INTRODUCTION

The Nature Of Sound

Sound is produced by materials that vibrate. If a panel of wood vibrates, the air next to it is
pushed to and fro. If the rate of vibration is somewhere between tens and tens-of-thousands of
excursions per second, the air has a natural elasticity which we do not find at slower speeds.
Wave your hand backwards and forwards once a second and the air does little except get out
of its way; it does not bounce back. But if you could wave your hand back and forth a hundred
times every second, the air would behave differently!!!

Characteristics of Sound

The sound that we hear around us is the type of energy made by the vibration that travels through
the air or any other medium and can be heard when it reaches a person’s ear. So, basically sound
helps us to communicate with the other person. For example, we can hear the musical instruments
like tabla, flute, a guitar due to vibration. The characteristics of sound are as follows:

• Pitch

• Loudness

• Quality
Pitch
Pitch is a characteristic of sound by which a correct note can be distinguished from a grave or a flat
note. We can identify a female and male voice without seeing them. The term ‘pitch’ is often used
in music. Pitch depends upon the frequencies of the sound wave. A note has a higher pitch when
the frequency is high and a note of low frequency has a low pitch. For example, when a small baby
speaks something, his/her voice has a higher frequency so in case of a baby the pitch is higher than
the pitch of a man. The sound with a high frequency is called a shrill.
Loudness

The loudness is a sensation of how strong a sound wave is at a place. It is always a relative term
and is a dimensionless quantity. Loudness is measured in decibel (dB).

CMJ 4204: AUDIO PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

The loudness depends on the amplitude of the vibration. It will be louder when the amplitude is
high. Suppose when we pluck a string of the guitar it starts vibrating with low amplitude and if
we apply more energy by plucking more strongly, the string will vibrate with the greater amplitude
and produce a loud sound. As the amplitude of vibration increases, sound also increases.

Quality

The word timbre also describes the term quality. As different sources produce different sounds,
the timbre helps us to distinguish between them. A sound of good quality is pleasant to listen to.
Instruments are of different shapes and size, and they produce different harmonics of loudness
hence their sound can be easily distinguished.

RECOGNIZING GOOD SOUND

There’s no simple answer to the question “what is good sound?” The best answer might be
along the lines of “whatever is stylistically and artistically appropriate”. Good sound is
subjective: one person’s ideal guitar sound may be another person’s worst nightmare. However,
that is often related to whether a sound is appropriate to the context it’s in or not. BUT bad
sound certainly does exist! Poor quality sound sources, poor quality equipment, bad recording
techniques, and poor mixing skills can all result in inappropriate, questionable, or just plain,
wrong-sound! We need a well-trained ear to judge the result. Each element in a production has
an organic interdependence with the whole; every detail of technique contributes in one way
or another to the final result; and in turn the desired end-product largely dictates the methods
to be employed.

How do you learn to record and mix well? There are basic concepts and skills that should be
mastered before developing your own style. For example, musicians develop their skill sets
and individual musical style by listening to other musicians, emulating them, and eventually
synthesizing many influences into their own unique characteristics. As a communicator who
hopes to use sound in various formats (eg in audio or audio-visual productions), you should
similarly find good quality recordings, listen to them, analyze them, and try to emulate them-
building up your skills and techniques before eventually developing your own style.

Task: After this lesson and before the next one, think about a communicator (a radio
journalist) whom you love listening to. Try to establish why you love listening to them.

CMJ 4204: AUDIO PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

Definition: Audio production is the general term used for all stages of production happening
between the actual recording in a studio and the completion of a master recording. It involves,
sound design, sound editing,audio mixing, and the addition of effects.

IMPORTANCE OF SOUND IN ANY MULTIMEDIA PRODUCTION

Sound can make or break a multimedia production, whether it’s an audio slideshow, a
documentary video or an interactive narrative. Unfortunately, audio often gets short shrift
(Since visuals and interactive elements tend to command more attention, and just getting the
story right can become an all-consuming task, sound, it’s hoped, will somehow take care of
itself).

If audio weren’t critical to the quality of our productions, this approach might work. But, there’s
a reason radio has been called the most visual medium. There’s something about sound that
puts our imaginations to work, making us more active participants in the story we’re hearing.

Most multimedia stories rely on four kinds of audio:

I. Interview clips are recordings of a story’s subject(s), typically recorded on location or

over the phone. Interview sound bites help bring the characters in our stories to life.
II. Voice-overs, or voice tracks, include any scripted narration that’s recorded, usually in
a studio, to push a storyline forward.
III. Natural sounds are the “sound effects” that we record on location — discrete, specific
elements that command the listener’s attention when they occur.
IV. Ambient sounds are the background noises that create a sense of place — the sounds
that make the character of a city park very different from a dentist’s office or a bank,
for example.

