Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

A comparative exergetic performance and emission analysis of pilot diesel MARK

dual-fuel engine with biogas, CNG and hydrogen as main fuels
⁎
Saket Verma , L.M. Das, S.S. Bhatti, S.C. Kaushik
Centre for Energy Studies, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this experimental study coupled with exergy analysis, a small compression ignition engine is modified to
Exergy operate in dual fuel (DF) mode with biogas, CNG and hydrogen as main fuels, and diesel as pilot fuel. Injection
Dual fuel timing (IT) advance is studied as a strategy to improve the low load performance and emission characteristics of
Hydrogen DF engine. Experiments were performed at ITs of 20, 23, 26, 29 and 32 degree crank angles before top dead
CNG
center (°BTDC) for two engine loading conditions of low and full loads at the operating points corresponding to
Biogas
Irreversibility
maximum diesel substitutions. It was found that maximum diesel substitution was considerably affected by the
type of main fuel and engine load, however, relatively less affected by IT advance. Highest maximum diesel
substitution was observed with CNG, and lowest with hydrogen as main fuels in DF mode. It was also found that
IT that gave highest performance or lowest emission varied with both the type of gaseous main fuels and engine
loads. At low load, ITs of 32, 29 and 26 °BTDC showed highest exergy efficiencies of 8.5%, 11.1% and 11.9% for
biogas, CNG and hydrogen DF operations respectively, compared to 12.6% for diesel only operation. At these
operating conditions, exergy destructions of 73.67%, 64.86% and 60.96% (% of total input exergy) were found
for DF operations compared to 62.98% for diesel only operation. At full load condition, hydrogen DF operation
exceeded exergy efficiency by 2% compared to that with the diesel only operation. On the emissions side, HC, CO
and smoke emissions were found to be reduced with advanced ITs; however, NOx emissions were significantly
increased.

1. Introduction applications of gaseous alternative fuel based DF engines range from

Rapid rise in energy demand and uncontrolled exploitation of lim-
ited fossil fuel reserves have led to twin problems of energy security and
environmental degradation. An immediate and economically viable
solution to this situation lies in the technological developments for
utilization of relatively clean burning gaseous alternative fuels, such as
biogas (BG), methane (CH4) and hydrogen (H2) in existing internal
combustion engines (ICEs). Utilization of these fuels in both the con-
figurations of ICEs, i.e. spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI)
is a well-studied research area and has revealed specific advantages and
challenges at the same time. Gaseous alternative fuels can be utilized in
a CI engine in dual fuel (DF) mode, where, gaseous fuels are main fuels
and a pilot fuel is required in small quantities to ignite the combustible
gas-air mixture. This brings in great flexibility to DF engines that they
can be switched to conventional single fuel (diesel only) operation,
when the availability of alternative fuel is not sufficient. In addition to
that, DF engines also offer other potential benefits in the terms of both
performance and emission characteristics. The current and potential
stationary power generators to transportation sectors. DF engines have
been commonly used in liquefied natural gas (LNG) transporting marine
engines by utilizing boil-off gases [1,2]. It has also been used in many
industries, where CH4 or other high calorific value (CV) gases are as-
sociated with various processes. Furthermore, research projects are
being carried out to demonstrate the feasibility of diesel-hydrogen DF
engines in public and private transports [3]. Abundant natural re-
sources and established infrastructure make natural gas (NG) the
strongest candidate in the context of mass dissemination of gaseous DF
technology in the short term. It has been reported that natural gas DF
engines show improved thermal efficiency, particularly at high engine
loads [4–6]. Simultaneously, it is also possible to reduce carbon dioxide
(CO2), NOx and smoke emissions, however, carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrocarbon (HC) emissions are found to be significantly higher com-
pared to conventional diesel engine operations [6–8]. Biogas is another
prominent alternative from the prospects of its renewable nature and
tremendous potential in developing countries [9]. Biogas is produced
from anaerobic digestion of biomass, and therefore, it has also been an

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: saketverma@hotmail.com (S. Verma).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.09.035
Received 29 June 2017; Received in revised form 9 September 2017; Accepted 11 September 2017
0196-8904/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

Nomenclature s specific entropy, J/kg K

T absolute temperature, K
Abbreviations t time, s
X exergy or Availability, J
BDC bottom dead center x specific exergy, J/kg; Mole fraction
BG biogas
BMEP brake mean effective pressure Subscripts
BP brake power
CH4 methane/natural gas II second-law
CI compression ignition BG biogas
CNG compressed natural gas ch chemical
CO carbon monoxide CNG compressed natural gas
CO2 carbon dioxide comb combustion
DF dual fuel D diesel fuel/Diesel mode
DS diesel substitution DF duel fuel mode
ED exergy destruction des destruction
EGE exhaust gas exergy ex exhaust
EGR exhaust gas recirculation fri friction
EGT exhaust gas temperature g in-cylinder gas
EPC exergetic performance coefficient gas gaseous fuels
H2 hydrogen gen generation
HC hydrocarbon H2 Hydrogen
HTE heat transfer exergy in incoming
ICE internal combustion engines i, j arbitrary number/species
ID ignition delay m, mix mixture
IT injection timing out outgoing
N2 nitrogen p products
NOx oxides of nitrogen Q heat transfer
O2 oxygen r reactants
SI spark ignition sys system
TDC top dead center W work
WTE work transfer exergy w wall
un unaccounted
Symbols
Superscripts
Cp specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg K
İ irreversibility, J/s 0 reference state
ṁ mass flow rate, kg/s
P absolute pressure, Pa Greek symbols
Q heat, J
R characteristic gas constant, J/kg K θ crank angle
R universal gas constant J/mole K η efficiency
S entropy, J/K

attractive option for rural energy supplementation [9,10]. However, it
has been found that BG-DF engine is less efficient compared to natural
gas DF engine because of low calorific value and high CO2 content of
biogas, which reduce in-cylinder flame propagation speed resulting in
incomplete combustion [11,12]. Duc and Wattanavichien [13] found
that at low to medium loads, the DF engine operations produced higher
unburned HC. This effect was also found to be more pronounced at
lower loads, however, at higher loads, efficiency deterioration was re-
duced, and at the full load, an efficiency similar to that with the con-
ventional diesel engine was achieved. In this category, utilization of H2
as gaseous alternative fuel in DF mode has many inherent advantages
over both natural gas and biogas. Based on a computational study,
Yousefi et al. [14] found that the performance of hydrogen DF engine
was superior to that of natural gas DF engine at the lean operating
conditions. In DF mode, hydrogen improves the overall H/C ratio of
combustible mixture causing lesser carbon based emissions [15,16].
Furthermore, high diffusivity and high flame speed of hydrogen allow
for better homogeneity in fuel distribution, and therefore, quicker and
completer combustion of air-fuel mixture. This results in increased
thermal efficiency and reduced emissions (smoke, particulate matters,
CO and HC) from H2-DF engines [16,17]. Nevertheless, high NOx
emissions, backfire and engine knock are some phenomena, which
constrain the amount of H2 that can be utilized in DF mode [16,18,19].
Lata et al. [19] found that maximum amount of substitution by hy-
drogen was limited to 50% due to knocking problem. Chintala and
Subramanian [20] reported significantly high NOx emissions with in-
crease in hydrogen energy share in DF mode as compared to that with
the baseline diesel mode.
In spite of above advantages, DF operation has drawbacks of lower
thermal efficiency at low loads, and high HC and CO emissions
throughout the engine load spectrum. Lata et al. [18] found that the
lean gaseous fuel-air mixture and low pilot fuel quantity at low loads
led to slower combustion rates and consequently, the lower thermal
efficiency. Similarly, Nirendra et al. [8] found significantly high brake
specific fuel consumptions at low load with diesel-natural gas DF op-
erations. Furthermore, on the emission side, both HC and CO emissions
were considerably higher compared to the diesel operation. The per-
formance of a DF engine is affected by many operating parameters such
as engine load, type of gaseous fuel and injection timing (IT) of the pilot
fuel. It has been reported that advancing the pilot ITs shows significant

765
S. Verma et al.
potential to improve low load performance of the natural gas DF en-
gines. Alla et al. [21] experimentally showed that advancing the pilot
fuel IT from 25 to 30 degree crank angles before top dead center
(°BTDC) for gaseous fuels of methane and propane improved the low
load thermal efficiency along with reduced CO and HC emissions. An-
other study was performed by Yang et al. [22] to investigate the low
load performance of a natural gas DF engine under advanced pilot ITs.
It was found that HC and CO emissions were reduced by 50% and 60%
respectively, however, NOx emissions were increased by more than six
times. Brake thermal efficiency was improved by more than 30%
compared to that with standard pilot IT. In another study with biodiesel
as pilot fuel for CNG-DF operation, Ryu [23] studied the effects of
change in ITs, and arrived at the similar results. Very high IT advance
was suggested as an effective strategy to reduce NOx emissions by
Krishnan et al. [24]. They reported that at full load condition, IT ad-
vance of 55–60 °BTDC reduced NOx emissions very significantly and no
loss in efficiency was observed compared to that with the base diesel
operation. Wang et al. [25] also studied the performance of a diesel-
natural gas DF engine for wide range of ITs. They found that at an
optimized IT, two-stage autoignition mode led to higher brake thermal
efficiency together with low NOx emissions. In an experimental study of
the DF engine with LPG, methane and natural gas as main gaseous fuels,
Selim [26] observed that the torque output was highest at certain IT,
and it was decreased at earlier or later timings. LPG produced the
lowest torque, whereas, methane produced the highest. Furthermore,
advancing the pilot ITs led to higher peak pressures and pressure rise
rates for all the studied gaseous fuels.
Exergy analysis, also called availability analysis has been carried out
in the present study, which quantifies the maximum available work
from a thermal system and therefore, shows the possibilities of im-
provements. It also enables to identify the magnitudes of irreversi-
bilities, and as a result, can be used to compare various processes based
on their levels of irreversibilities. Using exergy analysis, Hosseinzadeh
et al. [27] investigated the effect of pilot fuel quantity on part load
performance of DF engine. It was found that increasing pilot fuel
quantity by 12% resulted in 23% increase in exergy destruction and
29% increase in second-law efficiency. In another study, Hosseinzadeh
et al. [28] tried to investigate and improve the low load performance of
CNG-DF engine using exhaust gas recirculation (EGR). Based on a quasi-
two-zone combustion model, it was found that thermal and radical
cases of EGR showed improvements in exergy terms, while, chemical
EGR case showed increase in unburned chemical exergy. Based on ex-
ergy analysis of a CNG-DF engine, Gümüş et al. [29] found that exhaust
exergy with CNG-DF mode was lower than that with the diesel only
mode at full load condition. Moreover, both first and second-law effi-
ciencies were higher with DF operation of the engine. In a similar study
of gaseous DF operation, Costa et al. [30] found significant decrease in
exergy destruction at full load, which was decreased from 206 kW for
diesel operation to 98.6 kW for DF operation. This also resulted as
improvement in second-law efficiency that was from 35.4% to 52.38%.
Based on a numerical study, Rakopoulos et al. [31] tried to explain the
implications of fuel selection for DF engines. It was found that heavier
molecules such as dodecane produced higher entropy compared to a
lighter molecule such a methane; which caused improvements in exergy
efficiency of methane DF engines. A comparative energy and exergy
analysis on the effect of different compositions of biogas on DF engine
was performed by Verma et al. [32]. They found that a biogas com-
position with 93% methane resulted in comparable performance as that
with the diesel operation with 26.9% and 27.4% second-law efficiencies
respectively. However, biogas with lower methane percentages showed
lower efficiencies along with the increased exergy destructions.
From the point of view of second-law of thermodynamics, hydrogen
combustion is of special interest. Rakopoulos and Kyritsis [33] showed
that up to 10% of H2 addition in CH4 reduced combustion irreversi-
bility, which also reflected as increased second-law efficiency. This ef-
fect was found equally applicable to landfill gas (nearly 40% CO2
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Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777
concentration). In a theoretical study, Nieminen and Dincer [34]
compared gasoline and hydrogen combustion in the IC engine and
found that hydrogen fueled engine showed greater work potential with
41.37% second-law efficiency as compared 35.74% for gasoline engine.
It was reasoned that hydrogen combustion led to very less irreversi-
bility generation as compared to that with the gasoline. In a similar
observation, decreased exergy destruction with increase in hydrogen
gas fuel-air ratio was found by Jafarmadar [35]. However, it was also
reported that due to excessive heat losses and exhaust gas exergy, ex-
ergy efficiency was also decreased from 43.7% to 34.5% when fuel-air
ratio was increased from 0.3 to 0.8.
The presented literature review suggests that optimization of ITs
could be an effective strategy to improve the poor low load perfor-
mance and emission characteristics of alternative gaseous DF engines. It
is also expected that effect of IT strategy on DF engines would vary
significantly with change in type of gaseous main fuel. However,
available works in this area are insufficient, especially in cases of BG-DF
and H2-DF engines. Furthermore, available information to explain the
variations in the exergy terms for DF engine require enrichment. An
important addition through this work is to understand the effect of type
of gaseous main fuels on the performance of DF engines from second-
law point of view. In this background, present work is focused on the
comparative exergetic performance and emission analysis of diesel-DF
operations with biogas, CNG and H2 as main gaseous fuels.
2. Experimental methodology
2.1. Experimental test setup
A diesel direct-injection, single cylinder, four stroke, Kirloskar
(TAF1) CI engine producing peak power of 4.4 kW at constant speed of
1500 rpm was selected for engine tests. The engine has a MICO BOSCH,
3-hole diesel injector (spray angle of approximately 116°) and bowl-in-
piston combustion chamber. Engine geometry and specifications are
listed in Table 1. Engine was coupled to an AC dynamometer connected
to an electrical loading panel, which is equipped with electrical loads,
load switches and measuring devices. A schematic diagram of the
complete engine test setup is given in Fig. 1. This conventional diesel
engine was modified for DF operation utilizing different gaseous fuels,
which required slight changes in the fuel supply system. The gaseous
fuels were made to flow through high pressure cylinders, and pressure
regulators were used to reduce the pressure. Some safety devices, such
as non-return valve, flame trap and control valve were used to counter
the chances of backfire. Coriolis mass flow meter (Proline Promass 80A)
was used to measure air and gaseous fuel flow rates. An air box was
placed between the intake port and mass flow meter to damp out any
fluctuations produced by the engine intake system. Provision was made
to supply the gaseous fuels to the intake manifold utilizing a gas
Table 1
Engine specifications.
Parameters Technical specifications
Make & model Kirloskar TAF1
Type Single cylinder, air cooled
Bore & stroke 87.5 × 110 mm
Swept volume 661 cm3
Compression ratio 17.5:1
Rated brake power 6 bhp/4.4 kW
Rated speed 1500 rpm
Nozzle injection pressure 200 bar
Lubrication system Forced feed
Inlet valve open 4.50 °BTDC
Inlet valve closed 35.50 °ABDC
Exhaust valve open 35.50 °BBDC
Exhaust valve closed 4.50 °ATDC
Standard fuel injection timing 23.0 °BTDC
S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the experimental test set-up.

mixture, where it is mixed with the incoming air and supplied to the combustion analysis kit (Class A EN 61326-1), which is equipped with
engine. AVL DIGAS exhaust gas analyzer was used for the measure- Kistler’s (6613CQ18) piezo-electric pressure transducer, rpm counter
ments of exhaust emissions from the engine. It is based on non-dis- and magnetic TDC angle encoder. A dedicated software interface was
persive infrared (NDIR) technique for the measurements of CO2, CO, used for storage and analysis of in-cylinder data in a personal computer.
and HC; and electrochemical technique for O2 and NOx emissions.
Smoke meter (AVL 437) was used to obtain smoke opacity measure-
2.2. Experimental test cases and test procedure
ments. Specifications of all the equipment and devices used in the ex-
perimental study with their ranges and resolutions are given in Table 2.
In the present work, two different modes of combustion i.e., diesel
In-cylinder pressure data was obtained with Legion Brothers’
and dual fuel (DF) modes have been studied. Diesel mode represents the

Table 2
Specifications of the instruments.

Measurement Instrument Description Range Resolution

Electrical output ESCORP (Watt meter) Power out from engine 0–5 kW 1W
Temperatures K-type thermocouples (Chromel- Temperatures of exhaust gas, inlet air, engine oil, fins and 0–900 °C 1 °C
Alumel) atmosphere.
Exhaust gases AVL DIGAS Exhaust gas analyzer, power supply: 195–253 V, 47–65 Hz – –
1. CO Infrared measurement 0–10% by vol. 0.01% by vol.
2. CO2 Infrared measurement 0–20% by vol. 0.1 by vol.
3. HC Infrared measurement 0–200,000 ppm by vol. 1 ppm by vol.
4. O2 Electrochemical measurement 0–0.4% by vol. 0.01% by vol.
5. NO Electrochemical measurement 0–4000 ppm by vol. 1 ppm by vol.
Smoke opacity AVL 437 smoke meter Silicon photo detector 0–100% Opacity ± 0.05%
Cylinder pressure KISTLER (6613CQ18) Piezo-electric 0–100 bar ± 0.5%
Data acquisition system Legion Brothers (Class A EN 61326-1) Includes crank angle encoder, rpm sensor and combustion analysis – –
system
Engine speed Tachometer Infrared light reflection – 1 rpm
Air flow rate Proline Promass Coriolis mass flow measurement 0–330 m3/h ± 0.1 m3/h
Diesel flow rate Burette Volume flow rate of diesel 1–30 cm3 ± 0.2 cm3
Gas flow rate Proline Promass 80A Coriolis mass flow measurement 0–3.59 kg/h ± 0.25%

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S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

base line condition with conventional single fuel (diesel fuel only) di- [37]. Exergy analysis of IC engines concerns with application of exergy
rect injection operation of CI engine. Three DF operations termed as balance. It is based on second-law of thermodynamics, and for a control
BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF have been studied in which biogas (BG), volume, it can be defined as: rate of change of exergy of a system
compressed natural gas (CNG) and hydrogen (H2) are the main fuels ̇ −Ẋout ) between
(dXsys / dt ) is equal to the net rate of exergy exchange (Xin
respectively. Diesel acts as pilot fuel in all the DF operations. Both the system and surrounding in a thermodynamic process minus the rate
diesel and DF operations have been studied at two engine loading of exergy destruction (Ẋdes ) within the control volume because of var-
conditions, where low load corresponds to BMEP of 1.16 bar and full ious irreversibilities associated with it [38].
load corresponds to BMEP of 5.32 bar. Moreover, effect of advancing dXsys
the pilot ITs have been investigated, and experiments are carried out at ̇ −Ẋout −Ẋdes
= Xin
dt (2)
five ITs of 20, 23, 26, 29 and 32 °BTDC. Properties of various gaseous
fuels used in the experimental study are shown in Table 3. ̇ ) to the engine system are associated with
Incoming exergies ( Xin
All the results presented in this work were evaluated at steady state intake masses. Being a naturally aspirated engine, exergy of incoming
conditions. Pilot diesel IT was set to 20 °BTDC and engine was started air is assumed zero; however, intake fuels (diesel and gaseous fuels)
with conventional diesel direct-injection operation. Thereafter, low carry chemical exergies. An empirical relation suggested by Kotas [37]
load (BMEP 1.16 bar) was applied with electrical loading panel, and is used to evaluate the specific chemical exergy of incoming diesel fuel
engine was allowed to run for 15–20 min until engine was thermally ( x ch,D ):
stabilized. Thermal stability of the engine was ensured using various
H O S
thermocouples installed for temperature measurements of intake air, x ch,D = LHV × ⎧1.0401 + 0.1728 ⎛ ⎞ + 0.0432 ⎛ ⎞ + 0.2169 ⎛ ⎞
⎨
⎩ ⎝C ⎠ ⎝C ⎠ ⎝C ⎠
exhaust gases, lubricating oil and fins. At this point measurements were
carried out for diesel flow rate, air flow rate, engine speed, power H
× ⎛1−2.0628 ⎛ ⎞ ⎞ ⎫
output and exhaust emissions. Diesel flow rate over a calibrated burette ⎝ ⎝ C ⎠⎠⎬
⎭ (3)
was measured using stopwatch; and air flow rate was measured with
digital mass flow meter. A mechanical governor keeps the engine speed where hydrogen (H), carbon (C), oxygen (O) and sulfur (S) are given by
constant (1500 ± 20 rpm), which was also measured with a tach- their molecular masses in the diesel fuel. LHV is lower heating value of
ometer. Details of the measuring devices and method are given in the diesel fuel.
Table 2. Subsequently, engine load was raised to full load condition and Specific chemical exergy of biogas ( x ch,BG ) and CNG ( x ch,CNG ) are
above procedure was repeated to take the measurements. For DF op- calculated assuming these as a mixture of ideal gases from their com-
eration, gas regulator was opened and gaseous fuel was allowed to flow position. Standard chemical exergies for each of the constituent gases is
into the intake manifold. Using a control valve, gas flow was slowly taken from [37]. Finally, specific chemical exergies of gaseous fuels are
increased because gas intake increases the engine speed, which actuates calculated from:
the governor to reduce the diesel flow rate. The gas flow rate was in- ∑ o
,i + T ∑ yi R lnyi
x ch,gas = yi xch 0
creased until engine showed any signs of combustion anomalies (such i i (4)
as misfire, knocking or backfire), and at this point measurements were o
where yi and xch
are mole fraction and standard specific chemical ex-
,i
recorded, which also shows the condition where maximum possible th
ergy of the i species in the ideal gas mixture respectively. R is uni-
diesel was substituted by gaseous fuels. Engine misfire and knocking
versal gas constant. Calculated values of chemical exergies for gaseous
can be identified from the variations of in-cylinder data [39]. Backfire is
fuels are given in Table 3. Total incoming fuel exergy is given by:
the phenomenon in which flame travels back to the intake manifold,
and commonly observed with the hydrogen combustion. Diesel sub- ̇ = [(ṁ D,DF × x ch,D ) + (ṁ gas × x ch,gas )]
Xin (5)
stitution (DS) is defined as the net decrease in the diesel flow rate be-
tween diesel only mode (ṁ D,D ) and dual fuel modes (ṁ D,DF ) with respect where ṁ gas is mass flow rate of the gaseous fuel. Work output from
to its diesel only mode of operation: the engine is a high grade energy, and therefore also represents
equivalent exergy. Rate of exergy transfer accompanied by work
ṁ D,D−ṁ D,DF ⎤ ̇ ) from the engine is given by:
transfer ( XW
DS (%) = ⎡ × 100
⎢ ṁ D,D ⎥ (1)
⎣ ⎦ ̇ = BP
XW (6)
This exercise completes a set of measurements, and similarly, other where BP is brake power of the engine.
sets of measurements were taken by advancing pilot ITs to 23, 26, 29 Rate of exergy transfer with heat losses ( XQ̇ ) from the engine is
and 32 °BTDC consecutively.
Error analysis was performed to estimate the level of uncertainties Table 3
present in measured and computed quantities from the experiment. All Properties of gaseous fuels used in dual fuel operations.
the measured quantities used in the calculations are the average of
Properties Biogas CNG Hydrogen
three trials. The uncertainties in the measured quantities were com-
puted based on the root-mean-square deviation technique [36]. It was Composition (v/v %) CH4 – 75.2 CH4 – 96.1 H2 – 99.9
found that repeatability of the measurement is within 2%. The un- CO2 – 19.7 C2H6 – 2.5
certainties associated with the calculated quantities were computed by O2 – 1.2 C3H8 – 0.4
Other gases – C4H10 –
propagation of uncertainty technique [36]. It was found that un-
3.9 0.14
certainties in the computed results are within 3.6%. Resolutions of the C5H12 –
various equipment used in the experiment are shown in Table 2. 0.01
N2 – 0.59
CO2 – 0.15
2.3. Exergy analysis Lower heating value (MJ/kg) 27.22 49.15 119.93a
Specific chemical exergy (MJ/kg) 28.64 51.00 118.06a
Exergy of a system at any given state is defined as the maximum Stoichiometric A/F ratio (kg of air/kg 8.93 17.05 34.36a
of fuel)
amount of useful work that can be extracted from it with respect to a
Density at 1 atm and 15 °C (kg/m3) 0.928 0.698 0.083a
reference state. In most of the thermodynamic problems including IC Specific heat (Cp – kJ/kgK) 1.35a 2.22a 14.86a
engines, natural atmosphere (temperature T 0 = 298.15 K and pressure
P 0 = 101.325 kPa) is considered as the reference state (dead state) a
Commonly accepted values taken from the literature.

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S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

given by: with injected liquid fuel. Under the assumption of ideal gas for all the
̇ ) is given by [37]:
mixing species, rate of mixing irreversibility (Imix
T0
XQ̇ = ∑ ⎜⎛1− T ⎞ Q̇
⎟ n
⎝ g ⎠ (7) ̇ = −T 0 ∑ ni R lnyi
Imix
i (14)
where Q̇ is instantaneous rate of heat transfer from gases to the engine
wall, and Tg is the temperature at which heat is transferred. Rate of heat here ni is the number of moles of species. ith
transfer was obtained using Annand’s correlation, which is given by ̇ ) is com-
Irreversibility due to in-cylinder mechanical friction (Ifri
[39]: puted by subtracting brake power output from indicated power output
of the engine. To balance the equation, unaccounted irreversibilities
Q̇ = F [(aλ / D) × Re b × (Tw−Tg ) + c (Tw4−Tg4 )] (8) ̇ ) are given by:
(Iun
In the above equation, F is total surface area of heat transfer, λ is ̇ = Ẋdes −(Icomb
Iun ̇ ̇ + Ifri
+ Imix ̇ ) (15)
thermal conductivity, D is bore of the engine cylinder, Re is Reynolds
number, Tw and Tg are temperatures of cylinder wall and cylinder Second-law efficiency (ηII ), also called exergy efficiency is defined
contents respectively. a , b and c are constants of calibration. as:
Outgoing hot exhaust gases also carry significant amount of physical ηII = (Xẇ / Xin
̇ ) × 100 (16)
exergy ( Ẋex ), which is given by [38]:
Exergetic performance coefficient (EPC ) is defined as the ratio of
Ẋex = [ṁ ex × CP,ex × (Tex −T 0)] work transfer exergy to the exergy destruction, and given by:
⎡ T P ⎤ ̇ / Ẋdes
−⎢ṁ ex × T 0 × ⎧CP,ex × ln ⎛ ex0 ⎞−R × ln ⎛ ex0 ⎞ ⎫ ⎥ EPC = XW (17)
⎨
⎩ ⎝ T ⎠ ⎝ P ⎠ ⎬
⎭⎦ (9)
⎣
where ṁ ex , Tex and Pex are mass flow rate, temperature and pressure of 3. Results and discussion
exhaust gases respectively. Apart from this, exhaust gases could also
carry significant amount of chemical exergy, especially in DF mode of 3.1. Combustion parameters
operations, which is associated with high amount of unburned fuel in
the exhaust [27]. However, it has been reported that recovery of ex- The variations in peak cylinder pressures during diesel and DF op-
haust chemical exergy is not feasible, particularly from the point of erations are shown in Fig. 2 with respect to injection timings (ITs) for
view of ICE applications [40,41]. In this work, chemical exergy ac- both low and high loads. At low load, BG-DF and CNG-DF operations
companied by exhaust gases is considered as exergy loss, and it is re- showed similar peak pressures as that with diesel operation. However,
flected in the unaccounted irreversibility generation term. higher values were recorded with H2-DF operations for all the IT ad-
Using Eqs. (3) to (9), exergy balance shown in Eq. (2) can be rear- vances. On the other hand, all the DF cases showed higher peak pres-
ranged to find in-cylinder exergy destruction as: sures as compared to diesel case at high load. At the IT of 20 °BTDC,
peak pressures of 66.07 bar, 69.69 bar, 69.56 bar and 74.90 bar were
Ẋdes = (Xin
̇ )−(XW
̇ + Ẋex + XQ̇ ) (10) observed for diesel, BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF cases respectively at
This total exergy destruction inside the engine cylinder incorporates high load. These values were increased to 70.11 bar, 72.73 bar,
various sources/processes of irreversibilities, such as combustion, 76.25 bar and 87.28 bar at the IT of 32 °BTDC for the above operating
mixing, friction and viscous heat dissipation [41]. In the present work conditions respectively. This is mainly due to the higher ignition delays
an attempt has been made to quantify some of these sources of irre- (ID) with DF cases compared to the baseline diesel case. Variations in
versibilities. Combustion is a highly complex chemical reaction, which the ID with ITs are shown in Fig. 3 for diesel and DF cases. Prolonged ID
is accompanied by entropy generation (Sgen ̇ ,comb ), and therefore, causes leads to the accumulation of fuel that burns rapidly during the pre-
exergy destruction. For combustion process, entropy generation can be mixed phase of combustion. This Rapid rate of heat release leads to
given by [41]: higher peak cylinder pressure. It has been shown that in the case of DF
combustion, premixed gaseous fuel undergoes pre-ignition reactions
̇ ,comb =
Sgen ∑ ṁ i,p si,p− ∑ ṁ j,r sj,r− ∑ (Q̇/Tg ) (11) causing changes in the charge properties, and consequently affects the
physical and chemical processes during ID period [19,26]. The highest
where ṁ i,p and si,p are mass flow rate and specific entropy of the ith
ID was observed with BG-DF cases, which also causes highest heat
species in burned gas product mixture. ṁ j,r and sj,r are corresponding
values for the jth species in the reactant mixture. In the present work,
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG
reactant mixture is comprised of air and fuels, whereas, product mix- Diesel+H2 Diesel Diesel+BG
ture contains exhaust gas species. Composition and concentrations of Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
exhaust gas species were obtained from exhaust gas analysis followed
90
by application of mass balance. Entropy of ith species at temperature T
Peak cylinder pressure (bar)

85 Dual fuel
and partial pressure Pi is given by [37,39]: BMEP=5.32 bar
80
P 75
si (T ,Pi ) = si0 (T ,P0 )−Ri ln ⎛yi m ⎞
⎜ ⎟

⎝ P0 ⎠ (12) 70
65
Entropy of each species at its standard state si0
in reactant and Dual fuel
60 BMEP=1.16 bar
product mixtures is obtained from polynomial curve fit as function of
55
temperature; and its coefficient is obtained from JANAF table [39,42].
̇ ) with combustion process 50
Finally, irreversibility generation (Icomb
45
can be given by following expression [38]:
40
̇
Icomb ̇ ,comb
= T 0 × Sgen (13) 17 20 23 26 29 32
Injection Timing (°BTDC)
Furthermore, irreversibility is generated due to mixing of gases. In
the present work, mixing irreversibility includes mixing of gaseous fuel Fig. 2. Variation of peak cylinder pressure with pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and
dual fuel operations at low (solid lines) and high loads (dashed lines).
and air, mixing of air and residual charge inside the cylinder and also

769
S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG

Diesel+H2 Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+H2 Diesel Diesel+BG
Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
Dual fuel
25 BMEP=5.32 bar
Dual fuel 0.8
BMEP=1.16 bar
20 0.7
Ignition delay (deg)

Equivalence ratio
0.6
15 0.5
0.4
10 0.3
Dual fuel 0.2 Dual fuel
5 BMEP=5.32 bar BMEP=1.16 bar
0.1

0 0
17 20 23 26 29 32 17 20 23 26 29 32

Injection Timing (°BTDC) Injection Timing (°BTDC)

Fig. 5. Variation of equivalence ratio with pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and dual
Fig. 3. Variation of ignition delay with pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and dual fuel
fuel operations at low (solid lines) and high loads (dashed lines).
operations at low (solid lines) and high loads (dashed lines).

release rates (as shown in Fig. 4). Perhaps, CO2 in the biogas absorbs
some amount of heat during compression process, which leads to lower
charge temperature at the point of pilot fuel injection. Furthermore,
inducted gaseous fuel replaces some amount of air, and consequently,
lower oxygen concentration in the combustion chamber may also
lengthen the ID period with BG-DF case. Heat release rate in the pre-
mixed phase of combustion is also affected by the fuel-air equivalence
ratio near the ignition centers created by the pilot fuel. In Fig. 5,
equivalence ratio is depicted with ITs for diesel and DF cases. As can be
seen, overall higher equivalence ratios in case of DF cases lead to higher
premixed combustion phase and consequently higher heat release rates.
relatively high amount of fuel burns rapidly causing very high rate of
pressure rise during combustion. To counter such situations, slightly
higher amount of diesel is required to decrease the ID at advanced ITs.
Similarly, increasing the engine load also showed decrease in DS, which
could also be linked to the knocking limit of the engine operation. At
high loads, significantly higher amount of energy is inducted in the
form of gaseous fuels to compensate for higher power requirements.
This poses the possibility of much severe knocking conditions, conse-
quently, higher amount of diesel is required to decrease the ID. No-
ticeably, H2-DF operation shows comparatively much lower DS at full
load. Severe knocking was observed during the experiments, when DS
was increased beyond 25.4% at the IT of 23 °BTDC for H2-DF operation.

3.2. Exergy analysis

3.2.1. Diesel substitution (DS) Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2

Variation in the maximum diesel substitution (DS) with changes in
90 Dual fuel
the ITs for DF operations of the engine is depicted in Fig. 6. Highest DS
Diesel substitution (%)

was found for CNG-DF case followed by BG-DF and H2-DF cases re- 88 BMEP=1.16 bar
spectively at both low and full loads. It was also observed that DS shows 86
decreasing trend with advancement in ITs. For low load condition at IT 84
of 20 °BTDC, maximum DS of 88%, 84.2% and 77.8% were possible for 82
CNG-DF, BG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively. However, advan- 80
cing the IT to 32 °BTDC reduced maximum DS to 80.5%, 79.1% and 78
73.7% respectively. In the present study, maximum DS was restricted 76
by engine knock and misfire, which show strong dependence on igni- 74
tion delay (ID) [26,39]. It is found that advancing the IT prolongs the 72
ID, which leads to accumulation of fuel before start of combustion. This 17 20 23 26 29 32

Diesel+BG (20 BTDC) Diesel+BG (32 BTDC)

Injection timing (°BTDC)
Diesel+CNG (20 BTDC) Diesel+CNG (32 BTDC)
Diesel+H2 (20 BTDC) Diesel+H2 (32 BTDC) Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2

Injection timing=
80
Heat release rate (J/deg)

Diesel substitution (%)

32 °BTDC 140 70
Injection timing=
120 20 °BTDC 60
100 50 Dual fuel
BMEP=5.32 bar
80 40
60 30
40 20
20 10
0 0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 17 20 23 26 29 32
Crank angles (deg) Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 4. Variation of heat release rate with pilot fuel injection timings for dual fuel op- Fig. 6. Variation of diesel substitution (%) with pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and
erations at high load. dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).

770
S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

14 Dual fuel, BMEP=1.16 bar point of injection; effect of this is to increase in ID [13]. Furthermore, it
Work transfer exergy (% input

12
12 Dual fuel, BMEP=1.16 bar
10

Exhaust gas exergy (% input fuel

fuel exergy)

8 10

6 8
4 6

exergy)
2
4
0
20 23 26 29 32 2
Injection timing (°BTDC)
0
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC)
35 Dual fuel, BMEP=5.32 bar Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
Work transfer exergy (% input

30
25 14 Dual fuel, BMEP=5.32 bar

Exhaust gas exergy (% input fuel

fuel exergy)

20 12
15 10
10 8
5
exergy) 6
0 4
20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC) 2

Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 0

20 23 26 29 32
Fig. 7. Variation of work transfer exergy (% of input fuel exergy) with pilot fuel injection
Injection timing (°BTDC)
timings for diesel and dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).

Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2

3.2.2. Work transfer exergy (WTE) Fig. 9. Variation of exhaust gas exergy (% of input fuel exergy) with pilot fuel injection
Various exergetic terms from the exergy balance of diesel and DF timings for diesel and dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).
operations are shown in Figs. 7–11. Variation of work transfer exergy
(WTE) as % of input fuel exergy, which shows available work output at
absorbs the heat during combustion and reduces in-cylinder tempera-
the shaft end is shown in Fig. 7 for different ITs. At low load condition,
ture. This results in reduced flame propagation speed, which could be
WTE for DF operations showed increasing and then decreasing trends
quenched before reaching to the end-gas charge mixture [13]. Another
with IT advance. Maximum WTEs of 8.53%, 11.09% and 11.93% were
possible reason could be the high DS at low load causing insufficient
found at ITs of 32 °BTDC, 29 °BTDC and 26 °BTDC for BG-DF, CNG-DF
availability of pilot fuel to effectively ignite the fuel-air mixture inside
and H2-DF operations respectively. Considerably low WTE with BG-DF
the combustion chamber. The overall effect of above discussed phe-
operation compared to diesel only operation (12.57%) could mainly be
nomena is incomplete combustion of fuel-air mixture producing high
attributed to high CO2 concentration in biogas. Presence of CO2 in the
levels of unburned hydrocarbon (HC) emissions and loss in conversion
fuel-air mixture dilutes the intake charge and reduces its temperature at
efficiency. These arguments are strengthened by the fact that higher
WTE was observed for CNG-DF operation, which was further improved
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG
Diesel+H2 Diesel Diesel+BG with H2-DF operation indicating improvements in the combustion
Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 process. However, at low load, WTEs were still lower for DF operations
850 compared to that with diesel operation. Conversely, at full load con-
Exhaust gas temperature (K)

800 dition, WTEs were found to be considerably improved. Maximum WTEs

750 of 24.38%, 28.27% and 30.35% were observed at ITs of 26 °BTDC,
700 26 °BTDC and 23 °BTDC for BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations re-
650 Dual fuel spectively. To compensate the higher imposed load at full load condi-
BMEP=5.32 bar tion, richer fuel-air mixture is required (i.e. high input fuel energy),
600
550 which burns much rapidly and produces higher heat release rate. Fur-
500
thermore, slightly higher amount of diesel injected at full load reduces
ID and much shorter combustion duration is possible. Consequently,
450
Dual fuel combustion process at full load produces much higher temperature and
400
BMEP=1.16 bar pressure, which help in complete combustion and better conversion
350
17 20 23 26 29 32 efficiency. It can be noted that full load WTE with H2-DF mode exceeds
that for diesel only mode by 1.93%.
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 8. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with pilot fuel injection timings for diesel 3.2.3. Exhaust gas exergy (EGE)
and dual fuel operations at low (solid lines) and high loads (dashed lines).
Variation of exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and exhaust gas exergy

771
S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

20 Dual fuel, BMEP=1.16 bar 90 Dual fuel, BMEP=1.16 bar

Heat transfer exergy (% input

Exergy destruction (% input fuel

18 80
16
70
14
12 60
fuel exergy)

10 50

exergy)
8 40
6 30
4 20
2 10
0
20 23 26 29 32 0
20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC) Injection timing (°BTDC)
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2

35 Dual fuel, BMEP=5.32 bar Dual fuel, BMEP=5.32 bar

Heat transfer exergy (% input

30 50

Exergy destruction (% input fuel

45
25 40
35
fuel exergy)

20
30
15 25

exergy)
10 20
15
5 10
0 5
20 23 26 29 32 0
20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
Fig. 10. Variation of heat transfer exergy (% of input fuel exergy) with pilot fuel injection
timings for diesel and dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom). Fig. 11. Variation of exergy destruction (% of input fuel exergy) with pilot fuel injection
timings for diesel and dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).

(EGE) as % of input fuel exergy are shown in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 re-
spectively. At low load, EGTs for all the DF modes were found higher
compared to that with diesel mode. Highest EGT was recorded for H2-
DF operation followed by CNG-DF operation. This could be attributed
to higher IDs with gaseous DF operations, which causes combustion to
take place farther from TDC [18]. Furthermore, at low load, combustion
duration is higher, consequently, burned exhaust gases leave at higher
temperatures. BG-DF case is distinct, which is although having highest
ID, shows marginal increase in EGT. It is possible that CO2 present in
biogas absorbs some amount of combustion heat and reduces the peak
temperature. This also slows down the flame propagation, and in-
complete combustion of fuel may lead to lower EGT. Advancement in
ITs showed decrease in EGTs for all the modes of diesel and DF op-
erations. Advancing the ITs causes earlier ignition of fuel-air mixture
and increase in premixed phase of combustion, consequently, there is
earlier termination of the combustion process, and therefore, EGT is
reduced. EGE is a function of exhaust gas temperature (as shown in Eq.
(9)), consequently, compared to diesel operation, EGEs with H2-DF and
CNG-DF operations were found to be higher for all the IT advances.
EGEs of 10.92%, 10.04% and 5.65% were computed for H2-DF, CNG-DF
and BG-DF operations respectively compared to 8.23% for diesel only
operation.
Similar effect of IT advance was observed at full load operation
showing reduction in EGT. EGT of H2-DF and CNG-DF operations were
found to be lower than that for diesel operation, which could be due to
reduced diffusion phase combustion and shorter combustion duration
at full load condition. On the other hand, BG-DF operation showed
higher EGT. It could be the effect of much delayed combustion with BG-
DF operation [12]. It can be noted that owing to larger amount of input
fuel exergy, EGE (% of input fuel exergy) for BG-DF operation still re-
mains lower than that for diesel operation. Lowest EGEs of 10.86%,
10.74% and 10.07% were computed for BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF
operations respectively.
3.2.4. Heat transfer exergy (HTE)
Variation in the heat transfer exergy (HTE) as % of input fuel exergy
is shown in Fig. 10 against the pilot fuel ITs. At low load condition and
IT of 20 °BTDC, BG-DF and CNG-DF operations indicated lower HTEs of
10.13% and 12.68% respectively, compared to that with diesel opera-
tion (14.59%). HTEs showed increasing trend with advanced ITs owing
to increased combustion temperatures at these conditions. It is also
evident from Fig. 10 that HTE with H2-DF operation is slightly higher
(0.51%) at the IT of 20 °BTDC, which was increased by 2.22% at the IT
of 32 °BTDC compared to similar conditions of diesel only operations.
Due to high flame speed and low quenching distance of H2 flame, high
heat transfer losses with H2-DF operation has been reported in the lit-
erature [18,35,43]. In addition to that premixed charge in the DF mode
allows the combustion to extend throughout the combustion chamber
and causes higher heat transfer losses to the cylinder walls. This effect
was intensified at the full load condition, and much higher HTE was
observed with H2-DF operation. At this same loading condition, CNG-
DF operation showed comparable results, whereas, HTE with BG-DF
operation was found considerably lower compared to diesel operation.
Lowest HTEs of 18.74%, 21.48% and 26.53% were found with BG-DF,
CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively at the IT of 20 °BTDC.
3.2.5. Exergy destruction (ED)
Exergy destruction (ED) as % of input fuel exergy for diesel and DF
operations of the engine is given in Fig. 11. At both low and full loads,
BG-DF operation showed highest ED followed by CNG-DF and H2-DF
operations respectively. CNG-DF operation showed comparable ED

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S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

(slightly high), whereas, ED with H2-DF operation was found lower as 50

Diesel

Irreversibility (% of input fuel

compared to that with the baseline diesel operation. Advancing the ITs 45 Dual fuel
BMEP=1.16 bar Diesel+BG
resulted in lower EDs, however, there were optimum ITs for which 40
different DF operations showed lowest EDs. Lowest EDs of 73.67%, Diesel+CNG
35
64.53% and 60.96% were found at the ITs of 32 °BTDC, 26 °BTDC and Diesel+H2
30

exergy)
26 °BTDC for BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively;
25
whereas ED for diesel operation was 62.93%. Significant reduction in
ED was observed at higher load. At the full load, lowest EDs of 44.01%, 20
35.06% and 30.60% were found at the IT of 26 °BTDC for BG-DF, CNG- 15
DF and H2-DF operations respectively. This is due to high temperature 10
and pressure produced at full load condition, which allow for complete 5
combustion of gaseous fuels. Furthermore, significant reduction in ED
0
with H2-DF operation is also associated with the relatively lower en- Combustion Mixing Friction Unaccounted
tropy generation with H2 combustion. Similar results of lower ED with Irreversibility sources
H2 combustion have been reported by other researchers [34,35]. On the
other hand, high ED with BG-DF operation can be attributed to both 25
Diesel

Irreversibility (% of input fuel

incomplete and relatively low temperature combustion with biogas as 22.5 Dual fuel
the gaseous fuel. Therefore, from the second-law prospective, H2-DF BMEP=5.32 bar Diesel+BG
20
operation is the most efficient as compared to other DFs or diesel op- Diesel+CNG
17.5
erations. Diesel+H2
15

3.2.6. Exergy efficiency
The exergy efficiency or second-law efficiency is one of the most
important comparative parameters to assess the overall exergetic per-
formance of the IC engines. For diesel and DF operations, variation in
the exergy efficiency has been plotted against the ITs as given in Fig. 12.
Exergy efficiencies with H2-DF operations were found to be the highest
amongst other DF operations that were 11.9% at the IT of 26 °BTDC,
and 30.4% at the IT of 23 °BTDC at low and full loads respectively.
Whereas, lowest exergy efficiencies amongst other DF operations were
observed with BG-DF operations both at low and full loads; and these
were also lower than corresponding values for diesel operations. For
BG-DF operations, maximum exergy efficiencies of 8.5% at the IT of
32 °BTDC, and 24.4% at the IT of 26 °BTDC were obtained at low and
full loads respectively. As compared to diesel operation, slightly lower
exergy efficiency (11.1% at the IT of 29 °BTDC) was observed for CNG-
DF operation at low load, however, at high load, exergy efficiency
(28.3% at the IT of 26 °BTDC) became comparable.
3.2.7. In-cylinder irreversibilities
Distribution of exergy destruction inside the engine cylinder is
presented in Fig. 13. It shows relative magnitudes of combustion,
mixing, friction and unaccounted irreversibilities for diesel and DF
operations at their optimized ITs (at the points of maximum exergy
efficiencies). Among accounted sources, combustion was the highest
source of irreversibility both at low and full loads. It is expected that
Diesel Diesel+BG
Diesel+H2 Diesel
Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
35
30
Exergy efficiency (%)
exergy)
12.5
10
7.5
5
2.5
0
Combustion Mixing Friction Unaccounted
Irreversibility sources
Fig. 13. In-cylinder irreversibility distribution for diesel and dual fuel operations at their
optimum injection timings at low (top) and high loads (bottom).
low temperature combustion at low load generates higher irreversi-
bilities [44]. It is also evident from diesel only combustion, where
combustion irreversibility at low load is higher than that at full low
condition. Such effect was also found for H2-DF and CNG-DF opera-
tions, where combustion irreversibilities were slightly reduced at full
load condition. As high combustion temperature is achieved at full load
condition, combustion irreversibilities are reduced [44]. However, BG-
DF operation was distinct, where combustion irreversibility was in-
creased by increasing the engine load. This opposite effect could mainly
be associated with the pronounced incomplete combustion at low load
with BG-DF operation causing significant amount of fuel exergy to be
exhausted as unburned fuel. It can be noted that in the present analysis,
this mode of irreversibility generation has been shown with the un-
accounted irreversibilities, which is significantly high in case of BG-DF
Diesel+CNG
operations. Consequently, total irreversibility generation is still higher
Diesel+BG
for BG-DF operations. Increased combustion irreversibility with BG-DF
operation at full load can be attributed to better combustion of higher
fraction of gaseous fuel, which is being exhaust as unburned in the case
of low load operation. Combustion irreversibilities of 22.74%, 18.89%,

19.53% and 16.90% as % of input fuel exergies were obtained for

25
diesel, BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively at the full
20 Dual fuel load condition. It can be noted that all the DF operations showed lower
BMEP=5.32 bar combustion irreversibilities as compared to diesel only operation at
15 both low and full loads. Furthermore, slightly higher mixing irreversi-
10 bilities were observed with DF operations. This could be because of
increased mixing of air and gaseous fuels during induction in intake
5 Dual fuel manifold and premixed phase. Nevertheless, relative magnitude of
BMEP=1.16 bar mixing irreversibility was very less compared to the combustion irre-
0
17 20 23 26 29 32 versibility.
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 12. Variation of exergy efficiency with pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and dual 3.2.8. Exergetic performance coefficient (EPC)
fuel operations at low (solid lines) and high loads (dashed lines). Exergetic performance coefficient (EPC) for diesel and DF

773
S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

operations at their optimized ITs are shown in Fig. 14. EPC is the ratio Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
of work transfer exergy to the exergy destroyed, and therefore, a key
comparative parameter to study the overall performance of the engine 700
Dualfuel

Nitrogen oxcides (ppm)

operation. From EPC view point, it is evident that even at low load, H2- 600 BMEP=1.16 bar
DF operation is equally efficient compared to diesel only operation.
500
Moreover, H2-DF operation shows highest EPC of 0.98 at full load
among other DF and diesel operations. In comparison to diesel only 400
mode, equitable performances were observed with CNG-DF operations, 300
whereas, BG-DF operations showed lower EPCs.
200
100
3.3. Engine exhaust emissions
0
17 20 23 26 29 32
3.3.1. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
NOx formation during in-cylinder combustion is most commonly Injection timing (°BTDC)
given by Zeldovich mechanism, which considers chemical kinetics for
combination of molecular nitrogen and oxygen [39]. These chemical Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
reaction rates show strong dependence on local combustion tempera-
ture, which further depends on fuel-air distribution, oxygen con- 2500 Dualfuel

Nitrogen oxcides (ppm)

centration, temperature and pressure of intake charge and effective
combustion volume [39]. Another important factor is sufficient avail-
ability of time for these reactions to attain significant values. NOx for-
mation is highest near the injected diesel fuel spray zone, where rich
fuel-air mixture renders localized high temperatures accelerating rate of
NOx formation [39]. In DF mode, as some of the pilot diesel fuel is
replaced by the main fuel, it leads to smaller spray zone, and therefore
smaller rate of NOx formation. Moreover, in DF mode, bulk combustion
is produced by burning of main fuel, consequently, relatively leaner
homogenous fuel-air mixture produces lower levels of NOx emissions. In
addition to that, induction of gaseous fuels with intake air increases
specific heat of the fuel-air mixture producing lower peak temperatures
during combustion. On the other hand, longer ID periods and com-
bustion durations may lead to higher levels of NOx emissions with DF
operation. Advancement in pilot ITs causes most of the combustion to
take place near TDC producing higher peak temperature, and therefore
higher NOx emissions. Consequently, NOx emissions from DF engines
depend on the relative dominance of above discussed phenomena.
Fig. 15 shows NOx emissions as a function of pilot ITs at low and full
loads for diesel and DF operations. At low load, all DF operations
showed significantly low NOx emissions compared to that with diesel
operation and slightly increased with advancement in ITs. This could be
because of high DS by gaseous fuels and overall lean fuel-air mixtures
which produce lower peak combustion temperatures. It is also evident
that BG-DF combustion produces lowest NOx emissions.
On the other hand, at full engine load, H2-DF and CNG-DF opera-
tions showed higher NOx emissions for all the pilot ITs. Higher NOx
emissions could be because of better and rapid combustion of relatively
overall rich fuel-air mixture at the elevated load. Noticeably, BG-DF
1.20
BMEP=1.16 bar
0.98
1.00 BMEP=5.32 bar
0.81 0.81
0.80
0.55
EPC
BMEP=5.32 bar
2000
1500
1000
500
0
17 20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 15. NOx emissions as a function of pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and dual fuel
operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).
operation showed lower NOx emissions making it particularly attractive
for DF operation. This effect can be attributed to the presence of CO2 in
biogas that acts like a diluent, which increases the specific heat of the
charge mixture, and also decreases the O2 concentration. Effect of this is
to reduce the peak temperature and reaction rate of NOx formations. At
the IT of 20 °BTDC, diesel, BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations
showed NOx emissions of 1396 ppm, 1311 ppm, 1581 ppm, 1818 ppm
respectively. Advancing the ITs also increased NOx emissions, and at
32 °BTDC, they were increased by 27.1%, 27.8% and 17.1% for BG-DF,
CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively. Similar results with ad-
vancing the pilot ITs were reported by other researchers [23,24].
3.3.2. Smoke emission
One of the most attractive advantages with DF engine is low smoke
emission for its entire range of operations. Fig. 16 shows variation of
smoke emission with IT advance for diesel and DF operations. It was
found that smoke emission can further be decreased by IT advance.
Advancement in ITs leads to increased ID, and more time is available
for fuel-air mixing. Also, increased combustion temperature enhances
soot oxidation rate. For DF operation at low engine load, smoke emis-

0.60 sions were decreased by more than 10 times and 5 times for BG-DF and
CNG-DF operations respectively compared to standard diesel operation.
0.40 These results have also been supported by other researchers; Nithya-
nandan et al. [45] found increased soot reactivity in CNG-DF opera-
0.20 0.17 0.20
0.20 0.12 tions. In another study, Liu et al. [46] investigated the effect of CO2
addition and reported reduced rate of soot nuclei formation. Smoke
0.00 emission for H2-DF operation also remained low, however, slightly
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 higher compared to BG-DF and CNG-DF cases. It is possible that due to
Diesel and dual fuel modes very high reactivity of H2 and O2, insufficient O2 is available for oxi-
dation of carbon particles. This effect becomes prominent at very high
Fig. 14. Exergetic performance coefficient (EPC) for diesel and dual fuel operations at DS rates, e.g. at low loads.
their optimum injection timings.
DF operation at full load also showed significantly low smoke

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S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2

30 Dualfuel Dual fuel
BMEP=1.16 bar 1000 BMEP=1.16 bar
25
Smoke opacity (%)

900

Hydrocarbons (ppm)
800
20
700
15 600
500
10 400
300
5 200
0 100
17 20 23 26 29 32 0
17 20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
70
Dualfuel 400 Dual fuel
60 BMEP=5.32 bar
Smoke opacity (%)

350 BMEP=5.32 bar

Hydrocarbons (ppm)
50
300
40 250
30 200
20 150
10 100
0 50
17 20 23 26 29 32 0
Injection timing (°BTDC) 17 20 23 26 29 32
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 16. Smoke emissions as a function of pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and dual
fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom). Fig. 17. Hydrocarbon emissions as a function of pilot fuel injection timings for diesel and
dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).

emissions, which further decreased with advancing the pilot ITs. Lowest
smoke emissions (in % opacity) of 5.5%, 9.9% and 18% were recorded
for BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively at the IT of
32 °BTDC; compared to 47% for diesel operation. It can be seen that it is
possible to simultaneously control both NOx and smoke emissions with
DF combustion, which otherwise shows a trade-off relation in case of
conventional diesel only combustion. All the DF operations showed
significantly low NOx emissions in combination with very small smoke
emissions at low load operations. Also, at high load, BG-DF operation
showed a combination of low NOx and smoke emissions. Therefore, it is
possible to achieve near zero smoke emission in combination with low
NOx emissions with DF operations, particularly with BG-DF operation.
DF operation shows the potential to achieve very low HC emissions
with DF combustion at low load. HC emission was found to be nearly 5
times lower with H2-DF operation compared to diesel operation at low
load. This is mainly because of diesel replacement by carbon less fuel
(H2), and secondly, higher flame speed of hydrogen producing better
and completer combustion [16,48]. It can be noted that at higher en-
gine loads, HC emission from DF operations were significantly de-
creased. At the highest IT advance of 32 °BTDC, HC emissions from H2-
DF operation was found to be 46 ppm compared to 82 ppm from diesel
operation.

3.3.4. Carbon monoxides (CO)

3.3.3. Hydrocarbon emissions (HC)
Effect of advancing the pilot ITs can be seen from Fig. 17, which
shows hydrocarbon (HC) emissions from diesel and DF operations of the
engine at low and full loads. It was found that higher combustion
temperatures with advanced ITs reduce HC emissions at both low and
full load conditions. However, slightly higher HC emissions were ob-
served when IT was progressively advanced, which could be the result
of over-mixing of fuel-air mixture owing to large ID [39]. The most
disadvantageous side of DF combustion can clearly be seen as im-
mensely high HC emissions, particularly at low load. The effect is
predominant for BG-DF and CNG-DF operations showing 886 ppm and
533 ppm HC emissions compared to 58 ppm for diesel operation at the
IT of 32 °BTDC. With very high DS at low engine load, small number of
ignition centers may lead to incomplete combustion of the mixture.
Moreover, presence of CO2 could be the biggest contributor for high HC
emissions in BG-DF operation, which significantly reduces flame pro-
pagation speed leading to poor combustion efficiency. However, there
are other sources, which could also dominate HC production, e.g. poor
mixing characteristics of liquid and gaseous fuels, crevice volumes,
injector fuel sac volume and valve overlap [8,39,47]. Nevertheless, H2-
Carbon monoxides (CO) are produced due to partial oxidation of
carbon rich fuels causing significant amount of fuel chemical energy to
be lost [39]. As shown in the Fig. 18, CO emissions from DF combustion
are always higher (except for H2-DF operation) compared to that with
diesel combustion owing to overall higher fuel-air equivalence ratios
employed with gaseous fuel induction. Dilution effect of CO2 in biogas
could be the main reason for high CO emission in case of BG-DF op-
erations. CO formation and further oxidation is also a strong function of
combustion temperature, consequently, advancement in IT has shown
positive effect on reduction of CO emissions. Reduction of CO emissions
by advancing the IT from 20 °BTDC to 32 °BTDC for BG-DF and CNG-DF
operations were 41.9% and 30% at low load; 59.5% and 33.3% at full
load respectively. H2-DF operation showed best emission characteristics
amongst three DF operations. At low engine load and advanced IT, CO
emission was decreased to near zero. Similarly, at full engine load, CO
emission was decreased by 64.28% compared to that with diesel op-
eration. Fast burning capability of H2 combustion along with higher
peak temperature allows for complete combustion of in-cylinder mix-
ture leading to low CO emissions. Therefore, on standpoints of CO and
HC emissions, H2-DF operation is the most suitable option.

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S. Verma et al. Energy Conversion and Management 151 (2017) 764–777

Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2 CNG-DF operations showed lower HTEs, whereas, HTE with H2-DF
operation was slightly higher (0.51%) at the IT of 20 °BTDC. On the
0.35
Carbon monoxides (% Vol.)

other hand, at full load, HTEs were found to be higher for DF op-
Dual fuel
0.3 BMEP=1.16 bar
erations, except for BG-DF operation.
(5) At both low and high loads, ED was highest for BG-DF operation.
0.25
CNG-DF operation showed comparable ED (slightly high), whereas,
0.2 ED with H2-DF operation was found lowest as compared to that
0.15 with diesel operation. Combustion irreversibilities of 22.7%, 18.9%,
19.53% and 16.9% as % of input fuel exergies were obtained for
0.1 diesel, BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively.
0.05 (6) Smoke, HC and CO emissions were reduced with IT advance at both
low and full loads. However, NOx emissions were found to be sig-
0
17 20 23 26 29 32 nificantly increased with IT advance.
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Different gaseous fuels offer specific advantages and challenges at
the same time when utilized as main fuel in the DF mode. Therefore,
Diesel Diesel+BG Diesel+CNG Diesel+H2
specialized approaches should be taken to further improve and optimize
0.45 DF engine characteristics with a particular gaseous fuel. It could also be
Carbon monoxides (% Vol.)

Dual fuel
0.4 BMEP=5.32 bar
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 gratefully acknowledged. We are also thankful to Ms. Neha Pathak and
17 20 23 26 29
Injection timing (°BTDC)
Fig. 18. Carbon monoxide emissions as a function of pilot fuel injection timings for diesel
and dual fuel operations at low (top) and high loads (bottom).
4. Conclusions
A comparative study of exergetic performance and emission analysis
of a pilot diesel ignited DF engine with biogas, CNG and hydrogen as
main fuels is presented. Efforts have also been made to investigate the
effects of pilot IT advance on the low load performance of DF engine.
Based on this technique, DF operations have been compared with the
baseline diesel operation and it was found that IT advance improved
both performance and emission characteristics of the DF engine.
Moreover, it was found that best ITs required to give highest efficiency
or lowest emissions varied with the type of main fuel and also with the
engine loads. Performance comparison from second-law point of view
shows that H2-DF combustion surpasses other DF and diesel operations,
however, its utilization is constrained by low diesel substitution and
high NOx emissions at the full load condition. Following observations
are drawn based on the above study:
(1) Maximum DS significantly varies with the type of gaseous fuels
used in the DF operations. It also varies with the engine load and IT;
at low load, higher DS is possible. At low load and IT of 20 °BTDC,
maximum DS of 88%, 84.2% and 77.8% were possible for CNG-DF,
BG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively. However, substantial
reduction in DS was observed with H2-DF operation at full load.
(2) Low load performance of DF operation can be improved with IT
advance. Exergy efficiencies were increased by 1.04%, 0.93% and
1.01% for BG-DF, CNG-DF and H2-DF operations respectively at
optimized IT advances.
(3) At low load operation, EGE of DF operations (except BG-DF) re-
mained higher compared to diesel operation. However, at full load,
DF operations showed lower EGEs. It was also found that IT ad-
vance reduces EGEs due to combustion advancement.
(4) Compared to diesel operation at low load condition, BG-DF and
possible to investigate and utilize a combination of these fuels so that
specific benefits from different fuels can be exploited.
Acknowledgement
One of the authors (Saket Verma) would like to acknowledge the
support of Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New
Delhi, India for granting research fellowship. Research facility provided
by Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD), New Delhi, India is also
32
Mr. Kuldeep Kumar for providing proof reading assistance.
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