgroup of G where |N| =
|G|/2, then N is a normal subgroup of G.
 We now turn to several examples that compute
factor groups. Computing such a factor group means
classifying it according to Theorem 11.12.
1. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟎 > = {𝟎}

ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 < 𝟏 > = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟎}
𝐻 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

ℤ4 × ℤ6 ℎ𝑎𝑠 24 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ℎ𝑎𝑠 6 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠, all cosets

of H must have 6 elements, and (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) > must have order 4.
1. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >

𝐻= 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓
ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5
3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5
1. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >

𝐻 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔:
0,0 + 𝐻 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
1,0 + 𝐻 = { 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 }
2,0 + 𝐻 = { 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 }
3,0 + 𝐻 = { 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 }
1. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔:
0,0 + 𝐻 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 ℤ𝟒 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}

1,0 + 𝐻 ={ 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 }

2,0 + 𝐻 ={ 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 }
3,0 + 𝐻 ={ 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 }
Review…
Normal subgroup:
Group: Integers ℤ which are closed under +

Subgroups: 5ℤ
5 ℤ = {…, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, …}
1 + 5 ℤ = {…-9, -4, 1, 6, 11,…}
2 + 5 ℤ = {…-8, -3, 2, 7, 12,…}
3 + 5 ℤ = { … − 7, −2, 3, 10, 13, … }
4 + 5 ℤ = {…, - 6, -1, 4, 11, 14,…}

We use 5 ℤ to partition our group ℤ.

5 ℤ is a “normal subgroup” because cosets forms a group called the factor
groups or quotient group.
Review…
Given:
G: group G
N: normal subgroup

Special Cases:
𝐺
1. =𝐺
{𝑒}
𝐺
2. = 𝑒
𝐺
Review…
Computing Factor Groups

Computing such a factor group means

classifying it according to which cyclic group it is
isomorphic.

Isomorphic – structurally alike

1. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >
ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟎 > = {𝟎}
ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 < 𝟏 > = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟎}
G = ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
𝐻 =< 𝟎, 𝟏 > = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔:
0,0 + 𝐻 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
1,0 + 𝐻 = { 1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 }
2,0 + 𝐻 = { 2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 }
3,0 + 𝐻 = { 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 } ℤ𝟒 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}

ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 24
(ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) > is isomorphic to ℤ𝟒 = = 4 elements
< 𝟎,𝟏 > 6
𝐺 =𝐻×𝐾 𝐺 = ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
ഥ = 𝐻 × {𝑒}
𝑁= 𝐻 𝑁 =< 𝟎, 𝟏 > = {0}× {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓, 𝟎}
𝐺 𝐻×𝐾 𝐺 𝐻×𝐾 ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
= = 𝑒 ×𝐾 =𝐾 = = = ℤ𝟒 × {e} = ℤ𝟒
𝑁 𝐻 × {𝑒} 𝑁 𝐻×{𝑒} {0}×ℤ𝟔
2. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟐) >

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟎 > = {𝟎}

ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 < 𝟐 > = {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟎}
𝐻 = 0,0 0,2 (0,4)

ℤ4 × ℤ6 ℎ𝑎𝑠 24 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ℎ𝑎𝑠 3 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠. Now

(0,2)
generates the subgroup H of ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 of order
3.
2. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟐) >

𝐻= 0,0 0,2 (0,4)

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓
ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5
3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5
2. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟐) >
𝐻 = 0,0 0,2 (0,4)
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔: ℤ𝟒 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
0,0 + 𝐻 = 0,0 0,2 (0,4) ℤ𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟏
0,1 + 𝐻 = 0,1 0,3 0,5
1,0 + 𝐻 = { 1,0 1,2 1,4 }
1,1 + 𝐻 = 1,1 1,3 (1,5)
2,0 + 𝐻 = 2,0 2,2 2,4
2,1 + 𝐻 = { 2,1 2,3 2,5 }
3,0 + 𝐻 = 3,0 3,2 (3,4)
3,1 + 𝐻 = { 3,1 3,3 3,5 }
2. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟐) >
𝐻 = 0,0 0,2 (0,4)
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔: ℤ𝟒 = {𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑}
0,0 + 𝐻 = 0,0 0,2 (0,4) ℤ𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟏
0,1 + 𝐻 = 0,1 0,3 0,5 ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟐 = {(𝟎, 𝟎)(𝟎, 𝟏)(𝟏, 𝟎)(𝟏, 𝟏)
1,0 + 𝐻 = { 1,0 1,2 1,4 } (𝟐, 𝟎)(𝟐, 𝟏)(𝟑, 𝟎)(𝟑, 𝟏)}
1,1 + 𝐻 = 1,1 1,3 (1,5) 𝐺 = ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
2,0 + 𝐻 = 2,0 2,2 2,4 𝑁 =< 𝟎, 𝟐 > = {0}× {𝟐, 𝟒, 𝟎}
2,1 + 𝐻 = { 2,1 2,3 2,5 }
3,0 + 𝐻 = 3,0 3,2 (3,4) 𝐺 𝐻×𝐾 ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
= = = ℤ𝟒 × ℤ2
3,1 + 𝐻 = { 3,1 3,3 3,5 } 𝑁 𝐻×{𝑒} {0}×ℤ𝟑

(ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) > is isomorphic to ℤ𝟒 × ℤ2

Theorem: A factor group of a cyclic group is cyclic.
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟐 × ℤ𝟒 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >

ℤ𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟏 < 𝟎 > = {𝟎}

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟏 > = {𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟎}
𝐻 = 0,0 (0,1) 0,2 (0,3)

ℤ2 × ℤ4 ℎ𝑎𝑠 8 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ℎ𝑎𝑠 4 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.