Audio will most likely be the primary delivery mechanism for your story’s narrative, whether
it’s through sound bites, a voice-over track or some combination of the two. Without sound,
most multimedia and video stories simply can’t be understood.

NOISE

Noise is any undesirable sound that creeps into our recordings, competing with the audio we
actually want to capture (the signal). All recording devices (microphones and recorders alike)
generate a certain amount of “self noise” — unwanted sound incurred merely from operating

CMJ 4204: AUDIO PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

the equipment. Better and more pricey recording equipment usually offers more desirable
signal-to-noise ratios. In other words, they produce less self noise.

Unfortunately, there are other common sources of noise and unwanted audio effects that can
ruin an otherwise good recording. These include

I. White noise is continuous, unchanging sound that doesn’t serve a functional role in a
story. There are many sources of white noise; heating and venting systems are notorious
— and ubiquitous — white noise generators. Coping with white noise usually means
recording in a different location or temporarily disabling the source of the noise, if
possible.
II. Any time a recording happens outside, wind noise is a potential problem. What’s
worse, audio equipment tends to accentuate the loudness of wind — gentle breezes can
sound like aggressive gusts with a sensitive microphone. The best countermeasures are
to record in a less windy place or at a less windy time, employ a windscreen or use a
more directional microphone.
III. Clipping occurs when sound is recorded at a level that’s too high, or too “hot.” When
sound clips, the result is noticeable distortion. The best defense against clipping is
vigilant monitoring of audio levels. Always make sure sound is recorded in a safe range
(on digital recorders, the target level is -12db; on analog equipment, it’s 0db).

TERMINOLOGIES

Actuality – Sometimes shortened to “act.” Any audio recording taken outside of the studio on
location (typically referred to as a sound bite in radio)
A-Roll – The main portion of audio video footage in a news story.
Bridge – An audio track linking between two news items.
Downcut – Chopping off the end of a story or sound bite. Opposite of upcut.
Feed – A satellite or microwave transmission of live or recorded material.
Hit or Glitch – Any distortion or technical distraction in video or audio
Hot or Overmodulated – Either too loud (hot audio) or too bright (hot video). Engineers often
say that hot video “blooms” on screen.
IFB or Interrupt Feedback – The earpiece through which a director or producer instructs a
correspondent in the field or anchor in the studio. The producer interrupts whatever feedback
the reporter is getting in the earpiece.

CMJ 4204: AUDIO PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES

Miscue – An error in which footage or audio is played before its intended time, resulting in
overlapping elements in the broadcast.
NATSOT or NAT Package – A type of pre-produced package that has no reporter track; the
only audio is the natural sound of the video being shown. It may also use interview sound bites.
Often used to convey the mood or atmosphere at a scene or an event.
NAT Sound – Natural sound on video that the microphone picks up. Example: Including sound
of a rally with video of a rally.
Production Element – Any piece of audio which is intended for use within the final mix, i.e.
jingles, music, sound effects, and other station-specific audio.
Promo – Promotional announcement. In effect, an advertisement for a program a station or
channel is carrying.
Pronouncer – Phonetic spelling of word in story, placed in copy behind correctly spelled word.
PSA – Abbreviation for “Public Service Announcement.”
ROSR – Radio On Scene Report. Audio broadcast from the scene of a breaking news story, or
shortly in the wake of recent events.
Sign Off, Sig, Sig Out – Reporter giving name and dateline at the end of a package or report.
Stacking – Lining up stories within a newscast based on their important and relationship to
one another.
Stagger-through – A full rehearsal of the show.
Sting – A brief piece of music, typically less than fifteen seconds, used to punctuate the end of
a segment or story. The sting is often the station’s own jingle.
Stop Set – The time allotted to any commercial breaks within the broadcast.
Time Code – The time signature on a camera or recording device—actual time a story is being
shot on a 24-hour basis, i.e., 1300 is 1 p.m., 0900 is 9 a.m. Includes hours, minutes, seconds,
and video frames.
Track – The reporter’s written and recorded script in a news package.
Tracking – The act of recording a script.
TRT – “Total running time.” The length of an edited package.
Upcut – Chopping off the beginning of the audio or video of a shot or video story. Opposite of
downcut.
VO or Voiceover – “Voiceover” followed by “sound on tape.” A news script, usually read
live, that includes video, track, and at least one sound bite.
VOSOT – “Voiceover” followed by “sound on tape.” A news script, usually read live, that
includes video, track, and at least one sound bite.
CMJ 4204: AUDIO PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES
CMJ 4204: AUDIO PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES