Thermodynamics and Heat

Transfer
Lecture 4
THE SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Dr Salah Elfakki
 Overview
• Reversible and Irreversible Processes
• The Carnot Cycle
• The Carnot Principles
• The Thermodynamics Temperature Scale
• The Carnot Heat Engines
• The Carnot Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
 Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should
be able to:

 Describe the Carnot cycle and its importance

 Determine the performance limit of a heat

engine, refrigerator and heat pump
 INTRODUCTION TO SECOND LAW

No Heat Engine can have an efficiency of 100%!!!!

2nd Law
Therefore, what is the maximum efficiency it can
have ????
In order to determine that, we need to define an
idealized process – REVERSIBLE process
 Reversible And Irreversible

Reversible Process
A reversible process is when the system and all parts of its
surroundings can be exactly restored to their respective initial
states after the process has occurred.
Irreversibilities may be found within the system and within its
surroundings.
 Reversible process has no internal or external
irreversibilities.
 Internal reversible – no irreversibilities within the system.
 Reversible Process

• Do not occur in nature

• Idealizations of actual processes (can never be achieved, only
approximated)
• WHYbother ??????
 Easy to analyze
 Serve as a basis of comparison with actual
processes –give theoretical limit
• In this process:

 Work-producing devices deliver the most work

(maximum power output)
 Work-consuming devices consume the least work
(minimum power input)
 Reversible And Irreversible

Irreversible Process
A irreversible process is when the system and all parts of its
surroundings cannot be exactly restored to their respective initial
states after the process has occurred.
 Irreversibilities may be found within the system and within its
surroundings.
 Internal irreversibilities – irreversibilities within the system.
 External irreversibilities – irreversibilities within the
surroundings.
 Irreversible Process

• All actual processes are irreversible

• Factors that can cause a process to be irreversible is called
irreversibilities:

 Friction, Unrestrained expansion, Mixing of two

fluids, Inelastic deformation, Heat transfer across a
finite temp difference (if no different, it is reversible)

• In Irreversibilities may be found within the system and its

surroundings INTERNAL and EXTERNAL
 The Carnot Cycle
 The Carnot cycle is an example of a totally reversible cycle
..(ideal cannot be achieved)
 Serves as a model to which actual HE, refrigerators can be
compared
 The system executes a series of four internally reversible
processes between two constant temperature reservoir

Process 1-2: Isothermal expansion

Process 2-3: Adiabatic expansion
Process 3-4: Isothermal compression
Process 4-1: Adiabatic compression
 The Reversed Carnot Cycle
 The reverse Carnot cycle is regarded as a refrigeration or a
heat pump cycle)

Process 1-2: Adiabatic expansion

Process 2-3: Isothermal expansion
Process 3-4: Adiabatic compression
Process 4-1: Isothermal compression
 The Carnot Principles
A. FORENGINES
 The thermal efficiency of an irreversible engine is always less
than the thermal efficiency of a reversible engine when each
operates between the same two thermal reservoirs.
 All reversible engine operating between the same two thermal
reservoirs have the same thermal efficiency.

B. FORREFRIGERATORS(ANDHEATPUMPS)
 The coefficient of performance of an irreversible refrigerator is
always less than a reversible refrigerator when both exchange
energy by heat transfer with the same two thermal reservoirs.
 All reversible refrigerators operating between the same thermal
reservoir have the same coefficient of performance.
 Kelvin Temperature Scale
 From the 2nd Carnot principles

 Efficiency of a reversible engine, is independent of

the substance
 Maximum efficiency is a function of temperature ONLY
 The Kelvin scale indicates that:

 TL and TH must be in Kelvin degrees.

 The scale is only valid if thermal reservoirs at constant

temperature
 Carnot Heat Engine

 Therefore, the maximum theoretical performance for a heat

engine are given by:

 An actual heat engine cannot reach the maximum theoretical

efficiency value because it is impossible to completely eliminate
all the irreversibilities associated with the actual cycle.
 The Carnot Refrigerator & Heat Pump

 The maximum theoretical performance for a refrigerator and a

heat pump are:

 All actual refrigerators and heat pumps operating within the

same temp limits have lower COP.
Summary
 Principles of the second law stipulate that the efficiency of a
reversible cycle is greater than the efficiency of any irreversible
cycle operating between the same two thermal reservoirs.
 The thermal efficiencies of all reversible cycles operating
between the same thermal reservoirs are the same.
 These principles lead to the definition of the Kelvin temperature
scale, used to obtained the maximum performance of heat
engines, refrigerators and heat pumps.
 The Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle, composed of a series of
internally reversible processes, which have efficiencies equal to
the Carnot efficiency.
Assignment
 An inventor claims to have developed a power cycle capable
of delivering a net work output of 410 kJ for an energy
input by heat transfer of 1000 kJ. The source is at 500 K
and the sink 300 K. Evaluate this claim.

 A Carnot heat engine operates between a source at 1000 K

and a sink at 300 K. If the heat engine is supplied with heat
at a rate of 800 kJ/min, determine (a) thermal efficiency
(b) power output of this engine.

 A refrigerator is to remove heat from the cooled space at a

rate of 300 kJ/min to maintain its temperature at 8 o C. If
the surrounding air is at 25 o C determine the minimum
power input required for this refrigerator.