Therefore, our factor group has 2 elements.

Now (0,1) generates the subgroup H of ℤ𝟐 × ℤ𝟒 of order 4.

3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟐 × ℤ𝟒 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >

𝐻= 0,0 (0,1) 0,2 (0,3)

ℤ𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟏
ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
ℤ𝟐 × ℤ𝟒 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟐 × ℤ𝟒 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) >
𝐻 = 0,0 (0,1) 0,2 (0,3)
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔: ℤ𝟐 = 𝟎, 𝟏
0,0 + 𝐻 = 0,0 (0,1) 0,2 (0,3)
1,0 + 𝐻 = { 1,0 (1,1) 1,2 (1,3)}

(ℤ𝟐 × ℤ𝟒 )/< (𝟎, 𝟏) > ≅ ℤ𝟐

3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟐 > = {𝟐, 𝟎}

ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 < 𝟑 > = {𝟑, 𝟎}
𝐻 = 2,3 0,0

ℤ4 × ℤ6 ℎ𝑎𝑠 24 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ℎ𝑎𝑠 2 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.

Therefore, our factor group has 12 elements.
Now (2,3) generates the subgroup H of ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 of order 2.
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >

𝐻= 0,0 (2,3)
ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓
ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 = 0,0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
1,0 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
2,0 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5
3,0 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟐 > = {𝟐, 𝟎}

ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 < 𝟑 > = {𝟑, 𝟎}
𝐻 = 2,3 0,0

ℤ4 × ℤ6 ℎ𝑎𝑠 24 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 ℎ𝑎𝑠 2 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.

Therefore, our factor group has 12 elements.
Now (2,3) generates the subgroup H of ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 of order 2.
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >

ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 < 𝟐 > = {𝟐, 𝟎}

ℤ𝟔 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, 𝟓 < 𝟑 > = {𝟑, 𝟎}
𝐻 = 2,3 0,0
𝐺 = ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
𝑁 =< 𝟐, 𝟑 > = {2,0}× {𝟑, 𝟎}

𝐺 𝐻×𝐾 ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔
= ത = = ℤ2 × ℤ3
𝑁 𝐻×𝑘 ℤ2 ×ℤ𝟐

𝑵𝒐𝒕𝒆: ℤ2 × ℤ3 has 6 elements. WRONG!

3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >
𝐻= 2,3 0,0
𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒔:
0,0 +𝐻 = (2,3)(0,0)
1,0 +𝐻 = (3,3)(1,0)
2,0 +𝐻 = (0,3)(2,0)
3,0 +𝐻 = (1,3)(3,0)
0,1 +𝐻 = (2,4)(0,1)
ℤ𝟒 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑
1,1 +𝐻 = (3,4)(1,1)
ℤ𝟑 = 𝟎, 𝟏, 𝟐,
2,1 +𝐻 = (0,4)(2,1)
ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟑 = {(0,0)(1,0)(2,0)(3,0)
3,1 +𝐻 = (1,4)(3,1)
(0, 1)(1, 1)(2, 1)(3, 1)
0,2 +𝐻 = (2,5)(0,2)
(0, 2)(1, 2)(2, 2)(3, 2)}
1,2 +𝐻 = (3,5)(1,2)
2,2 +𝐻 = (0,5)(2,2)
(ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) > is isomorphic to ℤ𝟒 × ℤ3
3,2 +𝐻 = (1,5)(3,2)
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >
3. Compute the factor group (ℤ𝟒 × ℤ𝟔 )/< (𝟐, 𝟑) >
 SIMPLE GROUPS

Definition: A group is simple if it is nontrivial and has no proper

nontrivial normal subgroups.
 Let us discuss...
● 𝑁 ≤ 𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑓 𝑔 • 𝑁 • 𝑔−1 = 𝑁 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝜖𝐺.
 Let us discuss...
● 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐺:
- Trivial subgroup:{e} trivial normal subgroup of G
- Entire subgroup: G improper normal subgroup of G

N ≠ 𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝐺 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺

𝐺/{𝑒} ≅ 𝐺
G/G ≅ {𝑒}

G is a simple group if its only normal subgroups are {e} and

G. And simple groups are the building blocks of the finite groups.
 Let us discuss...
● 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒:

The group ℤ𝑝 of integers mod p is simple, for p a

positive prime number. This is clear by Lagrange's
theorem, since the order of a subgroup N divides p, so it
is either 1 or p. So ℤ𝑝 has no nontrivial proper subgroups
(since it is abelian, all subgroups are automatically
normal).
 Let us discuss...
● 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒:

ℤ𝟑 ={0,1,2}
<0>
<1>={1,2,0} = ℤ𝟑
<2>={2,1,0} = ℤ𝟑
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● 𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒:

The alternating group 𝐴𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 5

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● Definition: A maximal normal subgroup of a

group G is a normal subgroup M not equal to
G such that there is no proper normal
subgroup N of G properly containing M.
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Thank you!