PROBLEMS OF

ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

B. F. Lomov, Editor

Papers presented at the First Leningrad Conference

on Engineering Psychology, June 1964

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Leningrad Branch, S o c i e t y of Psychologists, Academy Pedagogical

Sciences, Russian S o c i a l i s t Federated Soviet Republic

Leningrad I n s t i t u t e for S c i e n t i f i c and Technical Propaganda

PROBLEMS OF ENGI�~JZERINGPSYCHOLOGY

B.F.Lomov, Mitor

eningrad Conference on Engineering

(Materials of t h e F i r s t L
Psychology, June 1964)

Leningrad
1964

iii

 T A B U OF CONTENTS

GENEFUL TOPICS : SELF-ORGANIZING SYSTEMS ; FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BEINGS

I N CONTROL SYSTEMS; GENERAL CHARACTERIZATION OF THE OPERATOR'S
ACTIVITY; SIMULATION OF PSYCHIC A C T I V I T Y ; FELIABILITY AND
ACCURACY OF OPERATOR'S ACTIVITY; ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY
AND ALLIED SCIENCES; DESIGN OF OPERATOR'S WORKING POST
Page

A Study of t h e Process of Self-organization, A.Ya.Lerner,

Yu.I.Shmukler (Moscow) ....................................... 1
Functions of Human Self-Adjustment under Complex Disturbing
Influences, V.A.Berexin, V.M.Vodlozyerov, G.A.Sergeyev,
and G.V.Sukhodol'skiy ............................
(Leningrad)

.
Contribution t o t h e Question of Transient Responses i n
Human Subjects G.V.SukhodolTskiy (Leningrad) .................
Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e Functions of Human Beings
P a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e Control of Nonregular Full-scale
Systems, D.I.Iordanskiy (Moscow) .............................
Automation and Programming i n Television Transmission,
V.M.Pok0rski.y and A.A.Stepanov (Leningrad) ...................
Analysis of t h e Operator's A c t i v i t y , V.P.Zinchenko and
N.I.bkyze1' (Moscow) .........................................
Contribution t o t h e Problem of Work of t h e Operator i n
Semi-Automatic Grading, V.N.Gorbatenko, G.V.Sukhodol'skiy
and V.A .Shcherbakov (Leningrad) ..............................
Simulation of Psychic Functions as a Method of Studying
t h e Mind, A.A.Bratko (Kiev) ..................................
Simulation of C e r t a i n Features of Mental A c t i v i t y on
Computers, A.G.Snytkin (Kiev) ................................
Model of Automatic Adaptation t o Changing Conditions of Work
of t h e System "Man-Machine", N .N.Korobov (Kharkov) ...........
Contribution t o t h e Problem of t h e R e l i a b i l i t y of Human
Subjects (Regular and Random F a i l u r e s i n Operators'
Work), M.I.Bobneva (Moscow) ................................... 9
Contribution t o t h e Problem of R e l i a b i l i t y (Working Capacity)
of Human S u b j e c t s i n Control Systems, K.S .Tochilov
(Leningrad) .................................................. 10
Contribution t o t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e Functional S t a t e
of t h e Human Organism d u r i n g Work, A.V.Dokvadze ( T b i l i s i )
Estimating F i t n e s s for Work with Correcting Tables,
.... 11
S .I.Kopanov (l~oscow) .........................................
Contribution t o t h e Study of t h e Influence of Acceleration
12
and Hypodynamia on t h e Reaction of Operators, A.R.Ko­
tovskaya, V.K.Filosofov, N.A.Chekhonadskiy, and V.A.
Chichkin (Moscow) ............................................
Variations i n C o r t i c a l Neurodpamics d u r i n g Intense Mental
13
A c t i v i t y , G.K.Borisov (Leningrad) ............................ 13

 Page
Dynamics of Variation of Certain Vegetative Functions i n
Railroad Dispatchers and Correlation with Psychic Mani­
,
f e s t a t i o n s G.K.Borisov (Leningrad) ....................... 15

Processing of I n t e r n a l and E x t e r n a l Information and

Human Fatigue, Yu.M.Stenfko (Moscow) ...................... 16

Problems of Engineering Psychology on Seagoing Ships on

Long Voyages, P.A.Prosetskiy (Moscow) ..................... 18

I n t e r a c t i o n of Accuracy and S t a b i l i t y i n "Living Systems"

on Models of S t a t i c Adaptation, 0.P.Kozerenko (Moscow)

Dependence of t h e Accuracy of Action on t h e Emotional

.... 19

S t a t e , V.L.Marishchuk and N.V.S;ysoyev (Leningrad)

Psychology of Linotype Operatorfs E r r o r s and Their
......... 19

Reduction, A.V.Filippov (Yaroslavlf ) ...................... 21

Engineering Psychology and I n d u s t r i a l E s t h e t i c s

P.A.Kudin (Leningrad) ..................................... 23

Engineering Psychology and I n d u s t r i a l Hygiene,

Y a .Neyshtadt (Moscow) ...................................... 24.

Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e Rational Location of
I n d i c a t o r s and Controls on Control Desks, R.M.Mansurov
(Leningrad) ............................................... 25

P r i n c i p l e s of Evaluation of a Work S t a t i o n According t o

Engineering Psychology, L.V.Kuchevskaya (Moscow) ..........

A r t i f i c i a l Lighting o f t h e Operator Work S t a t i o n ,

26

L.N.Meyer and A.G.Tishchenko (Moscow) ..................... 26

TRAINING AND SELECTION OF OPERATORS

,
Training t o Solve Control Problems Y e .V.Voloshinova and
G.K.Tvilfneva ............................................. 27

Some Methods of Improving t h e Effectiveness of Teaching

t h e S e v e r a l Elements of Operator Work, V.A .Bodrov
(Leningrad) ............................................... 28

Study of t h e E f f e c t of Nonspecific Training on t h e A b i l i t y

t o Process Information under S p e c i a l Conditions,

V.M.Zatsiorskiy and 0.P.Frolov (Moscow) ................... 28

S p e c i a l i z e d Physical Training of a Machine Operator,

T .T .Dzhamgarov and V.L .Marishchuk (Leningrad) .............

P r i n c i p a l Elements i n Operator Training t o Read I n d i c a t o r

29

Panels, N .F .Fedotova (Leningrad) ..........................

S i g n i f i c a n c e of C e r t a i n Psychophysiological I n d i c e s f o r
30

I n d u s t r i a l S e l e c t ion, V. A. Bobrov ani. S.K. Zarakovs k i y

(Leningrad) ............................................... 32

GROUP ACTIVITY

The I n d i v i d u a l and t h e Group i n Experimental Group

Psychology, F.D.Gorbov (Moscow) ........................... 33

I n d i v i d u a l Differences i n Group A c t i v i t y , M.A.Novikov (Moscow) 34.

vi

 Page
The T i m e Sequence Test" as a Model of Expectation i n
Group A c t i v i t y , V.T.Lebedeva (Moscow) ....................
Electrographic Study of t h e Effectiveness of Perception
35
of a S i g n a l i n a Competitive S i t u a t i o n , V.I.Myasnikov
and 1.P.Lebedeva (Moscow) ................................
Psychophysiological Reactions i n Operators under t h e
36
Action o f a Vibration Stimulus and under Conditions
of I s o l a t i o n , A.A.Koreshkov (Moscow) ..................... 37

METHODS OF INVESTIGATING HUMAN ACTIVITY EXPERIMENTAL

METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

Application of t h e Methods of t h e Theory of Mass S e r v i c i n g

t o t h e Problems of Engineering Psychology, L.V.Fatkin
(Moscow) .................................................
On t h e Handling Capacity of an Operator i n A i r T r a f f i c
39
Control, Yu.M.Porkhovnik (Leningrad) .....................
Methods of Correlation Workup of Nonstationary Processes and
40
P r i n c i p l e s o f Designing Apparatus f o r Operative S t a t i s ­
t i c a l Analysis of Physiological Information, G.A .Sergeyev
and A.F.Romanenko (Leningrad) ..............................
Analysis of t h e Electroencephalogram during I n t e n s e Mental
4.0

Work, Using t h e Method of t h e C o r r e l a t i o n Workup of

,
Nonstationary Processes L.P.Pavlova and G.A.Sergeyev
(Leningrad) ...............................................
The Use of Computers i n Processing t h e Results of Psycho­
42

l o g i c a l Experiments, Yu.M.Baraboshkin (Moscow) ............

Study of t h e I n t e r r e l a t i o n of Steady S t a t e s of t h e Physio­
43
l o g i c a l Functions by Means of a D i g i t a l Computer,
K.P.Buteyko and D.V.Demin (Novosibirsk) ...................
Study of t h e Dynamics of Physiological Functions on D i g i t a l
44
Computers, K.P.Buteyko and D .V.Demin (Novosibirsk) ........
Contribution t o t h e Q u e s t i o n of Automation of t h e Workup
45
of Electroencephalograms , V.1 .Kopanev and P.G.Shamrov
(Moscow) .................................................. 46
Contribution t o t h e Problem of Automatic Diagnosis of
Mental Fatigue from EEG Data, A.A.Genkin (Leningrad)
Evaluation of t h e Functional S t a t e of a n Operator i n
...... 47
Automatic Diagnosis, R.S .Dadashev (Moscow) ................
Application of t h e Poly-Effector Method f o r Evaluating t h e
48
Psychophysiological A b i l i t i e s of an Operator i n t h e
System Man - b c h i n e , V.F.Onishchenko, A.A.Volkov
and S.G.Mel'nik (Moscow) ..................................
Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e Methods of Evaluating
49
t h e Psychophysiological S t a t e of a P i l o t i n a n Emergency
S i t u a t i o n during F l i g h t , L.A.Kutayev-Smyk, 1.P.Neu­
myvakin and V.A.Ponomarenko (Moscow) ......................
Application of Simulation Methods t o t h e Study of t h e Elements
4.9
of a Block Operator P o i n t , V.F.Venda (Moscow) ............. 50
 I 1 I I 1111 I II I I , 1 1 1 111 ....................
..-..--..1
.1
..1
. .........
.-._...-.-_- ~

Page
Methods of Recording t h e Experimental Data Used i n Studying
Certain Questions of Engineering Psychology, V.I.Butov
(Leningrad) ............................................... 51
Contribution t o t h e Technique of Studying Visuomotor
Reactions, Taking Account of t h e Features of P e r i p h e r a l
Vision, Yu.N.Verkhalo (Leningrad) ......................... 53
Reflex Neasurexnent and its Development i n t h e Near Future,
A.B.Gmde1"a.n and Yu.N.Verkhalo (Leningrad)
Device f o r Experimental Study of t h e Speed of Information
............. 54
Processing by an Operator under Actual Conditions,
A . I .Galaktionov (Moscow) .................................. 55

RECEPTION OF INFOWATION BY HUMAN SUBJECTS: EVALUATION OF I N ­

FORMATION RECEIVED, SENSORY PROCESSES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE SENSORY SYSTEMS, SIMULATION OF PERCEPTION AND REC­
OGNITION, COGING OF INFORWTION

Contribution t o t h e Problem of t h e Q u a n t i t a t i v e Evaluation

of Events of Complex S t r u c t u r e , A.I.Galaktionov (Noscow)
How t o Evaluate t h e Quantity of I n f o m a t i o n i n Symbols,
... 56

when t h e Length of t h e i r Alphabet and t h e P r o b a b i l i t y

of t h e i r Occurrence a r e Unknown, P.B.Nevel*skiy (Kharkov)
S u b j e c t i v e Redundancy of Information Perceived by Pan,
.. 56

B.B.Kossov and R.A .Ratanova (Moscow) ...................... 58

The Processing of Ambiguous Verbal Information by t h e Human
Subject, G.V.Yeyger (Kharkcv) ............................. 60
Dependence of t h e Speed and Accuracy of Information Pro­
cessing on t h e D i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y of Signals,
M.A.Dmitriyeva (Leningrad) ................................
A Method of Measuring Perceived Data, S.M.Koz1ovskiy and
61
Yu.I.Ionin (Moscow) .......................................
E f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e Perception of Symbols i n Supervision
62

and Control, Q u a n t i t a t i v e Expression and Connection w i t h

t h e Accuracy of Perception, V.Ya.Dymerskiy (Moscow) .......
Tine C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e Process of Detection and
63
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of a n Object i n t h e F i e l d of Vision,
Yu.B.Gippenreyter and L.P.Shchedrovitskiy (Moscow) ........
Eye Movements i n V i s u a l S e l e c t i o n and Search, V.E.Miltmn
66

(Moscow) ..................................................
Study of t h e Operatorts Work i n Searching f o r Information
67

when Performing a Task of Sequential Arrangement f o r

S e r v i c e , Yu.B.Gippenreyter and G.N.Ilfina (Moscow)
Experimental Study of Factors Influencing Perception by
........ 68
P e r i p h e r a l Vision, N.D.Zavalova, V.A.Ponomrenko,
V.M.Sivolap, and L.A.Kitayev-Smyk (Moscow) ................ 68
Variation i n Discriminative V i s u a l S e n s i t i v i t y under
Extreme Conditions, V. V.Suvorova (Moscow) ................. 69
Determination of t h e Sensory Threshold of t h e Human Auditory
Analysor by t h e Method of t h e Conditioned-Conditioned­

viii

 Page
Unconditioned Reflex, G.F.Plekhanov, G.A.Aksenov, A.P.
Voyarkina, V.V.Vedyushkina, L.P.�Jaagayev and Ye.T.Osinskaya
(Novosibirsk) ..............................................
Audition of Verbal Signals Transmitted Against t h e Background

70

of Vhite Noise, 1.M.Lushchikhina (Leningrad) ...............

On t h e Cybernetic Iwlodel of Constant Perception, A .M .Parachev

71

(Leningrad) ................................................
Device f o r Automatic Recognition of P a t t e r n s as a Kodel

73

of Human Perception, V.A.PIakhonin (Moscow) .................

Simulation of Constant P r o p e r t i e s in t h e Recognition of

73

Plane Figures, V.A.Nakhonin and V.P .Saveltyev (Moscow)

Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e O p t b " Coding of

..... 74

Information Transmitted t o t h e Operator of a

Control System, B.F.Lomov (Leningrad) ......................

Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e R e l i a b i l i t y of t h e

74

Process of Eecognition, B.F.Lomov, R.M.Kansurov and

G.V. Sukhodolf s k i y (Leningrad) ..............................

The Zole of C l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t h e Recognition of Objects
76

from t h e i r External Outline, V.A.Ganzen and

R.PI.Granovskaya (Leningrad) ................................
Dependence of t h e Rate and Accuracy of Perception and

77

Recognition of V i s u a l Displays on t h e Changes i n

.
t h e i r Angular Dimensions, M .K Tutushkina (Leningrad) ....... 78

Visual Perception of a Display w i t h Limited P r e s e n t a t i o n

Time, M.K.Tutushkina (Leningrad) ...........................
S e l e c t i o n of t h e Contrast Factor i n t h e Perce t i o n of a

80

Visual Display, V.Ye.Bushurova (Leningrad P .................

Contribution t o tine Question of t h e C r i t i c a l F l i c k e r

81

Fusion Frequency i n Studying t h e Perception of a

Visual Display, T.P. Zinchenko (Leningrad) ..................

On t h e Keasurement of S i m i l a r i t y i n Graphic Images,
83

V.,G.Stepanov (Moscow) ......................................

Dependence of t h e Perception of E l e c t r o n i c D i g i t a l
84

I n d i c a t o r Readings on t h e I l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e
................
I n d i c a t i n g P o r t i o n s , A.A.Krylov (Leningrad)
Entropy Method for Estimating t h e Accuracy Class and Scale
84

Divisions of Control-Neasuring Devices, V.I.Nikolayev

(Leningrad) ................................................ 86

On t h e a e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e S t r u c t u r e s of t h e
Sensory and Motor Regions in Control Operators,
L.M.Vekker and Ye.N.Surkov (Leningrad)
Evaluation of Certain Sensorimotor Components i n t h e

..................... 87

Work of a P i l o t , V.L.Marishchuk (Leningrad) ................

Analysis of t h e Sensorimotor Act i n P i l o t i n g Ship w i t h

88

Hydrofoils, E.A.Belkina (Moscow) ...........................

Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e Nechanisms of Psychic
90

ix

 Page
Regulation of t h e A c t i v i t y of an Operator Working
under Conditions of Tracking, V.M.Vodlozerov
and B.F.Lomov ( L e n i n p a d )..................................
B Few C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of an Operatorts Work in Tracking
91
and P u r s u i t of a One-Dimensional Signal, V .M.Vodlozerov
(Leningrad) ................................................
Nethod of Psycholo i c a l Study of an Operatorrs A c t i v i t y ,
Yd
Ye.P..Mileryan ?Kiev) .......................................
Study of an Operatorrs A c t i v i t y in Tracking an Object of
94
Varying I l l u m i n a t i o n , S .N. Leviyeva (Leningrad)
The E f f e c t of Pain Impulses on t h e Course of t h e Trace
............. 96
Processes in t h e Human Notor Analysor, L.P.Pavlova
(Leningrad) ................................................
A s m e t r y i n t h e Manifestation of IvIuscle Sense,
97
Ye.P.Ilfin (Leningrad) .....................................
The E f f e c t of Various Factors on Human Reaction Time,
99
G.F.Plekhanov, V.V.Vedyushkina, L.P.Nagayev and
Ye.I.Osinskaya (Novosibirsk) ...............................
W f e c t of A t t i t u d e Toward a Task on t h e Speed of a Simple
100

Sensorimotor Eeaction, A.S.Yegorov and B.N.Yakovets

(Leningrad) ................................................
Speed of a Simple Sensorimotor Reaction under Unexpected
101
Delays and Accelerations in t h e Tempo-Rhythm of
Application of a Stimulus, A.S.Yegorov and
B.M.Yakovets ...............................................
Change i n t h e Time Components of a Complex Reaction under
t h e Influence of Unexpected Noise, Yu.Ya.Kiselev
(Leningrad) ................................................
On Certain P e c u l i a r i t i e s of Human Reaction of S e l e c t i o n
104
under Conditions of Ry-pokinesis, R.N.KalirLina and
A.K .Kozlov (Moscow) ........................................
Characterization of t h e Motor Component of t h e Sensorimotor
Reaction t o Signals Forming a Binary Sequence,
V.A.Bodrov (Leningrad) .....................................
Speed of a Simple Sensorimotor Eeac t i o n t o Nonsimultaneous
106
and Simultaneous Action of S t i m u l i of D i f f e r e n t
Modalities, A.S.Yegorov and B.N.Yakovets (Leningrad)
Dependence of t h e Accuracy of Reaction t o a Moving
....... 107
P o i n t e r on the Shape of t h e D i a l and t h e Rate of
Motion, S.A.Pauzhayte (Leningrad) ..........................
The Systemicity of t h e "nesponse Reactions i n a S i t u a t i o n
108

of Choice, M.S.Yeritsyan and N.S.Kocharyan (Yerevan)

On t h e Verbal Reproduction of a Chain of Successive Light
....... 110

Signals and Their 1'eflection on t h e Electro­

encephalograph, A.K.Astaffyev (Leningrad)
Contribution t o t h e Question of %valuation of t h e
.................. m
Speed of Information Processing in Binary S e r i a l
Reaction, V.A.Bodrov, A.A.Genkin and G.N.Zarakovskiy
(Leningrad) ..................................................
On t h e Time C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e Components of t h e Process
lI-4

 Page
of Information Processing by an Operator,
V. A.Yegorov (Leningrad) ...............................
On t h e Application of t h e Methods of Information Theory t o
1l6
t h e Study of t h e Piotor A c t i v i t y of A i r c r a f t P i l o t s
under Laboratory Conditions, V.A.Yegorov (Leningrad)
Contribution t o t h e Question of t h e Reactions of Choice
...
i n I4uman Subjects, V .T.Prodan (Leningrad) .............
E f f e c t of Conditional P r o b a b i l i t i e s of a Sequence of

.
S i g n a l s on t h e Two-Choice Uniquely Determined
Reaction, I. N.Krylov and K A. Smirnov (Leningrad) ......
OPEFATIVE THINKING. I.'EPIORY 0

Contribution t o t h e Comparative Analysis of t h e Process

of Solving Problems on E l e c t r o n i c Computers and
Human I n t e l l e c t u a l A c t i v i t y , 0.K.Tikhomirov (Noscow)
Development of t h e Concept of Machine Thinking,
.
*.

A.M.Parach& (Leningrad) ..............................

On t h e Simulation of a Class of I n t e l l e c t u a l Operations,
G.M.Iihovanov (Moscow) .................................
On t h e U t i l i z a t i o n of Chess as a Kodel of Operative
Thinking, V .N .Pushkin (Moscow) ........................
A n a l p i s of t h e Process of Solving S p a t i a l -
Combinatorial Problems of Discrete Character
by t h e Aid of Flotion P i c t u r e s of Eye Novements,
D.N.ZavaXshina (Moscow) ..............................
Understanding of a Readily Visualized S i t u a t i o n ,
1.N.Geodakyan (Yerevan) ...............................
Features of I n v e s t i g a t i o n s of Thought in Ehgineering
Psychology, A.M.P:atyushkin (Moscow)
Contribution t o t h e Problem of Operative Nemory,
................... 130
P.I.Zinchenko and G.V .Repkina (Kharkov)
PIemory Capacity, Quantity of Information and Mumber
................
of Symbols, P.I.Zinchenko and P.B.Neve1tski.y
(Kharkov) .............................................
Memory Processes and t h e Coding of Information,
N.I.Ryzhkova (Kharkov) ................................
On t h e Composition and Dynamics of t h e Operators
of h e m i c A c t i v i t y , V .Ya .Lyaudis (Kharkov)
Comparison of Various Nethods of Recognition,
............
M.S.Shekhter (Moscow) .................................
Cognition in t h e Process of S o l u t i o n of Operative
Problems, D.N.Zavalishina and V.N.Pushkin (Moscow)
On Tabular Assignment and Reorganization of Associative
....
.
Memory, E." .Golovan, and V S . S t a r i n e t s (Kiev) .........

xi

 A STUDY OF T% PROCESS OF SELF-ORGANIZATION

A.Ya.Lerner, Yu.1 .Shmukler

(Moscow)

I n t h i paper t h e authors i n v e s t i g a t e t h e mathematical d e s c r i p t i o of t h e

process of self-organization of a cybernetic system. The system i s taken as an
automatic data processing machine ( p r o b a b i l i t y automat) whose s t r u c t u r e i s de­
scribed by a c e r t a i n matrix of t r a n s i e n t p r o b a b i l i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e re­
p r e s e n t a t i o n of a s e t of s t i m u l i ( s i g n a l s a t t h e i n p u t of t h e automat) onto a
set of r e a c t i o n s ( s i g n a l s a t t h e output of t h e automat). I n t h e process of
self-organization, t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e automat (and thereby a l s o t h e matrix of
t r a n s i t i o n p r o b a b i l i t i e s ) i s transformed, and t h e degree of self-organization
of t h e system i s r e l a t e d t o t h e change of entropy of this matrix. Such a de­
s c r i p t i o n makes i t p o s s i b l e t o judge t h e amount of information obtained by t h e
system during i t s i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e e x t e r n a l medium. It i s shown t h a t a
self-organized system h a s a s t r u c t u r e which enables i t t o obtain, i n an e l e ­
mentary event of i n t e r a c t i o n with t h e medium, information g r e a t e r t h a n l o g f
(where f i s t h e number of r e a c t i o n s a t t h e output of t h e automat) w h i l e a non­
self-organized system o b t a i n s e x a c t l y l o g f i n each elementary event.

An example i s considered, and t h e above p r o p o s i t i o n i s proved on i t s ba­

sis. A c r i t e r i o n of t h e o b j e c t of i n s t r u c t i o n i s derived, characterized by t h e
transformation of t h e matrix t h a t t a k e s place as a r e s u l t of such i n s t r u c t i o n .

Various a s p e c t s of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s model t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e
formation of human behavior a r e discussed.

FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN SELF-ADJUSTMENT UNDER COMPLEX

DISTURBING INFLUENCES

.
V A. Berezin, V .M.Vodlozyerov, G. A. Sergeyev, and
G.V.Sukhodol1 s k i y
(Leningrad)

Various t o p i c s i n t h e study of t h e s t a b i l i t y of Itman -automatt1 systems

i n which t h e f u n c t i o n a l elements i n c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l human operators a r e now as­
suming a c u t e importance. The a d a p t a t i o n a l power of t h e human being t o a s s i d ­
l a t e , i n a f i n i t e t i m e i n t e r v a l , t h e complex s t r u c t u r e of i n p u t d i s t u r b i n g s i g ­
n a l s as w e l l as t h e e x t e n t of h i s e x t r a p o l a t i o n a l functions Will determine t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of self-adjustment regimes of t h e I t m a n - automatt1 system. The
f u n c t i o n s of self-adjustment of t h e human being a r e r e a l i z e d by a successive
processing of information by t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l r e g u l a t o r s on t h e micro- and
macro-levels. The technique of q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s of nonlinear transforma­
t i o n s of t h e i n p u t information under t h e regime of self-adjustment has been
based on t h e use of informational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t a k i n g account of t h e r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p , i n f u n c t i o n a l a c t i v i t y , between t h e elemen.ts of t h e exteroceptive and

%umbers in t h e margin refer t o p a g i n a t i o n i n t h e original foreign t e x t .

proprioceptive c o n t r o l c i r c u i t s (G.A.Sergeyev, 1963).
I n t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n s of self-adjustment, t h e dominant r o l e
of t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e proprioceptive c i r c u i t elements i s disclosed.

The p r o p e r t i e s of t h e e x t r a p o l a t i n g f u n c t i o n s of t h e human operator, re­

a l i z e d by mastery of t h e s t o c h a s t i c s t r u c t u r e o f - t h e i n p u t influences, a r e i n ­
vestigated.

The authors show t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a b i l i t y of d i f f e r e n t people

t o e x t r a p o l a t e may b e due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r psychophysical functions.
Data a r e given on t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e dynamic parameters of t h e self-adjust­
ment f u n c t i o n s of t h e human s u b j e c t on r e a c t i o n t o nonstationary i n p u t s i g n a l s .

CONTRIBUTION TO T!B QUESTION OF TRANSIENT RESPONSES

I N HUMAN SIJBJECTS

.
G.V Sukhodol I s k i y
(Leningrad)

A l l sensorimotor and i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t s may b e regarded as t r a n s i e n t re­

sponses. Consequently, t h e methods o f d e s c r i b i n g t r a n s i e n t responses o r re­
a c t i o n t o sudden impetus developed i n t h e theory of automation and engineering
cybernetics a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e s t u d y of t h e s e a c t s .

Important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a t r a n s i e n t process are i t s p a t t e r n ( o r t h e

s l o p e of t h e curve of t h e t r a n s i e n t f u n c t i o n ) and t h e c o n t r o l time. Under ,&
given conditions t h e c o n t r o l t i m e i s a n index of t h e speed of r e a c t i o n of t h e
human s u b j e c t , while t h e p a t t e r n of t h e t r a n s i e n t response c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e
p e c u l a r i t i e s of h i s mode of a c t i o n i n performing t h e given a c t .

I n studying t h e a c t i o n s of a human operator i n one-dimensional t r a c k i n g of

a moving t a r g e t , t h e author e l u c i d a t e d t h r e e forms of t r a n s i e n t response - os­
c i l l a t o r y with overshoots, o s c i l l a t o r y without overshoots, and monotonic - and
determined t h e dynamics of t h e i r v a r i a t i o n during a c q u i s i t i o n o r l e a r n i n g of
t h e tracking s k i l l (G.V.Sukhodol1 skiy, 1963).

A comparison with t h e r e s u l t s of s t u d i e s on t h e methods used by human

s u b j e c t s i n solving sensorimotor problems of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and reproduction of
s t r e s s e s (G.V.Sukhodol1 skiy, 1960), c o l o r s (K.V.Bardin, 196Z), o r b r i g h t n e s s of
a luminous f i e l d (S.N.Leviyeva, 1963) shows t h a t t h e same t h r e e forms of trans­
i e n t response a r e observed i n t h e s e types of human a c t i v i t y , and t h a t t h e de­
velopment of h a b i t u a t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o a d e f i n i t e p a t t e r n of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e
forms of t h e t r a n s i e n t functions.

The author proposes 8 s p e c i a l study of t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of psychic con­

t r o l i n various forms of a c t i v i t y by f i n d i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t r a n s ­
i e n t resp.onses.

An experimental technique has been developed.

 CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUESTION OF THE FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BEINGS

PARTICIPATING I N THE CONTROL OF NONREGULAR FULL-SCALE SYSTEMS

D.I.Iordanskiy
(Moscow)

Full-scale systems, i . e . , systems including human s u b j e c t s as elements,

t h a t c o n s i s t of subsystems and a r e not reducible, with r e s p e c t t o t h e problems
t o be solved, t o a n assembly of object-controlling devices, a r e subdivided i n t o
r e g u l a r and nonregular. The l a t t e r s o l v e one-time problems such as, f o r ex­
ample, t h e design of some i n t r i c a t e complex or t h e b u i l d i n g of a nontypical ob­
j ect.

The c o l l e c t i v e s e r v i n g a nonregular l a r g e system i s faced by a number of

s p e c i f i c problems. Some of them a r e discussed i n t h i s paper. The a u t h o r g i v e s
s t r u c t u r a l - f u n c t i o n a l schemes of organization of t h e c o l l e c t i v e s of s e v e r a l of
t h e most t y p i c a l nonregular f u l l - s c a l e systems. The e f f i c i e n c y of human work
i n t h e s e systems may b e considerably improved by t h e u s e of data-processing ma­
chines and by a r a t i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of f u n c t i o n s between man and machine. I n
t h i s connection, s e v e r a l requirements which must be met by t h e data-processing
machines a r e formulated by t h e author.

AIJTOMATION AND PROGRAMMING I N TELEVISION TRANSMISSION

V.M.Pokorskiy and A.A.Stepanov

(Leningrad)

During t h e p a s t few y e a r s t h e t e c h n i c a l d e t a i l s of producing and t r a n s ­

m i t t i n ? a t e l e v i s i o n program have become highly complicated, because of t h e
g r e a t r i s e i n t e c h n i c a l and c r e a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e f o r t e l e v i s i o n
programs. There h a s been a manifold i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of engineering ele­
ments t h a t form t h e components of modern transmission, making c o n t r o l and moni­
t o r i n g desks f a r more complicated and i n c r e a s i n g t h e niurnber of c o n t r o l , commun­
i c a t i o n , and s i g n a l devices employed. A s a r e s u l t , t h e problems connected with
t h e c o n t r o l of t e l e v i s i o n transmission nave become q u i t e involved. We have re­
peatedly s t a t e d elsewhere i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e and i n our papers read i n s e v e r a l
s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l conferences t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g system of t e l e v i s i o n
transmission c o n t r o l o f t e n makes demands on t h e o p e r a t o r t h a t are beyond t h e
range of human psychophysiological a b i l i t y . Technical equipment i s beginning
t o work a g a i n s t man i n s t e a d of f o r him. This i s convincingly shown by t h e
sharp i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of i n c i d e n t s of so-called ltmanual" f a i l u r e i n t h e
v a r i o u s t e l e v i s i o n l i n k s necessary f o r transmission.

There has r e c e n t l y b e e n a good d e a l of c r i t i c i s m of d e s i g n e r s who f a i l t o

consider t h e requirements of engineering psychology i n l a y i n g out t h e t e l e ­
v i s i o n c o n t r o l desks used by t h e s t u d i o d i r e c t o r . If radio- engineers would
heed t h e p s y c h o l o g i s t ' s findings, t h e work of t h e o p e r a t o r a t t h e c o n t r o l desk
would b e f a c i l i t a t e d and t h e f a i l u r e s would decrease. However, t h e r a p i d
growth of t h e S o v i e t t e l e v i s i o n network and of i t s f a c i l i t i e s renders t h i s so­
l u t i o n merely p a l l i a t i v e . It i s obvious today t h a t q u e s t i o n s of c o n t r o l must
b e resolved on a higher, more a c t i v e and progressive l e v e l , e s p e c i a l l y i n con­

nection with t h e government decision t o b u i l d t h e Great Moscow Television Cen­

t e r i n 1967, and make i t a model of progress of technique and organization of
.
t e l e v is i o n
I n finding b a s i c s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e questions of t e l e v i s i o n control, con­
s i d e r a t i o n must not b e confined t o t h e s t u d i o c o n t r o l equipment, although this
r e p r e s e n t s t h e f i n a l output stage. Such questions must b e s e t t l e d i n a l l u n i t s
involved i n t h e transmission process, j u s t as problems of similar type are now
being solved i n i n d u s t r y branches where t h e products a r e turned out on assembly
l i n e s . An a n a l y s i s of t h e process of t e l e v i s i o n transmission from t h e View­
p o i n t of engineering psychology suggests t h e thought t h a t t h e operators r e ­
quired during transmission i n t h e various u n i t s must be f r e e d from t h e task of
manual c o n t r o l of i n d i v i d u a l primary objects, whose number and r a t e of opera­
t i o n today a l r e a d y taxes human a b i l i t y beyond i t s limit. To i n c r e a s e t h e per­
sonnel i n such units i s not a s o l u t i o n of t h e problem. Hence follows t h e JQ
imperative n e c e s s i t y of widespread automation and programming f o r t h e c o n t r o l
equipment of t e l e v i s i o n transmission.

I n t r o d u c t i o n of automation and programming i n t o t h e c r e a t i v e process of

t e l e v i s i o n transmission meets two d i f f i c u l t i e s . First t h e r e a r e a number of
purely t e c h n i c a l problems: development and manufacture of new equipment, mass
production of high-grade t e l e v i s i o n t a p e recorders, s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of
q u a l i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y of equipment, e t c . . These engineering-technical prob­
lems a r e d i f f i c u l t , b u t a r e e n t i r e l y concrete and understandable. Secondly, t o
determine t h e elements t o be automated and programmed i s a highly complex task.
The p o i n t i s t h a t t e l e v i s i o n makes use of t h e c r e a t i v e a c t i v i t y of various
types of artists, w r i t e r s , and j o u r n a l i s t s . But t h e f i e l d oP creation, many
people f e e l , i s e n t i r e l y incompatible with 1tmechanizationtt. This opinion i s
q u i t e unfounded: Modern writers have not only abandoned t h e goose q u i l l , b u t
a r e e a g e r l y using t y p e w r i t e r s and d i c t a t i n g machines i n t h e i r c r e a t i v e work.

Mechanization, automation, and p r o g r d n g i n t e l e v i s i o n transmission

should be employed wherever manual work i s not an a b s o l u t e necessity, wherever
human l a b o r can be r e l e a s e d f o r purely c r e a t i v e work, wherever t h e a r t i s t will
b e enabled t o work w i t h whole groups of components with extensive use of pre­
a ssembl a ge.

It follows t h a t automation and programming must be introduced "from t h e

bottom up*l, first of a l l i n t h e s e r v i c e u n i t s , f o r example, i n t h e supply room,
i n t h e s p e c i a l l i g h t i n g - e f f e c t s shop, i n t h e t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e department where
t h e problem of t h e o p e r a t i o n a l replacement of f a i l e d p a r t s without excessive
i n t e r f e r e n c e with t h e schedule of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work i s a l r e a d y very acute.

After solving t h e problems of i n t r o d u c t i o n of advanced technology i n t o t h e

Itlower levels1I and i f high q u a l i t y and r e l i a b l e operation of a l l equipment i n
t e l e v i s i o n s t a t i o n s i s once guaranteed, t h e next s t e p can be i n t r o d u c t i o n of
automation and p r o g r d n g on a l l l e v e l s , up t o t h e c e n t r a l equipment a t t h e
d i s p o s a l of t h e s t u d i o d i r e c t o r .

 ANALYSIS OF THE OPERATOR'S ACTIVITY

V. P. Zinchenko and N .I .Mayzel'

(140scow)

I n designing automated c o n t r o l systems, t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e human o p e r a t o r

must b e analyzed. Such a n a n a l y s i s p e r m i t s p r e d i c t i n g e f f i c i e n t a c t i v i t y of
t h e operator i n a given system and forms t h e b a s i s f o r any c o r r e c t d i s t r i b u t i o n
of f u n c t i o n s between man and machine. It i s used i n formulating i n s t r u c t i o n s
f o r operation of t h e system, f o r developing e f f e c t i v e t r a i n i n g methods, and, /8
f i n a l l y , f o r s i m u l a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s forms of o p e r a t i o n w5th t h e o b j e c t of t h e i r
automation.

There exists a wide v a r i e t y i n t h e type of o p e r a t o r s ' work i n modern con­

t r o l systems. These systems d i f f e r i n function, s t r u c t u r e and c r i t i c a l char­
a c t e r i s t i c s ( d i f f e r e n t requirements as t o speed, accuracy, s t a b i l i t y , e t c . ).
A t t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e of development of engineering psychology, any a n a l y s e s of
t h e v a r i o u s forms of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work are u s u a l l y empirical. Their d i v e r s i ­
t y and t h e absence of any s t r i c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p e r m i t s no more than t o con­
s t r u c t a very g e n e r a l i z e d model of c e r t a i n t y p i c a l o p e r a t i o n s performed by t h e
human operator i n c o n t r o l systems.

Two b a s i c groups of o p e r a t i o n s can b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d :

1. Operations of information search. These i n c l u d e : a ) p e r c e p t i o n of i n ­

coming d a t a ( e x t r a c t i n g from t h e e n t i r e s e t of s i g n a l s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t inf'orma­
t i o n , d e t e c t i n g d e v i a t i o n s from normal operating conditions, e t c . ) , b ) proces­
s i n g of t h e information, ?.e., reducing i t t o a form convenient f o r s o l v i n g a
s e r v i c e problem (decoding of information, d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of a problem s i t u a t i o n
or a number of problem s i t u a t i o n s , comparing them, f i n d i n g t h e most c r i t i c a l
s i t u a t i o n s , and arranging them i n o r d e r of importance and urgency f o r sequence
of s e r v i c e ) .

2. Information handling. This grccp of o p e r a t i o n s includes: a ) problem

solution- o r d e c i s i o n making i n problem s i t u a t i o n s : e v a l u a t i o n of a problem sit­
uation, e v a l u a t i o n of a v a i l a b l e means of c o n t r o l , and s e l e c t i o n of t h o s e means
and methods of a c t i o n which are most e f f e c t i v e i n s o l v i n g a given s e t of prob­
l e m s i t u a t i o n s ; b ) executing c o n t r o l a c t i o n s : c a r r y i n g out t h e d e c i s i o n de­
veloped by means of a d e f i n i t e system of a c t i o n s o r i s s u i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n ­
.
st r u c t i o n s

Two t y p e s of r e l a t i o n s between information s e a r c h and information handling

a r e considered: a ) information search with immediate handling and b ) informa­
t i o n search with delayed handling.

A s a r u l e t h e o p e r a t o r ' s a c t i v i t y i s r i g i d l y d e f i n e d by t h e t i m e parame-
ters of t h e system. The f a c t o r s determining t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s
work are divided i n t o two groups: 1) o b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h e problem ( q u a n t i t y of information, methods of i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n , forms of
coding, degree of complexity of t h e a l g o r i t h m of s o l u t i o n , number and l o c a t i o n
of t h e c o n t r o l u n i t s , e t c . ) , and 2 ) s u b j e c t i v e f a c t o r s or c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of

5
 t h e operator ( i n d i v i d u a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s , t r a i n i n g , f u n c t i o n a l state, e t c . ).

CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF WORK OF THE OPERATOR

I N SEMI-AUTOMATIC GRADING

V.N.Gorbatenko, G.V.Sukhodolfskiy and V.A.Shcherbakov

(Leningrad)

The o p e r a t o r ' s work i n t h e semi-automatic grading of f l o a t i n g timber was

studied.

I n t h i s system t h e task of t h e operator i s t o determine v i s u a l l y , on t h e

b a s i s of c r i t e r i a e s t a b l i s h e d by Government standards, t h e grade of each of t h e
logs delivered by a n endless b e l t and, by depressing a button, t o c o n t r o l an
automatic s o r t e r which obeys t h e order t o place t h e l o g i n t o t h e proper com­
partment e

The p r o d u c t i v i t y of t h e e n t i r e system i s determined by t h e speed and ac­

curacy of t h e grading estimate by t h e operator, which speed depends i n t u r n on
t h e number of c r i t e r i a f o r each grade, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of i t s occurrence, and
on t h e required accuracy, whereas t h e o v e r a l l accuracy depends on t h e ease of
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n between t h e c r i t e r i a f o r t h e v a r i o u s grades.

The authors analyzed t h e d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y of t h e c r i t e r i a on t h e b a s i s of

a v a i l a b l e l i t e r a t u r e d a t a and found t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g c r i t e r i o n s c a l e for e s t i ­
mating grades, developed f o r hand-grading, w a s u n s u i t a b l e under t h e conditions
of t h e r i g i d t h e l i m i t i n semi-automatic grading, where a conveyor b e l t con­
tinuously d e l i v e r s t h e l o g s ; thus, t h e system would r e q u i r e reviewing.

The authors attempted t o determine t h e number of l o g s graded p e r s h i f t and

t h e percentage of errors (ungraded o r improperly graded p i e c e s ) for v a r i o u s
r a t e s of grading and f o r a given p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e combined occurrence of m i s ­
t a k e s i n determining t h e c r i t e r i a and s e l e c t i n g t h e grade. The r a t e s of grad­
i n g and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r s were c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of a given num­
b e r of concrete c r i t e r i a f o r six grades of f l o a t i n g logs and of t h e s t a t i s t i c s
f o r t h e corresponding assortment a t one of t h e g r e a t roadsteads of t h e country.

A model of t r a i n i n g technique i s proposed f o r t r a i n i n g t h e grading opera­

t o r . To improve t h e e f f i c i e n c y of t h e operation of t h i s system i t i s recom­
mended t h a t t h e continuous d e l i v e r y of lumber be replaced by i n t e r m i t t e n t de­
l i v e r y e f f e c t e d by t h e operator himself a t an automatic r a t e .

SIMULATION OF PSYCHIC FUNCTIONS AS A METHOD

OF STUDYING THE MIND

A.A.Bratko
(Kiev)

The model system employed i n technology and t h e a r t s f o r thousands of

I
years i s r a p i d l y expanding i t s f i e l d of a p p l i c a t i o n . Simulation as a method 01
s t u d y has s u c c e s s f u l l y been introduced i n physics, biology, philology, and
o t h e r branches of knowledge. I n cybernetics, simulation i s t h e fundamental
method of i n v e s t i p a t i n g t h e g e n e r a l l a w s of c o n t r o l and communication, and con­
s i s t s i n c r e a t i n g a n isomorphic or i s o f u n c t i o n a l o b j e c t and observing i t s func­
t i o n i n g . The c o n s t r u c t i o n of analog computers, i.e., t h e b u i l d i n g of a s u f f i ­
c i e n t l y complex substratum capable of serving as a n analog of such a n exceed­
i n g l y complex dynamic system as t h e mind will permit t h e u s e of simulation i n
psychology as w e l l .

An a n a l y s i s of t h e s p e c i f i c problem of simulation of v a r i o u s natural phe­

nomena, and e s p e c i a l l y t h e a n a l y s i s of models of b i o l o g i c a l processes and of
d a t a processing i n t h e b r a i n , c l e a r l y proves t h e u s e f u l n e s s of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n
of analog methods t o t h e study of any form of mental a c t i v i t y .

The use of t h e analog method i n psychology, even a t t h e present l e v e l of

complexity of analog computers, w i l l permit s i g n i f i c a n t refinement and con­
c r e t i z a t i o n of p h y s i o l o g i c a l d a t a by programming mental processes and v e r i f y i n g
t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e i r d e f i n i t i o n on t h e Itbehaviort1of t h e machine. Simula­
t i o n will a l s o permit t h e use of a h e u r i s t i c approach t o t h e study of mechan­
i s m s of psychic a c t i v i t y i n a c c e s s i b l e t o d i r e c t observation, i n view of t h e
f a c t t h a t a model may a l s o b e constructed on t h e b a s i s of hypothetical algor­
ithms, whose correspondence t o r e a l i t y can b e v e r i f i e d by comparing t h e "ac­
t i o n " of t h e machines w i t h t h e a c t i o n of a human s u b j e c t i n a corresponding
situation.

The a p p l i c a t i o n and development of t h e analog method i n psychology w i l l

permit establishment of s i m u l a t e d groups of mental processes and, f i n a l l y , re­
p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e e n t i r e system of psychic a c t i v i t y , which cannot b e grasped
i n i t s e n t i t y , i n a s i m p l i f i e d comprehensible form. The r e s u l t a n t d i s t i n c t
dynamic p i c t u r e of t h e mind will considerably f a c i l i t a t e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e
s t u d y of i n d i v i d u a l psychic f u n c t i o n s t o a n i n t e g r a l s t u d y of t h e mind.

TJse of analog methods e n r i c h e s psychological r e s e a r c h w i t h elements of

mathematical methods, permits t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of f r u i t f u l i d e a s i n t o t h e tech­
n i c a l sciences which formerly were f a r removed from t h i s f i e l d , and f i l l s i n
t h e l a r g e gap between psychology and neurophysiology.

SINJUTION OF CERTAIN FEATTJRES OF I4ENI"T A C T I V I T Y ON COMPUTERS /11

A.G.Snytkin
(Kiev)

E x i s t i n g forms of machine behavior (meaning computer behavior) a r e as a

r u l e i n f l e x i b l e , s i n c e t h e processing of d a t a i s u s u a l l y accomplished by a com­
p u t e r on pre-assigned and r i g i d programs. The tlpseudo-independencelt of t h e
computer c o n s i s t s i n r e p e t i t i o n and c y c l i z a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l p a r t s of t h e pro-
pram. Thus, i n processing data, t h e computer p r o j e c t s t h e i n p u t d a t a onto t h e
p l a n e of r e a c t i o n s under r i g i d l y p r e s c r i b e d l a w s of p r o j e c t i o n .

 The tendency t o b u i l d cybernetic mechanisms t h a t perform complex forms of

human mental a c t i v i t y during t h e i r processing makes i t necessary t o modify b o t h
t h e machine components and t h e e x i s t i n g forms of computer behavior. The func­
t i o n a l t r e n d of designing computers w i t h "higher i n t e l l e c t u a l i t y t 1 e x a c t l y com­
p r i s e s t h e g o a l of imparting new forms of behavior t o t h e machine, i . e . , t o es­
t a b l i s h more f l e x i b l e connections between t h e i n p u t d a t a and t h e r e a c t i o n s t o
them.

Simulation of mental processes i s p o s s i b l e on l a r g e universal d i g i t a l com­

p u t e r s (Vnivac) w i t h a memory of s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y and a wide range of i n ­
.
s t r u ct i o n s

The first s t e p i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e s e analogs might be t h e open subroutine

system of p r o c e s s i n g , which observes b o t h t h e content and t h e s t a t i s t i c a l as­
p e c t of t h e i n p u t data. The i n t r o d u c t i o n of i n t e r n a l feedback W i l l permit t h e
machine during t h e processing t o modify t h e data, b o t h a t t h e i n p u t and i n t h e
memory u n i t , and t h u s t o accumulate h a c h i n e t t experience. The open system of
processing i s , i n a sense, a model of p a s s i v e p e r c e p t i o n .

The i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e "reaction-inputrt feedback W i l l make i t p o s s i b l e t o

p a s s from models of p a s s i v e p e r c e p t i o n t o models of a c t i v e perception. A block
diagram of one of t h e p o s s i b l e models i s presented.

Analogs of mental processes may b e o b j e c t i v e means f o r v e r i f y i n g and re­

f i n i n g t h e o r e t i c a l concepts f o r psychologists. I n t h e s e analogs, new types of
machine behavior ( i n program and s t r u c t u r a l r e s p e c t s ) a r e r e a l i z e d , which Will
permit complex and s p e c i f i c forms of data processing t o b e developed.

MODEL OF AUTOMATIC ADAPTATION TO CI-IANGING CONDITIONS

OF WORK OF THE SYSTEM 'tMAN-MACHINE't
N .N .Korobov
(Kharkov)

The author considers a n elementary model of t h e a d a p t a t i o n of a given sys­

t e m t o changing e x t e r n a l conditions. A f e a t u r e of t h i s model i s t h e f a c t t h a t
i t performs two f u n c t i o n s :

1) r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e form of t h e e x t e r n a l condition;
2) optimum performance of t h e b a s i c f u n c t i o n s ( t h e paper d i s c u s s e s
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of a model among background noise).

It i s suggested t h a t models of t h i s t y p e are found i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of

man and nature ( o r machine).

The a u t h o r considers t h e case i n which t h e i n p u t i s a n additive mixture

of s i g n a l and noise. The u s e f u l s i g n a l can b e r e p r e s e n t e d by a n expansion i n
series over a complete system of orthonormed f u n c t i o n s whose expansion c o e f f i ­
c i e n t s are random q u a n t i t i e s assigned on a s e t of r e a l i z a t i o n s of environmental
conditions, w h i l e t h e i n t e r f e r i n g s i g n a l can be r e p r e s e n t e d by white noise.
 The author shows t h a t t h e optimum c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e system i n t h e op­
t i m u m case must b e determined according t o t h e c r i t e r i o n of t h e conventional
r i s k of a n any-valued function. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e optimum system a r e
represented i n t h e form of a n expansion i n eigenfunctions of t h e i n p u t s i g n a l ,
and t h e expansion c o e f f i c i e n t s are determined according t o t h e image of t h e
s i g n a l , f o r which a n a r t i f i c i a l l y d e r i v e d v e c t o r Q = [q, ] i s used.

The s t a b i l i t y of t h e model i s i n v e s t i g a t e d by t h e d i r e c t method of Lya­

punov. The author p r e s e n t s t h e r e s u l t s of a study of t h e dynamics of a system
and t h e results of s i m u l a t i o n on a n analog computer and a d i g i t a l computer.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE RELIABILITY OF IIUMAN

SUBJECTS (REGULAR AND RANDOM FAILURES I N OPERATORS~WORK)

M.1 .Bobneva
(~Jloscow)

The study of q u e s t i o n s of r e l i a b l e human work i s of primary importance i n

developing systems combining t h e work of t e c h n i c a l components and t h e work of
a human o p e r a t o r or system c o n t r o l l e r . R e l i a b i l i t y i s a n over-all c h a r a c t e r i s ­
t i c of human a c t i v i t y . As a working hypothesis, t h e a u t h o r d e f i n e s t h e re­ /13
l i a b i l i t y of human work as a man's a b i l i t y t o perform t h e functions assigned
t o him under d e f i n i t e working c o n d i t i o n s without f a i l u r e and f o r a d e f i n i t e
time.

I n accordance with t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , t h e study of t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of a n

o p e r a t o r ' s work assumes t h e c h a r a c t e r of a study of f a i l u r e s i n such work. A s
f o r t h e second f a c t o r , namely, t h e working conditions ( i n c l u d i n g t h e t i m e con­
d i t i o n s ) , t h e a u t h o r considers them from t h e viewpoint of t h e o p e r a t o r t s "re­
s i s t a n c e t o noise".

One of t h e f a c t o r s of r e l i a b l e human work i s t h e dependable o p e r a t i o n of

t h e equipment. I n t h i s f i e l d , t h e b a s i c problem i s t h e study of t h e r e l i a b i l ­
i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s r e a c t i o n t o f a i l u r e of some component of t h e system and
t h e f i n d i n g of ways t o compensate t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e ( f o r example, development of
methods f o r t r a i n i n g a n operator t o work under unexpected emergency s i t u a t i o n s ) .

Another important f a c t o r t h a t a f f e c t s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of human work i s t h e

n e c e s s i t y of o c c a s i o n a l l y working under conditions known t o b e dangerous, i n
s i t u a t i o n s of stress and urgency. The r e l i a b i l i t y of human work i n such situa­
t i o n s d i f f e r s from t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of work of a n o p e r a t o r of a system of com­
p a r a b l e complexity b u t o p e r a t i n g under less urgent conditions. I n t h i s f i e l d ,
l i k e w i s e , an i n v e z t i g a t i o n of t h e methods of compensation i s of d e c i s i v e i m ­
portance ( f o r example, d s t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e f a c t o r s t h a t e l i m i n a t e excessive
s e n s a t i o n of impending danger, and of methods f o r d e a l i n g with a s t a t e of
stress).

A study of t h e methods of compensation w i l l permit e x a c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of

f a i l u r e s and r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e group of a c t i o n s which should be considered as
u s e f u l forms of compensation.

9
 I n studyinf;: t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work, t h e q u e s t i o n arises whether providing op­
t i m u m working c o n d i t i o n s and a p p l i c a t i o n of e f f e c t i v e methods f o r compensating
failures can a c t u a l l y guarantee a b s o l u t e r e l i a b i l i t y of human behavior and e­
l i m i n a t i o n of a l l p r o b a b i l i t y of f a i l u r e i n h i s work. The author answers this
q u e s t i o n i n t h e negative.

The author d i s t i n g u i s h e s two types of failures: a ) r e g u l a r and b ) random.

F a i l u r e s w i t h causes t h a t can b e discovered and analyzed are c l a s s i f i e d as

r e g u l a r . This group of f a i l u r e s i n c l u d e s f a i l u r e s r e s u l t i n g from so-called
tlsystematic p e r s o n a l e r r o r " . ( T h i s form of e r r o r i s discussed i n d e t a i l i n t h e
paper.) A l l f a i l u r e s of t h i s t y p e may b e e i t h e r eliminated i n some way o r pre­
dicted.

I n p r a c t i c e a second type of f a i l u r e i s known. It i s o f t e n noted t h a t an

experienced, healthy, unfatigued, emotionally s t a b l e operator, under o r d i n a r y
normal working conditions, W i l l o c c a s i o n a l l y e x h i b i t d e v i a t i o n s i n h i s work,
which must b e termed failures and which cannot be explained by any apparent
cause. Such f a i l u r e s may be due e i t h e r t o a cause unknown a t t h e t i m e , o r t o
A'
random f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e mants a c t i v i t y . Such failures are known as random
e r r o r s o r failures.

The author g i v e s examples of random failures of a n operator. There are

p r a c t i c a l l y no data i n e x i s t e n c e on such random f a i l u r e s , except f o r some fac­
t o r s obtained i n c i d e n t a l l y during i n v e s t i g a t i o n of o t h e r a s p e c t s of a n opera-
t o r t s work.

The s t u d y of random f a i l u r e s i n a n o p e r a t o r t s work draws a t t e n t i o n t o t h e

s t o c h a s t i c c h a r a c t e r of human a c t i v i t y . The a u t h o r p r e s e n t s s e v e r a l hypotheses
on human behavior determined by s t o c h a s t i c l a w s . She emphasizes i n p a r t i c u l a r
t h e t h e o r e t i c a l v a l u e of research i n t h i s f i e l d and t h e p r a c t i c a l v a l u e of t h e
discovery of t h i s type of l a w . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e a u t h o r d e f i n e s several ways
f o r tfcircumventingftt h e random failures i n a n o p e r a t o r ' s work.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF RELIABILITY (WORKING

CAPACITY) OF WJMAN SUBJECTS I N CONTROL SYSTEMS

K .S .Tochilov
( L e d ngrad)

From t h e psychophysiological viewpoint t h e problem of human r e l i a b i l i t y

reduces t o t h e problem of working capacity. It i s w e l l known t h a t human f i t ­
ness f o r work f o l l o w s a phasic course. The phases of f i t n e s s f o r work are de­
termined by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of a s e r i e s of s t i m u l i ( s i g n a l s ) with t h e function­
a l s t a t e of t h e human organism. This i n t e r a c t i o n should b e considered on two
l e v e l s , conditioned and unconditioned. This d i s t i n c t i o n i s based on t h e abil­
i t y of t h e organism t o adopt t h e Itrhythmtl of a c t i v i t y , according t o Ukhtomskiy.
As applied t o systems c o n t r o l l e d b y human s u b j e c t s , t h e t e r m ttrhythmrtmeans t h e
adoption of t h e program of work and t h e formation of a dynamic s t e r e o t y p e ac­
cording t o Pavlov. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c feature of t h e dynamic s t e r e o t y p e i n
c o n t r o l systems l i e s i n t h e dynamic q u a l i t y of a c t i o n w i t h a s t e r e o t y p e back­
10

ground. The l a t t e r t e r m encompasses t h e e n t i r e s e t of s t i m u l i i n t h e given

system a c t i n g on t h e human organism.

T r a n s i t i o n from t h e f i r s t l e v e l t o t h e second c o n s t i t u t e s t h e process of

t r a i n i n g , reduced somewhat and producing r e l i a b i l i t y - t h e s t a b l e working ca­
p a c i t y of human s u b j e c t s .

On t h e conditioned l e v e l , t h e problem of producing g r e a t r e l i a b i l i t y f o r

a maximum time i n t e r v a l i s solved by optimum r e l a t i o n between i n t e n s i t y of t h e
s t i m u l i ( s i g n a l system) and d u r a t i o n of t h e i r a c t i o n . The c r i t e r i o n of i n - /15
t e n s i t y of t h e stimulus i s given by t h e phasic c h a r a c t e r of i t s a c t i o n on t h e
organism, determining t h e d u r a t i o n of a c t i o n of t h e given s i g n a l system.

It must b e assumed t h a t e i t h e r a low or a high v a l u e of t h e stimulus i s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s h o r t e r d u r a t i o n of stable f i t n e s s f o r work than i s a value
i n t e r m e d i a t e between t h e s e two. Main emphasis should b e on t h e low i n t e n s i t y
of t h e stimulus a t which t h e s t a t e of Ukhtomskiyts o p e r a t i v e quiescence s e t s i n .
This concept i s based on t h e f a c t t h a t progress i n remote c o n t r o l c o n s i s t s i n
t h e c o n s t a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g use of automation which f r e e s t h e human s u b j e c t s from
d i r e c t a c t i o n i n t h e system "man - machine". The s t a t e of o p e r a t i v e quiescence
i n which man i n t e r v e n e s i n t h e c o n t r o l process only i n s p e c i a l emergency cases,
a g a i n s t a background of exceptional r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , r e q u i r e s maintenance of a
high f u n c t i o n a l l e v e l f o r i n s t a n t r e a c t i o n . The prolonged absence of e x t e r n a l
information-producinq s t i m u l i lowers t h e f u n c t i o n a l l e v e l of t h e human s u b j e c t .
This r e q u i r e s i n v e n t i o n of measures t o prevent a performance decrement under
such conditions.

CONTRIBIJTION TO THE INVESTIGATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL STATE

OF THE HUMAN ORGANISM D'JRIMG WORK

A.V.Dokvadze
(Tbilisi)

To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e nervous and muscular systems i n

t e a p i c k e r s under f i e l d conditions, p o r t a b l e equipment w a s designed and ap­
proved, for t h e following compound measurements:

1) l a t e n t p e r i o d of motor r e a c t i o n t o t h e a c t i o n of compound stimuli

of l i g h t ( r e d , green, white) and a u d i t o r y s t i m u l i ( c l i c k of a n
instrument) ;
2) accuracy of hand motion;
3 ) tremor of t h e hands during motion o r i n s t a t i c p o s i t i o n ;
4 ) motions of t h e wrists a t m a d m u m speed.
The equipment comprises a s e t of i n s t r u m e n t s mounted i n a small box of
350 250 x 200 mm, weighing 5 kg, w i t h i t s i n t e g r a l power supply i n t h e form
X
of type KBS d r y c e l l s .

Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s s e t i s t h e instrument f o r determining t h e
accuracy of hand movement and tremor. The device determines t h e number of /16
e r r o r s ( c o n t a c t with a probe) and g i v e s a q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of such
11

 e r r o r s . The device uses e l e c t r i c counters f o r countin: t h e number of e r r o r s

and f o r computing t h e t o t a l d u r a t i o n of contact between probe and w a l l s of the
p l a n c h e t t e used t o measure t h e tremors. This combined technique y i e l d s d a t a on
t h e f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e human organism.

ESTIMATING FITNESS FOR WORK NITH CORRECTING TABLES

S .I .Kopanov
(Moscow)

To optimize t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements i n t h e I Q ” a - machinet1 sys­

tem, a n exact measurement of t h e human c a p a b i l i t i e s i n d a t a p r o c e s s i n g i s need­
ed. I n our work we attempted t o study t h e working f i t n e s s of o p e r a t o r s (lSt
s e r i e s ) and of s u b j e c t s exposed t o v e s t i b u l a r s t i m u l i (Znd s e r i e s ) . A s a cri­
t e r i o n f o r t h e work f i t n e s s of t h e v i s u a l a n a l y z e r ( a n a l y s o r ) we used t h e i n ­
dex of t h e f u n c t i o n a l a b i l i t y of t h e v i s u a l a n a l y s o r t o handle t h e maximum
q u a l i t y of information. The working c a p a c i t y w a s determined by means of cor­
r e c t i o n t a b l e s proposed by A.A.Genkin, V.I.Medvedev, and M.P.Shek (1963). The
t a b l e s were composed of Landoldt r i n g s with s l i t s i n c e r t a i n a r e a s . The sig­
nals i n p u t t o t h e t a b l e were equiprobable, uniform, and randomly d i s t r i b u t e d .
The t e s t s u b j e c t s were i n s t r u c t e d t o scan a l l s i g n a l s i n t h e t a b l e ( N being t h e
t o t a l number of s i s n s ) , and t o d i s c r i m i n a t e t h e u s e f u l ones. The nimber of
u s e f u l s i q n a l s scanned ( n ) and t h e t i m e spent on performing t h e t a s k ( t ) were
noted. T$en, by means of t h e formula

s=0.5436N-2.607f~
t

we determined t h e processing power of t h e v i s u a l a n a l y s o r ( s ) . A l l results

were s t a t i s t i c a l l y worked up. The a r i t h m e t i c means M y t h e standard d e v i a t i o n G,
t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of c a l c u l a t i o n accuracy of t h e mean my and t h e s e c u r i t y fac­
tor t were t h e n computed.

A s a r e s u l t , we found t h a t t h e number of errors i n operators during work

increased b y comparison with i t s i n i t i a l l e v e l (by 11.5 - 26.6%) and t h a t t h e
t i m e required t o scan t h e t a b l e i n c r e a s e d (by 22.8 -41.1$) while t h e through­
p u t of t h e v i s u a l analysor d e c l i n e d (by 22.3 - 34.6%). The r e g u l a r i t y of /17
t h e s e changes w a s confirmed by t h e s t a t i s t i c a l workup of t h e d a t a . The fac-
t o r t i n most of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s w a s above 3.0. The d e c l i n e i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l
power of t h e v i s u a l analysor during working t i m e i s a p p a r e n t l y explained by t h e
appearance of f a t i g u e , owing t o t h e l a r g e number of f l a s h i n g screens and t h e
n e c e s s i t y of c o n s t a n t l y followin? t h e i r readings. . I f t e r work, a l r e a d y a f t e r
t h e second hour, t h e symptoms of Visual f a t i g u e disappeared, proving t h e func­
t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e observed changes.

I n t h e second series of experiments we found t h a t t h e c a p a c i t y of t h e sub­

j e c t s v a r i e d d i f f e r e n t l y . The throughput of t h e v i s u a l analysor d e c l i n e d i n
e i g h t s u b j e c t s (by 7.6- U.7%), increased i n f i v e (by 4.7 - ll.Z%), and re­
mained p r a c t i c a l l y constant i n seven. T h i s t r e n d of t h e changes i s obviously
due t o t h e varying degree t o which t h e s u b j e c t s r e s i s t e d t h e v e s t i b u l a r stimu­
li, t o t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e b a s i c nervous processes, and t o t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e

.. . . ... I
applied s t i m u l i .
It i s c l e a r from t h e d a t a presented t h a t t h e working c a p a c i t y of a n opera­
t o r declined more t h a n t h a t of s u b j e c t s exposed t o v e s t i b u l a r s t i m u l i . This i s
only natural, s i n c e i n t h e former case d i r e c t f a t i g u e of t h e v i s u a l a n a l y s o r
w a s involved, while i n t h e l a t t e r case t h e f a t i g u e was i n d i r e c t .

This t r e n d i n t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n a l state of t h e v i s u a l analy­

s o r must b e t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e design of v a r i o u s "man - machine" systems,
e s p e c i a l l y i n c a s e s where personnel i s s u b j e c t t o v e s t i b u l a r s t i m u l i or f a t i g u e
of t h e visual analysors.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF ACCELERATION AND

HYPODYNAMIA ON THE REACTION OF OPERATORS

A.R.Kotovskaya, V.K.Filosofov, N.A. Chekhonadskiy,

and V.A.Chichkin
( b o scow)

An experimental determination of t h e dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of a n o p e r a t o r i n

t h e Itman - machine" system under t h e i n f l u e n c e of e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s i s of con­
siderable i n t e r e s t .

The o b j e c t of the s t u d y w a s t o determine t h e dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of a n op­

e r a t o r processing a n a r b i t r a r y sequence of d i s c r e t e o p t i c a l s i g n a l s undsr t h e
i n f l u e n c e of a c c e l e r a t i o n .

I n t h i s st,udy, t h e o p e r a t o r ' s r e a c t i o n time t o a n o p t i c a l s i g n a l w a s de­

termined a t random t i m e s .

From t h e data obtained, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e mathematical expecta- /18

t i o n t o t h e standard d e v i a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s r e a c t i o n time w a s p l o t t e d .
Tnc a n a l y t i c form of t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e mathematical e x p e c t a t i o n of t h e oper­
a t o r ' s r e a c t i o n time t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n can b e d e s c r i b e d by t h e equation o f a
skraight l i n e .

From t h e experimental data t h e authors d e r i v e a r e l a t i o n of mathematical

expectation of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s r e a c t i o n t i m e t o t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n and t o t h e r e l ­
a t i v e p o s i t i o n of t h e l i g h t i n d i c a t o r i n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s f i e l d of view.

VARIATIONS I N CORTICAL "JRODYNAMICS DURING INTENSE

MENTAL ACTIVITY

G.K.Borisov
(Leningrad)

The s t u d i e s were conducted on t r a i n d i s p a t c h e r s who perform i n t e n s e i n ­

tellecfvual work t h a t makes e x c e s s i v e demands on t h e i r f u n c t i o n s of memory and
v i g i l a n c e , a t h i g h i n t e n s i t y , emotivity, extensive workload, and a 12-hour work
s h i f t . The data w e r e recorded b e f o r e and a f t e r wDrk, and f i v e t i m e s during t h e
 shift itself.

The i n t e n s i t y and amount of work i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t during a

given s h i f t t h e d i s p a t c h e r makes over 500 s e l e c t o r and telephone c a l l s ( d a t a of
t h e Central S t a t i o n , October Railroad) and by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e information ob­
t a i n e d from t h e v a r i o u s s t a t i o n s i s not merely noted b u t requires immediate an­
a l y t i c - s y n t h e t i c a c t i o n , as a result of which o r d e r s and i n s t r u c t i o n s are i s ­
sued. The v a r i e t y of information received and t h e working t o o l s ( t r a i n selec­
t o r switch, telephones, c h a r t s , timetables, t r a c k models, v a r i o u s s e r v i c e l o g s )
demands high s t a b i l i t y and a b i l i t y t o shift a t t e n t i o n .

A s t u d y of t h e v i g i l a n c e f u n c t i o n s during t h e course of t h e working day

(Platonov t a b l e ) showed t h a t t h e reading time, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y of
v i g i l a n c e , became considerably l o n g e r a f t e r only t h r e e hours of work (from 31.6
t o 133.5 s e c ) and then, with minor f l u c t u a t i o n s , remained a t t h e high l e v e l .
Consequently, t h e r e was a considerable d e c l i n e i n t h e s t a b i l i t y of v i g i l a n c e .
A t a s k t h a t d e f i n e s t h e degree of v i g i l a n c e shows peaks of i n c r e a s e d reading
time a f t e r t h e s i x t h and n i n t h hour of work (223.3 s e c and 213.6 s e c as a g a i n s t
175.1 s e c b e f o r e work). No r e l i a b l e changes were observed during t h e f i r s t
t h r e e hours of work. The i n d e x of t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of v i g i l a n c e d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t t h r e e hours of work r o s e from 95.3 t o 62.2 sec, and t h e n dropped sharply
t o 103.7 s e c i n t h e s i x t h hour of work. An a n a l y s i s of t h e e r r o r s i n reading
t h e t a b l e p o i n t s t o a considerable i q c r e a s e i n number of e r r o r s a t t h e end /19
of t h e s i x t h hour (2.3) and t h e n i n t h hour (2.9) as a g a i n s t t h e f i r s t hour of
work (1.O k ) .
A study of t h e visuomotor r e a c t i o n shows a s u b s t a n t i a t e d i n c r e a s e i n t h e
l a t e n t p e r i o d (from 31.2 t o 40 O), w i t h p a r t i c u l a r l y extensive changes observed
from t h e s i x t h t o t h e n i n t h hour and from t h e n i n t h t o t h e t w e l f t h hour of work.
The l a t e n t r e a c t i o n time a f t e r d i s c r i m i n a t i m w a s l i k e w i s e i n c r e a s e d b y a n av­
erage of 1 1 . 3 o a t t h e end of work, most d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
being observed b y t h e end of t h e n i n t h hour and a f t e r completion of t h e work.

An i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e data r e v e a l s v a r i o u s types of r e a c t i o n t o work

trouble. I n t h e one case, t h e f u n c t i o n a l p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of t h e c e n t r a l nervous
system are improved; f o r example, i n d i s p a t c h e r A, t h e reading t h e f o r t h e
Platonov t a b l e i n t h r e e t e s t s w a s 42 sec, 52 sec, 2 min 58 s e c as a g a i n s t 1 min
19 sec, 1 min 23 sec, 4 min 46 s e c observed a t t h e same t i m e b u t under more
q u i e t working conditions. I n d i s p a t c h e r L t h e same d a t a w e r e 37 sec, 15 sec,
2 min 28 s e c i n s t e a d of t h e u s u a l 51 sec, 48 sec, 3 min 19 sec. The number of
e r r o r s a l s o decreased s u b s t a n t i a l l y . I n t h e o t h e r case, t h e f u n c t i o n a l a b i l i ­
t i e s d e c l i n e and t h e number of e r r o r s i n c r e a s e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y , i n some cases t o
21 ( a g a i n s t a n average of 2.9 a t t h i s time), and t h e t a b l e reading t i m e a l s o
increases.

A study of t h e visuomotor r e a c t i o n showed a s h o r t e n i n g of t h e l a t e n t p e r i ­

od a f t e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o g e t h e r w i t h a decrease i n t h e number of d i s c o n t i n u i ­
t i e s i n such d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n t h e former case, and a l e n g t h e n i r g of t h e l a t e n t
period a f t e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o g e t h e r with a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n t h e l a t t e r case.

All t h e above provides a b a s i s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g conclusions:

 1. Under t h e i n f l u e n c e of i n t e n s e work i n d i s p a t c h e r s , t h e r e i s a consid­
e r a b l e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e v i g i l a n c e f u n c t i o n s , manifestin< i t s e l f i n a de­
c l i n e i n s t a b i l i t y , t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y , and degree of vigilance.

2. The results (Platonov t a b l e and study of visuomotor r e a c t i o n s ) show a

considerable d e c l i n e i n t h e m o b i l i t y of t h e nervous processes, a decrease i n
l a b i l i t y , and a weakedng of d i s c r i m i n a t o r y i n h i b i t i o n .

3 . An a n a l y s i s of t h e f a t i g u e curve shows a d e c l i n e i n c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n s
as early as a f t e r t h r e e hours of work, while a number of o t h e r f u n c t i o n s reach
t h e i r m a x i m u m v a l u e s a t t h e s i x t h t o n i n t h hour of work, and c e r t a i n i n d i c e s
during t h i s p e r i o d have v a l u e s t h a t d i f f e r only l i t t l e from those observed a f t e r
twelve-hour work ( t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of a t t e n t i o n , l a t e n t period of visuomotor re­
a c t i o n a f t e r discrimination, d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n d i s c r i m i n a t o r y i n h i b i t i o n , and
s o on ).

4. Various types of r e a c t i o n a r e observed i n t r o u b l e during work; some

s u b j e c t s show an i n c r e a s e i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l a b i l i t y of the c e n t r a l nervous sys­
t e m , while o t h e r s show a d e c l i n e .

The d a t a obtained a r e i n complete agreement with e a r l i e r s t u d i e s on /2q

r a i l r o a d d i s p a t c h e r s b e f o r e and a f t e r work (M.G.Babadzhanyan, K.Kiryakov, e t
al).

DYNAMICS OF V A R I A T I O N OF CERTAIN VEGETATIVE FUNCTIONS I N RAILROAD

DISPATCHERS AND CORRELATION WITH PSYCHIC MANIFESTATIONS

G.K .Borisov
( Leningrad)

The i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were performed on d i s p a t c h e r s during i n t e n s e mental

work w i t h pronounced emotional s t r e s s . (The d a t a were recorded every t h r e e
hours of work.)

These s t u d i e s revealed i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n t h e s t a t e of t h e cardiovascular

system of t h e d i s p a t c k r s , manifesting themselves i n a high i n i t i a l p u l s e r a t e
( i n some c a s e s as high as 90 b e a t s p e r minute) w i t h a gradual d e c l i n e by 13.5
b e a t s i n t h e l a s t hour of work, 11.1 b e a t s decrease being observed a f t e r six
hours o f work. This d e c l i n e w a s also observed i n t h e s y s t o l i c blood p r e s s u r e
(from 123.1 t o 108.5 m Hg, i . e . , a d e c l i n e of 14.6 mm Hg) w i t h t h e d i a s t o l i c
p r e s s u r e remaining almost unchanged i n t h e range of 75 - 80 mm Hg, a f t e r which
t h e p u l s e p r e s s u r e decreases, e s p e c i a l l y during t h e f i r s t t h r e e hours of work.
The m a x i m u m p r e s s u r e i n t h e temporal a r t e r y i n c r e a s e d considerably, from 69.5
t o 123.5 mm Hg, i . e . , by 54 rmn Hg. I n t h e f i r s t t h r e e hours of work i t in­
creased by 1 3 . 8 m Hg, b u t t h e most r a p i d r i s e i n t h e temporal beat p r e s s u r e
w a s observed i n t h e s i x t h t o t h e n i n t h hour of work (21.3 mm 3g i n c r e a s e ) .

Both p u l s e and maximum a r t e r i a l pressure, d e s p i t e t h e considerable d e c l i n e

during work, s t i l l remained a t r a t h e r high l e v e l s . This can b e explained by
t h e high i n i t i a l v a l u e s and t h e g r e a t emotional s t r e s s , which prevented a fur­
t h e r drop i n p u l s e rate and s y s t o l i c blood p r e s s u r e . The i n c r e a s e i n t h e max-
i m u m temporal p r e s s u r e i s c l o s e l y connected b o t h w i t h t h e t e n s e n e s s of t h e men­

t a l e f f o r t and w i t h neurological f a c t o r s . This i s confirmed by t h e following

events: When a n a c c i d e n t occurred on t h e l i n e , t h e dispatcher, Miss O., had a

maximum temporal p r e s s u r e of l / + O mm Hg, a m a x i m u m b r a c h i a l p r e s s u r e of 130 mm

Hg, and a m i n i m u m p r e s s u r e of 100 mm Hg; t h e d i s p a t c h e r A. had a m a x i m u m

/21

temporal p r e s s u r e of 155, a maximum b r a c h i a l p r e s s u r e of 125 and a m i n i m u m of

80 mm Hg; conversely, i n a normal work shift, Miss 0. had a temporal p r e s s u r e
of 105, a m a x i m u m b r a c h i a l p r e s s u r e of 115, and a m i r d m u m p r e s s u r e of 90 mm Hg,
while A had 80, 110, and 70 mm Hg p r e s s u r e r e s p e c t i v e l y . This means t h a t , un­
der t h e i n f l u e n c e of nervous stress, t h e d i s p a t c h e r s e x h i b i t s p a s t i c manifesta­
t i o n s of t h e blood v e s s e l s of t h e b r a i n , r e s u l t i n g i n a r i s e i n temporal-artery
pressure.

Prolonged work and g r e a t emotional s t r e s s leave t h e i r mark n o t only on t h e

cardiovascular system b u t a l s o on c e r t a i n o t h e r f u n c t i o n s . For example, func­
t i o n a l d i s t u r b a n c e of t h e v e s t i b u l a r apparatus occurred (unsteady and a t a x i c
g a i t , Rombergfs s i g n ) , with d i s t u r b a n c e of e q u i l i b r i u m i n 92% of t h e cases dur­
in,? t h e l a s t t h r e e hours of work. Other symptoms were hand and e y e l i d tremor,
nervous t i c , stepped-up diaphoresis, upset of t h e p o s t u r e system, changes i n
handwritin?, d i s t u r b a n c e of speech coherence, suppression of tendon r e f l e x e s ,
as w e l l as i n c r e a s e d nervousness and decreased s e l f - c o n t r o l which manifested
i t s e l f i n p a t h o l o g i c a l r e a c t i o n s during t h e experiment and t o e x t e r n a l noise,
i n shouting when g i v i n g orders, e x c i t a t i o n of motion, and phenomena of c o l l a p s e
(affectivity).

These psychoneurological phenomena may appear a t v a r i o u s t i m e s during t h e

work s h i f t , depending on t h e s t r a i n of t h e work. Some of t h e s e symptoms are
observed even a f t e r t h r e e hours of work ( d i s t u r b a n c e i n p o s t u r a l f u n c t i o n ,
tremor of hands and eyelids, shouting when g i v i n g orders, e t c . ) and some only
a f t e r 1 2 hours of work (change i n handwriting), b u t most of t h e impairments
(about 78%) occur from t h e s i x t h t o t h e n i n t h hour of work, while t h e above-
described phenomena are s t r o n g e s t and most d i s . t i n c t during p r e c i s e l y t h i s per­
iod.

PROCESSING OF INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL INFORMATION

AND HIJMAN FATIGUE

Yu.M.Sten1ko
(Moscow)

Engineering psychology s t u d i e s t h e processing of e x t e r n a l information and

t h e i s s u i n g of i n s t r u c t i o n s t o machines. The p r o c e s s i n g of e x t e r n a l informa­
t i o n , however, i s i n s e p a r a b l y connected with a n immense amount of c o n s t a n t l y
changing i n t e r n a l information.

A study of t h e f a t i g u e of fishermen during prolonged voyages f a r from

shore showed t h a t t h e stream of i n t e r n a l information v a r i e s with time and i n ­
c r e a s e s from t h e f i r s t c o n t r o l system t o t h e f o u r t h (according t o N.M.A~osov).

The stream of i n t e r n a l information from t h e f i r s t c o n t r o l system - the /2L

16
blood - i n d i c a t e s t h a t two p e r i o d s are involved i n maintaining t h e oxygen con­
t e n t of t h e blood a t a constant l e v e l . 9s t h e oxygen c a p a c i t y of t h e blood de­
creases, t h e r a t e of blood c i r c u l a t i o n i n t h e lungs decreases i n fishermen dur­
i n g t h e f i r s t 60 - 70 days of a voyage, thus improving t h e oyygenation of t h e
blood; then, a f t e r 70 - 80 days a t sea, t h e number of e r y t h r o c y t e s i n c r e a s e s
sharply, and t h e blood stream speeds up. However, on t h e 90 -
looth day, func­
t i o n tests show a decrease i n t h e oxygen content of t h e blood.

A study of t h e state of t h e t h i r d c o n t r o l system - t h e autonomic nervous

system o r v e g e t a t i v e system - revealed a gradual i n c r e a s e i n t h e tonus of t h i s
system. On t h e 70 - 80th day, however,the f i r s t breakdowns occur, t h e tonus of
t h e sympathetic nervous system d e c l i n e s i n some of t h e s u b j e c t s .

A study of t h e f o u r t h c o n t r o l system - t h e neurosomatic system - which

c o n t r o l s t h e p e r c e p t i o n and processing of e x t e r n a l information and r e g u l a t e s
t h e motor c e n t e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a f t e r 50 - 60 days a t s e a t h e m occurs a n ac­
c e l e r a t i o n of t h e sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s w i t h a n i n c r e a s e d nlmber of breakdowns
of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n . After 70 - 80 days a c e r t a i n a d a p t a t i o n i s noted, when t h e
sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s s l o w down and t h e breakdowns of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n decrease.
A c e r t a i n normalization of o t h e r f u n c t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y of t h e blood, t a k e s
p l a c e here.

After 70 - 80 days a t sea, t h e fishermen a g a i n show a n a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e

sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s with a n i n c r e a s e d number of d i s i n h i b i t i o n s of d i f f e r e n ­
t i a t i o n . A l l t h i s p o i n t s t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h e q u a n t i t y of ttnoisefli n t h e con­
t r o l system and i n d i c a t e s t h e appearance of f a t i g u e i n t h e fishermen. This i n ­
volves extensive changes i n t h e neuropsychic sphere of t h e fishermen, p r i m a r i l y
i n the emotional sphere.

The r e c e i p t of p o s i t i v e e x t e r n a l information, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h a t t h e f i s h ­
i n z operations have been completed and t h e s h i p i s t o r e t u r n , causes a p o s i t i v e
emotional upsurge, which e l i m i n a t e s untoward changes of v a r i o u s types i n almost
a l l of t h e systems. The f i r s t c o n t r o l system - t h e cardiovascular system and
t h e blood - i s a n exception, where many i n d i c e s r e v e a l more p e r s i s t e n t function­
a l changes - development of hypotonia.

Thus, a successive systematic change i n prolonged stressful i n t e r n a l i n ­

formation, indicatinp, f a t i g u e of t h e human s u b j e c t i n t h e presence of e x t e r n a l
information causing a p o s i t i v e emotional upsurge, l e a d s t o r e v e r s e changes i n
t h e r e g u l a t i n g systems, i . e . , f i r s t i n t h e higher nervous a c t i v i t y , t h e n i n t h e
v e g e t a t i v e nervous system, e t c . .

On t h e b a s i s of t h e r e s u l t s obtained, i t i s recommended t h a t , t o e l i m i n a t e
t h e i n i t i a l f a t i g u e of fishermen a f t e r 50 - 60 days a t sea, a n a r t i f i c i a l emo­
t i o n a l upsurge or e x t r i n s i c a r o u s a l b e produced by having t h e s h i p v i s i t any
nearby p o r t .
 PROBLEPS OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY ON SEAGOING SHIPS
ON LONG VOYAGES

P.A .Prosetskiy
(Moscow)

During a voyage i n various c l i m a t i c l a t i t u d e s , t h e crews of seagoing s h i p s

a r e exposed t o t h e i n f l u e n c e of unusual c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s (Arctic, Tropics,
A n t a r c t i c ) , and a l s o experience t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t of a prolonged stay a t
sea under conditions of p a r t i a l i s o l a t i o n (monotony of shipboard l i f e , separa­
t i o n from t h e family, no opportunity f o r complete r e l a x a t i o n ) . All t h i s causes
complex changes i n t h e neuropsychic sphere of s a i l o r s .

I n studying t h e h e a l t h of s a i l o r s on f i s h i n g t r i p s i n t h e North A t l a n t i c ,
on whale huntin.q e x p e d i t i o n s along t h e c o a s t of Antarctica, or on merchant ma­
r i n e missions i n t r o p i c a l l a t i t u d e s , we used v a r i o u s psychological methods bor­
rowed from t h e f i e l d of engineering psychology.

To study t h e speed of sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s , we developed a device which

g r a p h i c a l l y records t h e t e s t s i g n a l s and t h e responses. The s t i m u l i a r e ap­
p l i e d and t h e response i s recorded by t h e a i d of a panel frame equipped with
f o u r d i f f e r e n t l y colored b u l b s on i t s f o u r s i d e s . The bulbs l i g h t a u t o m a t i c a l l y
a t equal t i m e i n t e r v a l s . The s u b j e s t ' s response c o n s i s t s i n s t r i k i n g his w r i s t
aEainst one of t h e f o u r c o n t a c t s on t h e i n n e r s i d e s of t h e frame, t h e hand be­
i n g a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e frame.

The method i s e s s e n t i a l l y as follows: To each s i d e of t h e panel frame

corresponds a d e f i n i t e c o l o r (upper, b l u e ; lower, green; l e f t , yellow; r i g h t ,
red). Wherever, f o r i n s t a n c e , a b l u e bulb l i g h t s up (bottom, r i g h t , or l e f t ) ,
t h e s u b j e c t must s t r i k e only t h e upper contact. A blow on t h e c o n t a c t a t t h e
p l a c e where t h e bulb l i g h t s (for example, t h e b l u e bulb l i g h t s a t t h e bottom,
and t h e t e s t s u b j e c t h i t s t h e lower c o n t a c t ) i s considered a mistake - a'lmechan­
ical'l reaction.

For a l t l o g i c a l " response, t h e s u b j e c t must remember t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e

contact corresponding t o t h e l i t bulb, no matter where t h a t bulb does l i g h t .

This device makes i t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e s of f a t i g u e .

S a i l o r s on long voyages were a l s o t e s t e d by s p e c i a l devices t h a t recorded

degree and s t a b i l i t y of v i g i l a n c e , amount of l o g i c a l and mechanical memory, and
perception of o b j e c t s i n t e r r e l a t e d by v a r i o u s a s s o c i a t i o n s (proximity, similar­
i t y , or contrast).

I n o u r s t u d y we found t h a t , as t h e time out of p o r t i n c r e a s e s , t h e degree

and s t a b i l i t y of v i z i l a n c e decreases, t h e c a p a c i t y of memory ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e &
mechanical) d e c l i n e s , t h e speed of sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s slows down, t h e l e v e l
of perception of o b j e c t s drops, and t h e number of f a l s e responses i n c r e a s e s .
I r r i t a b i l i t y and i n c r e a s e d f a t i g u e develop. Cases of neurasthenia and psychas­
t h e n i a a r e noted.

Psychological methods permit not only t o d e t e c t any psychic changes i n

18

s a i l o r s a f t e r prolon,ged sea voyages, but a l s o t o take s t e p s t o d i v e r t t h e mind

and provide prophylaxis f o r neuropsychic d i s o r d e r s .

INTERACTION OF ACCURACY AND STABILITY I N IILIVING SYSTEMS!'

ON MODELS OF STATIC ADAPTATION

0 .P .Kozerenko
(Moscow)

To estimate t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r a i t s of o p e r a t o r s ( f o r s e l e c t i v e purposes),
we u t i l i z e d a f u n c t i o n a l t e s t of s t a t i c a d a p t a t i o n considered as an "assigned
a c t i v i t y t ! not r e q u i r i n g s p e c i f i c s k i l l s (F.D.Gorbov).

The t e s t w a s t o have t h e s u b j e c t s maintain a standing p o s i t i o n , a t f i r s t

relaxed and t h e n t e n s e l y , f o r a long period of time (30 - 40 min). S e v e r a l
physiolo.gica1 parameters were continuously recorded during t h i s period.

The results of our s t u d i e s showed t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n s during t h e process

of s t a t i c a d a p t a t i o n are not uniform. We may speak of two t y p i c a l forms of
t h i s process :

1. The p h y s i o l o g i c a l parameters a r e maintained a t some optimum l e v e l with

p e r i o d i c smooth d e v i a t i o n s toward i n c r e a s e o r decrease. The organism d i s p l a y s
good s t a b i l i t y t o "prescribed a c t i v i t y f t ; and t h e s u b j e c t s t o l e r a t e t h e t e s t
well.

2. The p h y s i o l o g i c a l parameters a r e maintained a t t h e same l e v e l (most

often, a high l e v e l ) r a t h e r a c c u r a t e l y f o r a l o n g t i m e , without s u b s t a n t i a l de­
viations.

The organism shows decreased s t a b i l i t y t o t h e "prescribed a c t i v i t y " , and

sometimes even i n s t a b i l i t y ; o r t h o s t a t i c c o l l a p s 3 i n t h e t e s t s u b j e c t s s e t s i n .

Thus t h e t e s t , being a model of continuous a c t i v i t y , permitted t o d e t e r ­

mine both t h e s t a b i l i t y t o "prescribed a c t i v i t y v tand t h e accuracy i n maintain­
i n g t h e l e v e l s of t h e recorded p h y s i o l o g i c a l i n d i c e s .

Making u s e of a n important f e a t u r e of models, namely, analogy, and /25

bearing i n mind t h a t modern physiology conceives t h e human organism as a highly
complex c o n t r o l system, we may suppose t h a t i n t h e second form of t h e adapta­
t i o n process t h e r e i s a n e f f e c t c l o s e l y resembling t h e well-known c o n f l i c t , i n
t h e theory of automatic c o n t r o l , between accuracy and s t a b i l i t y of a c o n t r o l l e d
system.

DEPENDENCE OF THE ACCURACY OF A C T I O N ON THE EMOTIONAL STATE

V .L .Marishchuk and N .V .Sysoyev

(Leningrad)

The importance of a c c u r a t e a c t i o n i n t h e work of a n o p e r a t o r i s self-

evident. To a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h e concept of r e l i a b i l i t y of the human s u b j e c t
as a n element i n t h e c o n t r o l system i s r e l a t e d t o t h i s q u a l i t y . I n our opin­
i o n , however, engineer psychology has n o t p a i d s u f f i c i e n t a t t e n t i o n t o t h e f a c t
t h a t , under emotive conditions, c e r t a i n psychic and motor f u n c t i o n s of tne hu­
man organism undergo s u b s t a n t i a l modifications.

We s t u d i e d t h e a b i l i t y of human s x b j e c t s t o perform p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e s ,
i n v o l v i n g o n l y a s l i g h t p h y s i c a l burden b u t r e q u i r i n g r a t h e r complex coordina­
-tion, under c o n d i t i o n s of emotional s t i m u l a t i o n . I n t h e device used, t h e sub­
j e c t s performed v a r i o u s coordinated motions of hands and f e e t , i n response t o
s i g n a l s given under conditions of d i s t r i b u t i o n and t r a n s f e r of a t t e n t i o n . Re­
cordings w e r e made of t h e response t i m e , t h e f o r c e a p p l i e d t o t h e l e v e r s , t h e
e r r o r s i n coordination of Lhe movements and i n accuracy of t h e operations.

I n one experimental s e r i e s we i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e accuracy of applying t h e

d e s i r e d f o r c e t o t h e pedals of t h e t e s t i n g device. It w a s s t i p u l a t e d t h a t , f o r
c o r r e c t r e a c t i o n , t h e proper pedals had t o b e depressed with a f o r c e not ex­
ceeding 3 kg. The s u b j e c t s , a t f i r s t i n q u i e t environment, l e a r n e d t h e move­
ments and then r e p e a t e d them without time l i m i t a t i o n , f o r t r a i n i n g purposes,
a f t e r which t h e c o n t w l t e s t f o r speed of o p e r a t i o n w a s made. It was found
t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s , under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e problems, determined t h e
accuracy with which t h e required f o r c e w a s a p p l i e d (Table 1).

TABLE 1

CHANGE I N FORCE APPLIED TO PEDALS DEPENDING ON THE

CONDITIONS OF PERFORMING THE MOTION
______ .___

Conditions of Motion Value of Q u a n t i t i e s

Performance Determined, i n kg

Learning t h e motion

Without t h e limit

With t i m e l i m i t 12.8 6.2

A s shown by t h e Table, when t h e r e was a t i m e l i m i t which, f o r many of t h e

s u b j e c t s , c o n s t i t u t e d a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g emotional f a c t o r , t h e accuracy of t h e
f o r c e used i n t h e movements i s a t i t s minimum. [This d i f f e r e n c e is substan­
t i a t e d a t a high l e v e l of r e l i a b i l i t y (T = 5.7).] This i n d i c a t e s t h e substan­
t i a l i n f l u e n c e of emotional s t r e s s orl t h e v a r i a t i o n i n a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e de­
s i r e d f o r c e , which i s increased by such stress.

It i s also v e r y important t o note t h a t t h e number of errors ( i n accuracy

of t h e operations, i n t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of a t t e n t i o n , and i n coordination of t h e
movements), w a s l e s s i n t e s t s without time l i m i t t h a n i n t e s t s with s h o r t time
limits. I n s e v e r a l cases, t h e results were paradoxical. The t a s k s %ithout
t i m e limit" were performed f a s t e r t h a n t h e c o n t r o l t a s k s "with t i m e l i m i t 1 ' .

I n a n o t h e r study, t h e s u b j e c t s were b l i n d f o l d e d and asked t o reproduce

20

from memory, on a hand dynaDometer, t h e p r e s c r i b e d f o r c e of 10 kg. The meas­

urements w e r e repeated t h r e e times: a ) one hour b e f o r e a parachute jump; b ) be­
f o r e g e t t i n g s e t i n t h e a i r c r a f t ; c ) a f t e r t h e jump, n i t h i n 3 -
5 min a f t e r
s t r i k i n g t h e ground.

It w a s found t h a t w i t h i n one hour b e f o r e t h e parachute jump, t h e e r r o r i n

a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e r e q u i r e d f o r c e w a s 1.8 kg, 3.8 kg b e f o r e g e t t i n g s e t i n t h e
a i r c r a f t and 16.4 kg a f t e r t h e jump. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n t h i s case a r e t h e re­
sults of i n d i v i d u a l d e v i a t i o n s , defined by t h e standard d e v i a t i o n . I n t h e pre­
l i m i n a r y study sigma w a s 1.0; b e f o r e g e t t i n g s e t i n t h e a i r c r a f t i t i n c r e a s e d
t o 2.2, and a f t e r t h e jump i t reached 2.9. Thus t h e s c a t t e r i n g of t h e i n d i v i d ­
u a l d e v i a t i o n s l i k e w i s e i n c r e a s e s w i t h emotional stress.

The next study w a s devoted t o t h e e f f e c t of t h e emotional s t a t e on t h e ac­

curacy of time-interval d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The s u b j e c t s , by the a i d of a chrono­
meter, reproduced b y memory a t i m e i n t e r v a l of 5 s e c i n o r d i n a r y environment;
t h e t e s t w a s repeated during a n a i r c r a f t t e s t f l i g h t , a f t e r t h e p i l o t had exe­
cuted elementary unexpected maneuvers l o s i n g 50 -
100 m a l t i t u d e . IJnder t h e
emotional s t r e s s produced by t h e s t u n t s , t h e accuracy i n reproducing t h e t i m e
i n t e r v a l of 5 s e c decreased b y 16.6% on t h e average. It i s of i n t e r e s t t h a t ,
i n a group of a t h l e t e s who held a t h l e t i c records and p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e exper­
iments, t h e negative v a r i a t i o n s i n e s t i m a t i o n of t h e time i n t e r v a l were smaller
(by 5.1L%).

PSYCHOLOGY OF LINOTYPE OPERATOR'S ERRORS AND /27

THEIR REDUCTION

A .V. Filippov
(Yaroslavlt )

It i s w e l l known t h a t t h e percentage of e r r o r s committed b y l i n o t y p e op­

e r a t o r s i n t y p e s e t t i n g i s r a t h e r high ( t h e standard i s considered t o b e 5%
wrong l i n e s out of t h e t o t a l l i n e s s e t , b u t i n p r a c t i c e wrong l i n e s run as high
-
as 10 15% or more).

The performance of l i n o t y p e o p e r a t o r s d e c r e a s e s s h a r p l y because of such

e r r o r s and t h e q u a l i t y of t h e product i s a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d ( i t has been e s t i ­
mated t h a t , on some days, a l i n o t y p e o p e r a t o r will spend a q u a r t e r of h i s work­
i n g day i n c o r r e c t i n g mistakes made during t h e preceding day).

Prolonged observation of l i n o t y p e work and experiments have shown t h a t t h e

c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r s f o r such e r r o r s l i e i n t h e mental processes o r i n t h e i n a b i l ­
i t y ( a t c e r t a i n moments) of h i s sensory organs t o a s s i m i l a t e t h e amount of in­
formation necessary f o r high-grade work.

A study of t h e s e c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r s makes i t p o s s i b l e , without r a d i c a l l y

redesigning t h e e x i s t i n g t y p e s e t t i n g machines and without i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e
accepted productive process, t o i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of l i n o t y p e o p e r a t o r s
by improving t h e f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e %an" element of t h e "man - machine" sys­
tem.
 The o p e r a t o r ' s work on a modern semi-automatic t y p e s e t t i n g machine i s com­
p l e x and multi-functional. It i s not s o much c h a r a c t e r i z e d by successive oper­
a t i o n s but by simultaneous o r almost simultaneous performance of a s e r i e s of
operations, which makes excessive demands on t h e worker's mental a b i l i t i e s .

The i n d u s t r i a l process of t y p e s e t t i n g on a l i n o t y p e can b e divided i n t o

several s t a g e s : 1) o p e r a t o r ' s work w i t h t h e te-xt of t h e o r i g i n a l ; 2 ) o p e r a t o r ' s
work on t h e lirlotype keyboard; 3 ) makeup and e j e c t i o n of t h e slug-line; 4 ) cast­
i n g of t h e l i n e and checking of t h e f i n i s h e d product.

Mistakes occur most o f t e n i n t h e f i r s t t h r e e s t a g e s .

To t e s t t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n of t h e text of t h e o r i g i n a l , t h e o p e r a t o r w a s
given a s e r i e s of experimental t e x t s t o s e t , i n o r d e r t o determine t h e p e c u l i ­
a r i t y of h i s perception.

We found t h a t , f o r t h e operator, t h e beginning and end of a word a r e t h e

most s i g n i f i c a n t elements i n forming h i s mental image. The frequent e r r o r s of
a r f s t a t i c - s t a t i s t i c l pt y p e a r e due t o t h i s p e c u l i a r i t y .

It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e components involved i n c o g n i t i v e p e r c e p t i o n of a word

are sometimes inadequate, when t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f such a word occur
e x a c t l y i n t h e middle, i . e . , i n t h e p l a c e t h a t i s most d i f f i c u l t t o perceive.
The inadequacy of t h e c r i t i c a l components i n formation of t h e c o g n i t i v e /28
image i s t h e c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r f o r t h e committed e r r o r . A successful elimina­
t i o n of such e r r o r s r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e l e s s d i s t i n c t i v e components of t h e per­
ceived o b j e c t must b e made more outstanding.

We determined t h e word c l a s s e s w i t h t h e h i g h e s t frequency of errors and

compiled a d i c t i o n a r y of t y p i c a l examples. Before s e t t i n g t h e type, we t h e n
underlined i n t h e copy t h e words t h a t were d i f f i c u l t t o assimilate and i n ­
s t r u c t e d t h e o p e r a t o r t o pay s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s e uqderlined words. No
e r r o r s were made i n t h e underlined words throughout t h e experiment.

The mistakes made on t h e keyboard resemble t h o s e known t o psychologists

under t h e terms of a n t i c i p a t i o n , e l i s i o n , p e r s e v e r a t i o n , contamination, and
t r a n s p o s i t i o n . The causative f a c t o r here i s a n overloading of t h e v i s u a l path­
ways, s i n c e work on t h e type-casting machine i s one of t h e types of a c t i v i t y
t h a t i s m u l t i f u n c t i o n a l i n c h a r a c t e r b u t l i m i t e d t o a s i n g l e sensory t r a c t f o r
r e c e p t i o n of information from t h e work o b j e c t s . S u c c e s s f u l prevention of such
mistakes r e q u i r e s broadening of t h e sensory I1inputffof information.

For example, one might r e p l a c e t h e visual c o n t r o l of t h e keyboard work by

t a c t u a l c o n t r o l . Such cases of s u b s t i t u t i o n are known i n technology ( l e v e r s of
cranes, e t c . ). However, u n t i l now replacement of v i s i o n by touch always in­
volved s t r o n g s t i m u l i . I n our case, i n c o n t r a s t , t h e s t i m u l i were near t h e i r
threshold value, and t h e t h e f o r t h e i r r e c o g n i t i o n w a s measured i n hundredths
of a second.

Our study proved t h a t such s u b s t i t u t i o n i s p o s s i b l e . On t h e keys of t h e

l i n o t y p e , we g r a d u a l l y replaced t h e graphic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of t h e l e t t e r s by

22
a f f i x e d convex f i g u r e s corresponding t o t h e shape of t h e p a r t i c u l a r l e t t e r .
Today our l i n o t y p e o p e r a t o r s work on a keyboard t h a t i s f u l l y adapted f o r touch
typesetting. Preliminary results i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i r l i n o t y p e work has d e f i ­
n it e l y improved.

ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY AND INDUSTUAL ESTHETICS

P. A .Kudin
( Leningrad)

I n problems t h a t involve matching of t h e d e s i g n f e a t u r e s of a given ma­

chine t o t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e human operator, a n important p l a c e i s oc­
cupied by i n d u s t r i a l . e s t h e t i c s , which i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o engineering psy­
cholo.yy.

The development of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of i n d u s t r i a l e s t h e t i c s requires psy- /;19

chological a n a l y s i s of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e human o p e r a t o r con­
t r o l l i n g t h e machines. A t t h e same t h e , t h e methods of i n d u s t r i a l e s t h e t i c s
can solve many problems of engineering psychology.

E s t h e t i c s of t e c h n i c a l form i n c l u d e s e s t h e t i c s of machines, machine t o o l s ,

apparatus, i n s t r l m e n t s , c u t t i n g t o o l s , means of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and t h e work
place.

The means of expression of i n d u s t r i a l e s t h e t i c s a r e :

a r t i s t i c form;
functional l i q h t ;
f u n c t i o n a l color;
s p a t i a l cDmposition.

E s t h e t i c s of t e c h n i c a l form i s determined by t h e degree i n which t h e order

of elements, mass, materials, c o l o r , and l i g h t i s presented. The l a w s a s s u r i n g
t h e e s t h e t i c e f f e c t a r e o b j e c t i v e and i n h e r e n t i n v a r i o u s f i e l d s of a r t i s t i c
creativity.

Light and c o l o r c o n s t i t u t e t h e atmosphere of production. I l l u m i n a t i o n and

t h e c o l o r d e c i s i o n can d i s c l o s e t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s elements of equip­
ment, a t t r a c t t h e o p e r a t o r ' s a t t e q t i o n , c r e a t e Itpsychological p o i n t s of impact';
i n c r e a s e a c t i v i t y during monotonous work, n e u t r a l i z e f e e l i n g s of h e a t or cold,
remove t h e impression of burden, e t c . .

S p a t i a l composition of t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e following
f a c t o r s : form adapted t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l purpose c o r r e l a t e d with t h e environ­
ment; i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e s i z e of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s body; proper rhythm, propor­
t i o n s , etc..

The means of expression f o r i n d u s t r i a l e s t h e t i c s may i n f l u e n c e t h e working

a c t i v i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r and improve h i s e f f i c i e n c y . B y making u s e of t h e s e
means, we can c r e a t e a n emotionally favorable atmosphere, f a c i l i t a t e t h e recep­
t i o n of information, improve c o n c e n t r a t i o n and t r a n s f e r a b i l i t y of a t t e n t i o n ,
i n c r e a s e t h e speed and accuracy of perception, enhance t h e economy of c o n t r o l
motions, improve t h e i r s p a t i a l p a t t e r n and accuracy, and eliminate stress or
monotony i n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work.

The a r t i s t i c form of t e c h n i c a l o b j e c t s i s t h e product o f , t h e combined ef­

f o r t of engineers, psychologists, and a r t i s t s and requires t h e s y n t h e s i s of
technological, psychological and e s t h e t i c knowledge.

The p r i n c i p l e s of l o g i c of designing, engineering psychology, and indus­

t r i a l e s t h e t i c s must b e harmoniously welded i n t o a n i n d i v i s i b l e whole.

ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE m

Ya.Neyshtadt
(Moscow)

I n work hygiene, t h e study of t h e workingman i s combined with a study of

h i s external environment. I n d u s t r i a l hygiene i s i n t e r t w i n e d with physiology,
on which work psychology i s a l s o based. The l i n k between engineering psychol­
ogy and work hygiene i s p r i m a r i l y formed b y u n i t y of t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l methods
used i n both d i s c i p l i n e s .

The hygienic conditions of t h e environment a f f e c t t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e

neuropsychic a c t i v i t y of t h e workingman: t h e degree of i l l u m i n a t i o n produces
t h e proper "adjustment1' of t h e v i s u a l r e c e p t o r , t h e loudness l e v e l i n phons
predetermines t h e l o a d on t h e a u d i t o r y analyzer, e t c .

The i n c r e a s i n g speed of t h e productive processes, s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of

modern technology, t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e number of s i g n a l s conveying information
on t h e productive process, and t h e l i k e , demand a deepening of t h e psychologi­
c a l a n a l y s i s of work performance. A s a result, t h e psychophysiological com­
ponent i s i n t e n s i f i e d i n t h e developed hygienic i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

The new t e c h n i c a l l e v e l of modern production and t h e tendency of technol­

ogy t o expand f u r t h e r make i t mandatory t o l i n k t h e progress i n t h e development
of technology t o t h e s c i e n c e of hygienics by extensive use of cybernetic meth­
ods and processes i n any hygienic s t u d i e s . This l i k e w i s e c o r r e l a t e s t h e hy­
giene and physiology of work with engineering psycholow.

The s i g n i f i c a n c e of engineering psychology f o r hygiene w i l l b e c l e a r from

a n a n a l y s i s of s e v e r a l hygienic s t u d i e s performed a t t h e Central Research Lab­
o r a t o r y f o r Hygiene of Water Transportation, i n c l u d i n g t h e s u b j e c t s :

a ) "Labor c o n d i t i o n s with combination of t r a f f i c on shipsIt (com­

p l i c a t i o n of t h e group of o p e r a t i o n s connected w i t h ' v i g i l a n c e , e t c .
when t h e occupational p a t t e r n i s changed);
b ) Wygienic r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n of l a b o r i n stevedore teams" ( a l t e r n a ­
t i o n of d i f f e r e n t productive f u n c t i o n s as t h e p r i n c i p l e of a c t i v e
rest);
c ) llDetermhation of permissible d u r a t i o n of voyages i n t h e high
Northft ( s i g n i f i c a n c e of neuropsychic components i n t h e production
 cycle) ;
d ) Visuomotor f u n c t i o n s i n s t e e r i n g s h i p s on underwater hydro­
foilsll, etc.

TSle strengthening of t h e r e l a t i o n s between engineering psychology and

work hygiene can proceed i n v a r i o u s ways. The f a c t o r s of t h e productive medi­
um, reduced t o h y g i e n i c a l l y optimum parameters, will produce t h e conditions
necessary f o r t h e most complete and p e r f e c t development of t h e psychophysiolog­
i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e human s u b j e c t . The m u l t i l a t e r a l development of person- &
a l i t y w i l l encourage t h e productive a c t i v i t y of t h e new s o c i e t y .

I t has a l r e a d y become necessary, today, t o coordinate t h e work of psychol­

o q i s t s and i n d u s t r i a l h y g i e n i s t s i n t h e s p e c i a l i z e d work d i r e c t e d toward solu­
t i o n of t h e s e problems.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QJESTION OF THE RATIONAL LOCATION OF

INDICATORS AND CONTROLS ON CONTROL DESKS

R.M.Mansurov
( L e d ngrad)

The development of remote-control systems involves an extremsly r a p i d i n ­

c r e a s e i n t h e number of i n d i c a t o r s feeding information t o the operator and t h e
number of c o n t r o l s he must manipulate.

I n t h i s connection, t h e q u e s t i o n of a r a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e sensory
and motor c e n t e r s of t h e o p e r a t o r i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y a c u t e and, even more
so, t h e problem of a r r a n g i n g t h e i n d i c a t o r s and c o n t r o l s on t h e c o n t r o l desk s o
as t o maximize speed, accuracy, and r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s performance
under t h e given conditions.

Numerous anthropometric, physiological, and psychological s t u d i e s have

shown t h a t t h e s e v e r a l r e g i o n s of t h e sensory and motor c e n t e r s a r e by no means
equivalent i n tlconveniencellf o r t h e human s u b j e c t (Barnes, F i t t s , Chapanis,
McCormick, Pakhomov, I z m a i l t t s e v and o t h e r s ) .

Earlier work on engineering psychology has shown t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e

i n d i c a t o r s and c o n t r o l s on t h e c o n t r o l desk must correspond t o t h e i r f l l i n k V a l ­
ue", determined according t o t h e i r importance f o r t h e problems of c o n t r o l and
t h e frequency of use. The elements of t h e c o n t r o l desk w i t h t h e h i g h e s t Itlink
valueft m u s t be l o c a t e d i n t h e optimum zones of t h e sensory and motor regions.
L a t e r , f o r determination of t h e l i n k v a l u e of t h e elements of t h e c o n t r o l desk,
t h e sequence of t h e i r use a l s o began t o b e taken i n t o account. This was t h e
f i r s t s t e p i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e s t a t i c t o t h e dynamic p r i n c i p l e of study­
i n g c o n t r o l desks.

I n developing and designing c o n t r o l desks, t h e most important problem i s

t o f i n d t h e f a c t o r s t h a t determine t h e importance, frequency, and seq-aence of
use of a l l t h e i r elements.

25

 T h i s problem cannot be solved without analyzing t h e s t r u c t u r e and dynam­

i c s of the e n t i r e c o n t r o l system as a whole, and of t h e environment i n which it
o p e r a t e s . Thus, t h e sequence i n which t h e i n d i c a t o r s and c o n t r o l s a r e used i s
determined by t h e sequence of i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e units and blocks of t h e
system, r e s u l t i n g from t h e s t r u c t u r a l scheme of t h e system and t h e f e a t u r e s of
t h e t e c h n i c a l devices used i n i t . I n t h i s case, we may take account of t h e ,&
c h a r a c t e r of t h e l i n k a g e s between t h e elements of t h e system (whether s t r i c t l y
determining o r of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y type). The frequency of use of t h e control-
desk elements i s determined by t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of some p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a­
r i s i n g i n t h e medium i n which t h e system f u n c t i o n s , e t c .

With such a n approach, t h e conduct of engineering psychology s t u d i e s re­

q u i r e s extensive use of d a t a and a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e methods of system tech­
nology.

PRINCIPLES OF EYALUATION OF A WORK STATION ACCORDING TO

ENGINEEFUNG PSYC H O L E Y

L.V .Kuchevskaya
(Moscow)

Based on t h e p r i n c i p l e s of a n a l y s i s of t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e human operator

( c f . a b s t r a c t of paper by V.P.Zinchenko and N .I .Mayzell), we d i s t i n g u i s h two
types of s e r v i c e : d i r e c t s e r v i c e , performed immediately following t h e informa­
t i o n search, and delayed s e r v i c e , performed a f t e r arranging i n o r d e r t h e con­
t r o l objects requiring service.

The algorithms of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work are c l a s s i f i e d i n accordance w i t h

t h e types of s e r v i c e , . a n d t o r e a l i z e them v a r i o u s requirements must b e met by
t h e design of t h e work s t a t i o n ( l o c a t i o n of t h e i n d i c a t o r s and c o n t r o l s ) , by
t h e arrangement of t h e c o n t r o l s on t h e c o n t r o l desks (according t o frequency
and sequence of t h e i r use and t o anthropometric s t a n d a r d s ) , and by t h e charac­
t e r i s t i c s of t h e c o n t r o l s themselves (grouping, c o l o r coding, shape coding,
etc.).

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING OF THE OPERATOR WORK STATION

L.N.Meyer and A.G.Tishchenko

(Moscow)

An o p e r a t o r ' s f i t n e s s f o r work i s , t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e extent, determined by

t h e c o l o r and i n t e n s i t y of t h e l i g h t a t his work p l a c e . The o b j e c t of t h i s
study was t o determine t h e optimum a r t i f i c i a l l i g h t i n g conditions ( s p e c t r a l com­
p o s i t i o n and l e v e l of i l l u m i n a t i o n ) , which would a t t h e same t i m e ensure b o t h
high Visual a c u i t y and a s u f f i c i e n t l y high l e v e l of s e n s i t i v i t y t o l i g h t . Such
requirements a r e o f t e n encountered i n a v i a t i o n .

The a u t h o r s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n of t h e s e l e c t e d functions, a c u i t y of LLi

v i s i o n and l i g h t s e n s i t i v i t y , d i s c r i m i n a t e d by t h e c e n t e r and p e r i p h e r y o f t h e
r e t i n a , and t h e c o l o r and b r i g h t n e s s of t h e f i e l d of a d a p t a t i o n .

26
 The r e s u l t a n t d a t a showed t h a t l i g h t of two c o l o r s w a s most e f f i c i e n t :
yellow li,yht, from sodium lamps o r a combination of c o l o r f i l t e r s 2s-7 and OS-13;
and w h i t e l i g h t from a n incandescent lamp a t a c o l o r temperature of 2854°K.
The use of t h e s e c o l o r s a t a b r i g h t n e s s l e v e l o r i n t e n s i t y l d n a n c e of 1 nit
ensures a v i s u a l a c u i t y of over 1.0 a t a n adequate l e v e l of l i g h t s e n s i t i v i t y .
Taking account of t h e e f f e c t of a c c e l e r a t i o n and v i b r a t i o n , according t o lit­
e r a t u r e data, t h e b r i g h t n e s s range should b e extended t o 0.3 -
33 - 127 n i t ,
according t o t h e s p e c i f i c problems and conditions.

T R A I N I N G AND SELECTION OF OPERATORS. TRAINING TO

SOLVE CONTROL PROBLEMS

.
Ye. V. Voloshinova and G.K T v i l t neva

I n many modern automatic c o n t r o l systems t h e human operator continues t o

p l a y t h e r o l e of t h e d e c i s i v e element. I n t h i s connection, w e must i n v e s t i g a t e
t h e complex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e human operator and t h e auto­
matic machine during t h e i r combined work, and t o e l u c i d a t e t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l
mechanisms of a c t i v i t y of t h e b r a i n during control.

I n technology, we meet problems of c o n t r o l l i n g Dbjects whose normal oper­

a t i o n i s due t o a c e r t a i n c o n s t a n t value of t h e c o n t r o l l e d output q u a n t i t y .
The c o n t r o l of such o b j e c t s c o n s i s t s i n s o a c t u a t i n g t h e c o n t r o l s of some mech­
a n i s m t h a t t h e c o n t r o l l e d q u a n t i t y i s brought t o t h e prescribed l e v e l and held
there.

I n our s t u d i e s we b u i l t a model of a system f o r c o n t r o l l i n g such o b j e c t s .

We developed a s p e c i a l experimental environment c o n s i s t i n g of a computer, a
switchboard, and a c o n t r o l desk. An e l e c t r o n i c model of t h e c o n t r o l l e d object
w a s s e t up on t h e computer. The c o n t r o l l e v e r ( c o n t r o l element) and s e v e r a l
measuring instruments were l o c a t e d on t h e c o n t r o l desk.

During t h e experiments w e took electroencephalograms of t h e o c c i p i t a l re­

gion and t h e r o l a n d i c a r e a of t h e b r a i n , as w e l l a s electromyograms of t h e lower
j a w , and a l s o recorded t h e g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s i s t a n c e .

The process of t r a i n i n g w a s s t u d i e d i n t h e c o n t r o l of o b j e c t s of v a r i - &

ous degrees of complexity. The c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t s were described by d i f f e r e n ­
t i a l equations of t h e f i r s t , second, t h i r d , and f o u r t h orders. C e r t a i n pro­
cesses of s e l e c t i n g and screening of information during t r a i n i n g , as w e l l as
c e r t a i n p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanisms of b r a i n a c t i v i t y during t h e t e a c h i n g of con­
t r o l , were s t u d i e d .
-
The a u t h o r s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of c o n t r o l l i n g a n o b j e c t
a t v a r i o u s speeds of t h e p r o c e s s e s i n t h e o b j e c t ( v a r i o u s r a t e s of conversion
of t h e i n p u t q u a n t i t y t o t h e o u t p u t q u a n t i t y ) , and found t h e optimum speeds
minimizing t h e t i m e r e q d r e d f o r a n o p e r a t o r t o solve t h e c o n t r o l problem.

27

 SOME METHODS OF IMPROVING THE EFJ?ECTIVENESS OF TEACKING

TKE SEVIBAL ELEME;NTS OF OPERATOR WORK

V.A.Bodrov
(Leningrad)

Tne purpose of t h e study w a s t o formulate a psychophysiological evaluation

of -the t r a i n i n g of s p e c i a l i s t o p e r a t o r s t o work on a d i s c r e t e system of auto­
matic c o n t r o l , and t o develop s e v e r a l methods of improving t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
t h i s training.

The r e s u l t s of t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e t r a i n i n g process for s p e c i a l i s t s by

working t e s t s and psychophysiological methods i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e l e v e l of t h e i r
t r a i n i n g t o perform t h e t a s k s under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of a c t u a l work w a s inade­
quate.

To improve t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t r a i n i n g f o r s p e c i a l i s t s , t h e a u t h o r s pro­
pose t o develop t h e b a s i c elements of t h e o p e r a t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of any form
of a n o p e r a t o r ' s a c t i o n on c o n t r o l apparatus, by t h e a i d of s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g
devices and form boards. These devices permitted t h e development of o r i e n t a ­
t i o n p a t t e r n s as t o t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n s of i n d i c a t o r s and manipulators, tak­
i n g readings and s e t t i n g up of data i n t h e machine, prolonged motor a c t i v i t y
w i t h t h e manipulators, and s o l u t i o n of l o g i c a l prDblems.

An experimental check of t h e recommendations showed t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s

given a t r a i n i n g course on t h e proposed t r a i n e r s , obtained higher marks on t h e
working t e s t s and psychophysiological s t u d i e s t h a n s u b j e c t s t r a i n e d b y conven­
t i o n a l methods. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e i r instrument reading time was 21% s h o r t e r ,
and they made 23% fewer e r r o r s . During t h e t r a i n i n g , t h e experimental ,group &
showed a more marked improvement i n . a c c u r a c y and coordination of motor a c t i v i ­
t i e s (according t o RDO and tremor measurements) t h a n t h e c o n t r o l group, as w e l l
as g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e speed of data processing (according t o Landolt-ring
t a b l e s ) , g r e a t e r improvemmt i n t h e development and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of mental
s e t (according t o t h e !Idigit-symbol s u b s t i t u t i o n t e s t " ) , improved s t a b i l i t y of
v i g i l a n c e (according t o t h e "broken-line t e s t " ) and a b i l i t y t o o p e r a t e with
s p a t i a l concepts (according t o t h e "compass!' t e s t ).

The pedagogical observations a l s o i n d i c a t e t h a t supplementary t r a i n i n g ,

w i t h t h e use of s p e c i a l devices t o develop i n d i v i d u a l elements of t h e working
process, considerably improved t h e t r a i n i n g l e v e l of s p e c i a l i s t s i n operation.

STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF NONSPECIFIC TRAINING ON THE; ABILITY

TO PROCESS INFORMATION !JNDZR SPECIAL CONDITIONS

V .M . Z a t s i o r s k i y and 0 .P .Frolov
(Moscow)

The speed of data processing by a human s u b j e c t i n a given s i t u a t i o n de­

pends on h i s i n d i v i d u a l t r a i t s , and e s p e c i a l l y on t h e degree of t r a i n i n g f o r
t h e work i n t h e given system. I n t h i s study, a n attempt was made t o e l u c i d a t e
t h e i n f l u e n c e of nonspecific t r a i n i n g on a n o p e r a t o r ' s a b i l i t y t o process i n ­
28
formation under c e r t a i n conditions. I n o t h e r words, we i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e t r a n s ­
f e r of t r a i n i n g with r e s p e c t t o t h e processing of information. The t r a n s f e r of
t r a i n i n g can, i n p r i n c i p l e , b e observed b y r e p l a c i n g t h e t r a i n i n g conditions b y
t e s t conditions, and modifying:
1) t h e s i g n a l complex;
2 ) t h e e f f e c t o r complex;
3 ) b o t h s i g n a l and e f f e c t o r c9mplexes.
This paper r e l a t e s o n l y t o t h e f i r s t case (cnange i n t h e s i g n a l group).

The a t h l e t i c a c t i v i t y of boxers w a s taken as a model of n o n s p e c i f i c t r a i n ­

ing. The use of a t h l e t e s as s t u d y o b j e c t s has c e r t a i n advantages: constant
hraining f o r many years, s t r i c t s e l e c t i v e system making it p o s s i b l e t o s i n g l e
out t h e s t r o n g e s t candidates, e t c .

The experimental s i t u a t i o n w a s s p e c i f i e d as follows: The s u b j e c t s were

i n s t r u c t e d t o r e a c t by v a r i o u s boxing maneuvers t o t h e l i g h t i n g of b u l b s each
of which, by c o l o r and p o s i t i o n , corresponded t o a d e f i n i t e pass. The l a t e n t
r e a c t i o n t i m e w a s recorded. Two s e r i e s of experiments w e r e run, d t h equi- &
probable and nonequiprobable s i g n a l s , i n t h e range from 0 t o 3 h i t s .

I n accordance with I1Hickfsl a w " , a l i n e a r dependence of t h e r e a c t i o n time

on t h e average amount of infDrmation p e r s i g n a l w a s observed. The r e g r e s s i o n
c o e f f i c i e n t , c a l c u l a t e d by t h e method of l e a s t squares and c o r r e l a t i n g t h e aver­
age amount of information p e r s i g n a l with t h e r e a c t i o n time, decreased as t h e
s u b j e c t acquired g r e a t e r s k i l l . The advantage of h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d atYLetes w a s
p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t i n c t i n t h e range from 1.5 t o 3 h i t s .

The obtained d a t a are i n t e r p r e t e d a s a confirmation of t h e hypothesis t h a t

t r a i n i n g i s t r a n s f e r r e d i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e a b i l i t y of processing information.

SPECIALIZED PHYSICAL T R A I N I N G OF A MACHINE OPERATOR

T. T.Dzhamgarov and V .L .Marishchuk

(Leningrad)

Neither t h e development of mechanical equipment nor t h e e x i s t e n c e of elec­

t r o n i c computers have i n t h e s l i g h t e s t degre? diminished t h e r o l e of t h e human
operator i n c o n t r o l l i n g such equipment. The human s u b j e c t always has been and
s t i l l i s t h e most important l i n k i n t h e system of c o n t r o l l i n g t h e machine, t o
say nothing of programming and planning. A t t h e same t i m e , engineering psychol­
ogy must not only study t h e a d a p t a t i o n of t h e machine t o t h e f u n c t i o n a l a b i l i ­
t i e s of man b u t a l s o solve a no less v i t a l problem, t h a t of a c t i v e improvement
of those f u n c t i o n s of t h e o p e r a t o r which a r e most important f o r t h e s u c c e s s f u l
c o n t r o l of s m e p a r t i c u l a r machine.

The a u t h o r s ( i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h A.S.BiiLatov and N.L.Testov) i n v e s t i -

Eated t h e r e l a t i o n between s u c c e s s f u l mastery of a n a i r c r a f t p i l o t ' s t a s k and
t h e s t a t e of p h y s i c a l preparation, i n v a r i o u s r e s p e c t s , of student p i l o t s . We
found t h a t , i n t h e a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y of cases, t e s t s u b j e c t s w i t h e x c e l l e n t and
m u l t i l a t e r a l p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g made e x c e l l e n t marks i n f l i g h t preparation. A t
t h e same t i m e , i n many cases, some occasional d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e t r a i t s impor­
t a n t f o r f l i g h t t r a i n i n g prevented otherwise good a t h l e t e s , and even exception­
a l l y q u a l i f i e d a t h l e t e s , from l e a r n i n g '?or< t o f l y (A.V.Korobkov and V.L.Marish­
chuk, 1960). I n t h i s connection, we f i n d j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e i d e a of d i f f e r ­
e n t i a l t r a i n i n , ? with s p e c i a l emphasis on improvement of s p e c i f i c f l y i n g t r a i t s ,
which may a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d with r e s p e c t t o t r a i n i n g f o r o t h e r o p e r a t o r ' s
jobs.

I n one experimental s e r i e s ( i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n with N.V.Sysoyev), i n a La

s p e c i a l s-tudy of s u b j e c t s prepariny f o r trainin: on t h e Zh-18 s p o r t s t r a i n e r ,
we found t h a t 72 of them e x h i b i t e d i n d i v i d u a l inadequacies i n c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l
and psychological t r a i t s t h a t a r e important i n f l y i n g a n a i r c r a f t . A t o t a l of
4.5 s u b j e c t s of t h i s gr'oup were used for experimental p h y s i c a l t r a i n i n g t o spe­
c i f i c a l l y improve t h e t r a i t s i n which they had been found d e f i c i e n t . These
were as follows : groups t o improve emotional s t a b i l it-y (15 s u b j e c t s ) ; groups
t o improve t h e f u n c t i o n s of v i g i l a n c e and speed of a c t i o n (15 s u b j e c t s ) ; groups
t o improve motor c o o r d i n a t i o n and accuracy (15 s u b j e c t s ) ; 27 s u b j e c t s were used
as c o n t r o l group. Regillar t r a i n i n g enabled t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e experimental
group (45 s u b j e c t s ) t o overcome t h e s e f a u l t s t o a l a r g e e x t e n t and t o reach t h e
average l e v e l of t h e o t h e r t e s t s u b j e c t s i n t h e s e t r a i t s . The favorable changes
were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d . I n t h e c o n t r o l group ( b y means of general
and s p e c i a l measures), we l i k e w i s e noted some improvement i n t h e t r a i t s under
i n v e s t i g a t i o n , b u t t h e improvement w a s l e s s marked. When a c t u a l f l i g h t s began,
t h e s u b j e c t s who had been i n t h e experimental group were f a r more successful i n
mastering t h e technique of p i l o t i n g , and on t h e average needed 26.7% l e s s ac­
tual f l i , r h t t r a i n i n g time (and accordingly a l s o c o s t l e s s t o t r a i n ) t h a n t h e
c o n t r o l :.roup. Moreover, e i g h t s u b j e c t s of t h e c o n t r o l group were dropped from
t h e course f o r f a i l u r e i n f l i q h t (as not meetinq t h e r e q u i r e d r e l i a b i l i t y of
c o n t r o l ) , b u t only one s u b j e c t from t h e experimental group.

These d a t a i n d i c a t e t h e expedience and high e f f e c t i v e n e s s of p h y s i c a l

t r a i n i n g , s p e c i f i c a l l y d i r e c t e d toward improvement of c e r t a i n p h y s i c a l and psy­
c h o l o g i c a l t r a i t s of p a r t i c u l a r importance i n t h e c o n t r o l of a Riven mechanism.

PRINCIPAL ELENENTS I N OPERATOR TRAINING TO READ

INDICATOR PANELS

.
N F. Fedot ova
(Leningrad)

Training a n o p e r a t o r t o take readings on a n i n d i c a t o r panel i s a complex

process t h a t i n c l u d e s t h e formation and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of a number of sensory,
motor, and i n t e l l e c t u a l p a t t e r n s .

Ten-day trainin,q i n indicator-panel reading considerably decreases t h e

number of e r r o r s committed by t h e t r a i n e e s . During t h e t r a i n i n g period, t h e ,&
number of e r r o r s decreased by a f a c t o r of 3.5. The percentage of c o r r e c t read­
i n g s i n c r e a s e d during t h i s p e r i o d from 77.2 ( i n t h e f i r s t t e s t ) t o 93.8 ( i n t h e
tenth test).
 The c h a r a c t e r of the i n s t r u c t i o n i s of s u b s t a n t i a l importance f o r t h e suc­
c e s s of t r a i n i n g . When d e t a i l e d i n s t r u c t i o n w a s g i v e n and t h e d e s i g n f e a t u r e s
of t h e m a t e r i a l were explained, t h e proportion of c o r r e c t readings i n c r e a s e d
from 81.2% i n t h e f i r s t experiment t o 96.4% i n t h e t e n t h . Snorter i n s t r u c t i o n s ,
without covering t h e design p r i n c i p l e s of t h e material and with only p r a c t i c a l
@.dance f o r t a k i n g t n e readings, were q u a n t i t a t i v e l y l e s s e f f e c t i v e .

The f a c t t h a t t h e t r a i n i n g results were b e t t e r when i n s t r u c t i o n s w e r e

given i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s e s s e n t i a l i n t r a i n i n g an operator t o s u b j e c t him t o
such preliminary t h e o r e t i c a l p r e p a r a t i o n as Will e s t a b l i s h t h e c o r r e l a t i o n be­
tween i n d i v i d u a l information elements and w i l l permit t o some e x t e n t t o p r e d i c t
t h e i r variation.

The changes i n t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a during t h e t r a i n i n g involve a long

and complex process of formation of new h a b i t s and r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of o l d ones,
meaning t h a t t h e psychological content of t h e t r a i n i n g i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e s e
changes.

According t o our r e s u l t s , t h e followinq components can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n

t h e process qf o p e r a t o r t r a i n i n q :
1. Formation of t h e h a b i t of cognition of numerals i n a new s c r i p t . One
of t h e d i f f i c u l t f a c t o r s of t h i s process i s t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of d i T i t s of
similar s t r u c t u r e : 1 and 7; 5 and 6 ; 3 and 9; e t c .

2. Formation of o p e r a t i v e memory, which i s a p r e r e q u i s i t e for i d m t i f i c a ­

t i o n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of d i g i t symbols.

3 . Formation of the mental s e t of e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s of change

of Lhe readings, which can b e obtained by r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e a p r i o r i eval­
u a t i o n of t h e s e events as equiprobable.

4 . Formation of t h e h a b i t of d i s t r i b u t i o n and t r a n s f e r of a t t e n t i o n , which

a r e t h e o p e r a t o r ' s most e s s e n t i a l working s k i l l .

During reading, two forms of o r c a n i z a t i o n of awareness a r e p o s s i b l e : a )

successive t r a n s f e r of awareness from one observed o b j e c t t o t h e next; b ) d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n of awareness over s e v e r a l o b j e c t s r e q u i r i n g perception a3 a n i n t e g r a l
~qroup.

The necessary condition f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n of awareness i s a r a t i o n a l ar­

rangement of t h e s i g n a l s on t h e panel, d t h t h o s e of similar meaning and simi­
l a r p r o b a b i l i t y o f change grouped t o g e t h e r .

During t r a i n i n , g , a c e r t a i n d e f i n i t e sequence of t r a n s f e r of awareness i s

developed. I n our experiments t h i s sequence w a s manifested as t h e instrument-
reading r o u t e . It may b e assumed t h a t t h e changes i n t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
t r a i n i n g a t v a r i o u s s t a g e s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e s e routes.

5. Formation of t h e f e e l of rhythmicity i n t h e program, which helped LE?

t o s u c c e s s f u l l y read a l a r g e number of r e g u l a r simultaneous changes. YJnder o u r
t e s t conditions, a l a r g e number of simultaneous changes had t o be read o f f ,
 l e a d i n g t o a 'nifihly stressed process of e x c i t a t i o n . According t o t h e l a w of
induction, t h i s process was replaced b y i n h i b i t i o n , which was t h e cause of m i s ­
takes i n reading t h e subsequent frames of t h e program.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CERTAIN PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL I N D I C B

FOR INDUSTRIAL SELECTION
V.A.Bobrov and G.M.Zarakovskiy
(Leningrad)

To develop psychophysiological c r i t e r i a f o r t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s e l e c t i o n of
operator s p e c i a l i s t s , t h e a u t h o r s s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e q u a l i t y
of work a t c o n t r o l desks during t r a i n i n g and c e r t a i n p h y s i o l o g i c a l and psycho­
loKical traits.

It was found t h a t s u b j e c t s with a higher l e v e l of p r e p a r a t i o n f o r work a t

c o n t r o l desks had n o t o n l y b e t t e r marks i n f i t n e s s f o r work f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l
elements of t h e process (according t o t h e r e s u l t s of work t e s t s ) , b u t a l s o had
higher marks c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e accuracy and c o o r d i n a t i o n of motor a c t i v i t y ,
speed of processing information, amount and t r a n s f e r of awareness, and c a p a c i t y
for s p a t i a l o r i e n t a t i o n .

To s e l e c t t h e psychophysiological Lechniques f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e most i m ­

p o r t a n t p r o p e r t i e s and t r a i t s of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s organism, necessary f o r suc­
c e s s f u l performance of t h e p r i n c i p a l work t a s k s , we i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e c o r r e l a ­
t i o n between t h e results of a combined e v a l u a t i o n of t h e l e v e l of p r e p a r a t i o n
f o r t h e o p e r a t o r ' s job ( d a t a given by t h e i n s t r u c t o r - t e a c h i n g staff a f t e r com­
p l e t i o n of t h e process of teachine; and t r a i n i n g of s p e c i a l i s t s ) and t h e r e s u l t s
of s p e c i a l tests.

We found t h a t t h e r e i s a r a t h e r c l o s e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e t e a c h e r ' s

e s t i m a t e and v a r i o u s i n d i c e s of work t e s t s such as t h e speed of prolonged rota­
t i o n of a n instrument d i a l ( c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p = 0.459), t h e d i a l read­
i n g time and t h e t i m e f o r s e t t i n g up d a t a i n t h e instrument ( p = 0.468), t h e
number o f e r r o r s i n t a k i n g t h e r e a d i n g s ( P = 0.&57), t h e l l c o e f f i c i e n t of SUC­
cessf1i n t h e I1compassl1 method ( p = 0.475), t h e number of d i g i t s reproduced i n
t h e Itdigit-memoryr1t e s t (P = 0.429), t h e mean v a l u e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n pro­
d u c t i v i t y during s e p a r a t e time i n t e r v a l s i n t h e Itaddition and carryover" t e s t
( p = 0.466); t h e t i m e t o perform a n assignment i n t h e " d i g i t s e l e c t i o n and f.!&
carryover" t e s t ( p = 0.676); index of rate of i n f o r m a t i o n processing i n t h e cor­
r e c t i o n t e s t ltLandoldt r i n g tables1' ( p = 0.423); i n d e x of t o t a l d e v i a t i o n from
z e r o i n t h e RDO t e s t ( p = 0.440) and r e a c t i o n t h e t o t a s k s of i n c r e a s i n g com­
p l e x i t y (p = 0.500).

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e above i n d u s t r i a l s e l e c t i o n t e s t s w a s v e r i f i e d i n
a s p e c i a l experiment. The r e s u l t s were p o s i t i v e .
 GROUP ACTIVITY

THE I N D I V I D U A L AND THE GROUP I N EXPERII@:NTAL GROUP

PSYCHOLOGY

.
F. D Gorbov
(Moscow)

The study of group o p e r a t i v e a c t i v i t y , undertaken for a comparative eval­

u a t i o n of the e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e work of s e v e r a l groups, simultaneously con­
s t i t u t e s a n e f f e c t i v e means f o r determining t h e i n d i v i d u a l psychological t r a i t s
of a given operator.

The study was based on short-term experiments which used analogs of t h e

o p e r a t o r ' s a c t i v i t y i n t h e c o n t r o l of t h e c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t s , and a l s o on long-
t e r m experiments resembling a c t u a l o p e r a t i n g conditions.

This l a y o u t of t h e i n v e s t i s a t i o n required a nimber of r e s t r i c t i o n s and w a s

d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e followin5 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s :

1. The experiments consisted of continuo!is a c t i v i t y , w i t h obligatory

sequence of o p e r a t i o n s following a pre-assiqned progam.
2. A d e f i n i t e time l i m i t w a s s e t .
3. The r e s u l t s were obtained by averaging (instrument i n d i c a t o r s ) .
The a c t i v i t y was c o r r e l a t e d with t a s k s of Traded d i f � i c u l t y , ensured by
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of v a r i o u s mut.ia1 c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . For t h i s , tan­
porary s u b s t i t u t i o n of one of t h e members of t h e group by a n o t h e r from t h e col­
l e c t i v e of s u b j e c t s w a s used.

With t h i s l a y o u t of t h e i n v e s t i c a t i o n and thanks t o t h e development of our

own o r i q i n a l techniques and methods (homeostat : F.D.Gorbov, M.A.NovikDv, Ye.S.
V e n t s e l f , I.Ye.Tsybulevskiy, and M.I.Klevtsov; paired-word t e s t and t e s t s with
Itleaderr1;M.A .Novikov; "time-sequence or r e l a y t e s t " : V. T.Lebedeva; group elec­
troFraphy: F.D.Gorbov, V.I.Myasnikov and I .P.Lebedeva), i t became p o s s i b l e t o
estimate t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e group a c t i v i t y according t o t h e c r i t e r i a of
t r a i n a b i l i t y i n "organization", t h e presence of " a u t h o r i t a r i a n t 1and t t p a r i t y "
t a c t i c s , and a l s o t o map o u t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y , i n s e l e c t i n g and t r a i n i n g opera­
tors, f o r j o i n t and i n t e r r e l a t e d work i n successive and simultaneous func- &
tional units.

The results permit u s t o speak of t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of c e r t a i n time-depend­

e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s used f o r judging t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r a i t s of a human s u b j e c t .
I n p a r t i c u l a r , we e s t a b l i s h e d t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of i n d i c e s such a s . l l p e r s o n a l re­
a c t i o n timert i n competitive s i t u a t i o n s (M.A.Novikov). . These d a t a a r e i n agree­
ment w i t h t h e d a t a of i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s on t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n of s t a b i l i t y and
accuracy obtained on models of s t a t i c adaptatiol? ( 0 . P.Kozerenko).

The space-time approach t o j o i n t a c t i v i t y permits t h e concept of Itbody

schene" t o b e supplemented by t h e concept of (conventionally), which

33
 expresses t h e s p a t i a l requirement of a n i n d i v i d u a l i n group a c t i v i t y and per­
m i t s u s .bo speak of t h e optimum s p a t i a l and s t r u c t u r a l arrangement of a group.

When a r t i f i c i a l o b s t a c l e s t o group work are e s t a b l i s h e d , c e r t a i n patholog­

i c a l states of t h e I f f r o n t a l syndrome" can b e simulated.

On t h e whole, i t can b e noted t h a t i n t e r r e l a t e d group a c t i v i t y on a common

task d i s c l o s e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l t r a i t s of t h e group niembers w i t h m a x i m u m d i s ­
t i n c t n e s s i n p r e c i s e l y t h o s e c a s e s where t h e l e v e l of mutual a c t i v i t y i s high­
est.

I N D I V I D U A L DIFFERENCES I N GROUP ACTIVITY

M.A.Novikov
(Moscow)

The i n t e g r a l approach t o t h e study of groups of o p e r a t o r s working inde­

pendently, b u t interconnected by t h e n e c e s s i t y of c l o s e i n t e r a c t i o n i n perform­
i n q a n interdependent a c t i v i t y , has shown a c e r t a i n onesidedness of t h e results
of determining t h e t y p o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s by conventional methods, obtained with­
out t a k i n g i n t o consideration t h e game a s p e c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of group a c t i v i t y .

This onesidedness showed partici.&arly i n t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y of p r e d i c t i n g

t h e behavior of o p e r a t o r s i n any p a r t i c u l a r group and of p r e d i c t i n g t h e e f f e c t ­
i v e n e s s of t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e group as a whole. For t h e s e purposes, we made
u s e of t h e i n t e g r a t i v e techniques developed i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y headed by F.D.
Gorb ov :
Paired-word t e s t (M.A.Novikov, 1961);
Homeostatic method (F.D.Gorbov, M.A.Novikov, M.1 .Klevtsov and I.Ye.
Tsibulevskiy, 1962).

The paired-word t e s t , based on t h e v e r b a l ( Itassociativet') t e s t , con-

sists i n a n assigned v e r b a l a c t i v i t y i n which t h e s u b j e c t s mutually a r e repre­
A2
sented as noise. The competitive conditions represented i n the t e s t i n t h e ex­
tended form, c r e a t e t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r emotionervous s t r e s s . I n analyzing t h e
results of t h e t e s t , t h e l a t e n c y periods of v e r b a l r e a c t i o n s a r e measured (de­
termined a r e : mathematical expectation, d i s p e r s i o n o r variance, and normed i n ­
dex of r e a c t i o n s t a b i l i t y ) and t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e verbal r e a c t i o n s ("compul­
s i v e f t responses) as w e l l as t h e v e g e t a t i v e r e a c t i o n s a r e determined.

The homeostatic t e s t c o n s i s t s i n recording t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e operator re­

quired t o e l i m i n a t e t h e d e v i a t i o n of a p o i n t e r from zero p o s i t i o n . A f e a t u r e
of t h e llhomeostatllapparatus i s t h a t t h e o p e r a t o r ' s desks a r e interconnected s o
t h a t personal SUCCBSS does not mean s o l u t i o n of t h e group problem. The group
s o l u t i o n of t h e problems, of v a r i o u s degrees of d i f f i c u l t y , i s p o s s i b l e only
with t h e coordinated work-of t h e operators. Work on t h e homeostat t e s t e r i s a
type of cooperative problem from t h e viewpoint of t h e theory of games.

O u r s t u d i e s , using young h e a l t h y s u b j e c t s of 23 t o 23 y e a r s of age, on t h e

paired-word t e s t (40 s u b j e c t s i n v a r i o u s combinations of p a i r s ) and t h e homeo­
s t a t i c method ( 3 0 s u b j e c t s i n v a r i o u s combinations of t h r e e s u b j e c t s each),
showed t h a t t h e results depended on t h e t a c t i c s of t h e group and t h a t t h e o t h e r
p a r t i c i p a n t s i n t h e experiment were not i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t s .

The speed of t h e responses (paired-word t e s t ) w a s used f o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g

s l o w and f a s t operators, and t h e i r r e s i s t a n c e t o noise ( f l u c t u a t i o n i n variance
of t h e l a t e n c y period and Itcompulsivet1r e a c t i o n s ) w a s used f o r s e p a r a t i n g
s t a b l e from u n s t a b l e o p e r a t o r s . The t a c t i c s of running a group t e s t were a l s o
d i s c l o s e d : r i v a l r y and domineering, i n which t h e s u b j e c t s mutually adapt t h e i r
v e r b a l response r e a c t i o n s .

With t h e homeostatic method we found varying v a l u e s of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n co­

e f f i c i e n t and of t h e s l o p e of t h e r e g r e s s i o n curve, r e s p e c t i v e l y determining
t h e s t a b i l i t y and a c t i v i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work.

P o s i t i v e values of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s mean t h a t t h e t a c t i c s of t h e IIdis­

patcher" ( I1leaderlt) of t h e group a r e being followed b y t h e s i n g l e operator, i n ­
d i c a t i n g good m o t i l i t y and equilibrium of t h e b a s i c nervous processes.

High negative v a l u e s of t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s r e f l e c t i n e r t n e s s of t h e nervous

processes, while low negative v a l u e s r e v e a l r e l a t i v e weakness of t h e process of
i n t e r n a l i n h i b i t i o n , causing i r r a t i o n a l and impulsive behavior.

This i s a l s o s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t h e q u a l i t a t i v e c r i t e r i a of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s
a c t i v i t y on t h e homeostat t e s t e r , found b y p l o t t i n g graphs i n phase space.

Wide spacing of t h e s p i r a l formed by t h e motion of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e &

p o i n t along t h e coordinate on which t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l handle i s
p l o t t e d c h a r a c t e r i z e s i n e r t n e s s of t h e e x c i t a t o r y process, e t c .

The c a r d i n a l c m c e p t s a r e segregated for study: s t r a t e g y of t h e group and

t a c t i c s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l operators, determined by t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s of
the s u b j e c t and by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of p a r t i c i p a n t s with v a r i o u s typoloqical
t r a i t s i n interdependent proup a c t i v i t y .

The use of i n t e g r a t e d techniques i n determining p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s make3

i t p o s s i b l e t o study t h e s u b j e c t under c o n d i t i o n s c l o s e t o a c t u a l working or
production conditions, t a k i n g account of t h e r e c i p r o c a l i n f l u e n c e of t h e oper­
a t o r s t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e experiments.

THE "Tim SEQUENCE TEST" 4s 4 MODFL OF EXPECTATIClN

I N GROUP A C T I V I T Y

.
V. T Lebedeva
(Moscow)

The j o i n t a c t i v i t y of o p e r a t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g complex systems requires de­

t a i l e d study, which becomes promising when s i m u l a t i o n i s used (F.D.Gorbov).

Such simulation should t a k e account of emotional s t r e s s , which o f t e n af­

f e c t s t h e accuracy of o p e r a t i o n i n i n d i v i d u a l and group a c t i v i t y .

35

 The t i m e sequence or r e l a y t e s t c o n s i s t s i n a j o i n t determination of a

p r e s c r i b e d t i m e i n t e r v a l b y two operators, one commencing t h e reckoning and t h e
other completing it. The t a s k was, f o r t h e two s u b j e c t s together, t o determine
a twenty-second t h e i n t e r v a l , each i n t u r n e s t i m a t i n g a ten-second i n t e r v a l
from memory and attempting t o o b t a i n t h e t o t a l of twenty seconds. The s i g n a l
t h a t t h e i n t e r v a l had been completed b y one of t h e s u b j e c t s w a s t h e s i g n a l f o r
the o t h e r t o begin. Tne o p e r a t o r s a l t e r n a t e d as l e a d e r s of t h e I1trial1I.

The experimental study was based on t h e model of a l t e r n a t e performance by

two persons of t h e same operation, including t h e f a c t o r of e x p e c t a t i o n i n i t s
imagional r e p r e s e n t a t i o n or performance.

The b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of such a c t i v i t y , o r of i t s analog, i s t h e suc­

cessive a l t e r n a t i o n o f operations, i n t u r n implying a l t e r n a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e of
expectation and s t i l l more i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e competitive c h a r a c t e r of t h e study.

Electroencephalograms (EEG), galvanic-skin r e s i s t a n c e (GSR), and e l e c t r o ­

myograms were recorded during t h e t e s t t o check t h e beginning and end of t h e
count simultaneously i n botn operators.

This t e s t made i t p o s s i b l e : 1) t o s e l e c t , from several p a i r s of operators,

t h e most s u c c e s s f u l p a i r i n " r e l a y counting;" i n t h e highest group accuracy of
t h e r e s u l t ; 2 ) t o evaluate t h e i n d i v i d u a l accuracy of t h e count as a s i g n of
neuropsychic s t a b i l i t y ; 3) t o confirm b y EEG t h e s t a t e of e x p e c t a t i o n (from t h e
llarousalllr e a c t i o n s ) ; 4 ) t o f i n d , i n t h e t r a i n i n g v a r i a n t , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of
developing a new quality of group a c t i v i t y termed a r b i t r a r i l y by u s llgroup
sense of t i m e " .

ELECTROGMP'HIC STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PERCEPTION OF

A SIGNAL I N A COMPETITIVE SITUATION

V.I.Myasnikov and I .P.Lebedeva

( Mo scow)

A model of t h e a c t i v i t y of two o p e r a t o r s i s considered. The a c t i v i t y i s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e prolonged s t a y of b o t h o p e r a t o r s under observational con­
d i t i o n s , ~ t t hhe requirement of r a p i d simultaneous r e a c t i o n t o a n incoming
llalarmlls i g n a l ( i n random sequence). The r e a c t i o n i s doubled. The doubling of
t h e r e a c t i o n , i . e . , i t s p a r a l l e l performance by b o t h operators, i s introduced
for r l r e l i a b i l i t y r r .

To e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e p e r c e p t i o n of t h e s i g n a l , we used t h e
technique of determining t h e speed of a motor response i n t h e competitive t e s t
v a r i a n t d t h j o i n t a c t i v i t y of both operators. Such group a c t i v i t y permits
simulating a n emotionally s a t u r a t e d s i t u a t i o n under experimental conditions.

The f u n c t i o n a l a b i l i t i e s of t h e o p e r a t o r s were evaluated i n v a r i o u s man­

ners, based on t h e simultaneous recording of a number of e l e c t r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l
i n d i c e s : b i o p o t e n t i a l s of t h e b r a i n , b i o c u r r e n t s of t h e muscles of t h e deep
f l e x o r of t h e f i n , s e r s of t h e r i g h t wrist, and g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s i s t a n c e .

36
 The e l e c t r o g r a p h i c s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of perception, under t h e
d i r e c t i o n of F.D.Corbov, showed t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l psychological f e a t u r e s of
t h e o p e r a t o r s ( r e s i s t a n c e t o noise, speed of r e a c t i o n , accuracy and coordina­
t i o n of movements, e t c . ) are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r each of t h e s e o p e r a t o r s i n i n ­
d i v i d u a l a c t i v i t y and a r e manifested with p a r t i c u l a r c l e a r n e s s under t h e condi­
t i o n s of a competitive s i t u a t i o n .

The l a t e n c y period of t h e response r e a c t i o n , as a n o b j e c t i v e i n d e x of

t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of perception, w a s found t o be d i r e c t l y c o r r e l a t e d with t h e
degree of t h e o r i e n t i n g r e a c t i o n ( a t t h e i n s t a n t of t h e s i g n a l ) .

It was found t h a t t h e l a t e n c y period of t h e motor r e a c t i o n , recorded i n

t h e i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a n t , w a s s h o r t e r when t h e same t e s t was performed i n a com­
p e t i t i v e e x p e r i m e n t a l ' s i t u a t i o n . The response w a s accompanied b y a pronounced
e l e c t r i c s k i n r e f l e x without tendency t o s h o r t e n when t h e s i g n a l was repeated.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL REACTIONS I N OPERATORS !JNDER THE

ACTION OF A VIBRATION STIMULUS AND UNDER CONDITIONS
OF ISOLATION

A. A.Koreshkov
(No scow )
I n t h i s study we considered t h e methods and data of an i n v e s t i g a t i o n of
the s t a t e of t h e cardiovascular system of o p e r a t o r s under t h e i n f l u e n c e of a
v i b r a t i o n stimulus and under t h e conditions of prolonged i s o l a t i o n , i n which
t h e e f f e c t of s o l i t u d e and t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e cooperation of a group of sub­
j e c t s under t h e same c o n d i t i o n s were s t u d i e d (F.D.Cfirbov).

The s t u d i e s as t o t h e e f f e c t of v i b r a t i o n on c e r t a i n psychological and

p h y s i o l o q i c a l f u n c t i o n s showed t h a t a l l o p e r a t o r s exposed t o v i b r a t i o n , w i t h i n
c e r t a i n l i m i t s , very r a p i d l y developed adaptation, which subsequently remained
s t a b l e . During t h i s a d a p t a t i o n process, we noted symptoms of s i n u s arrythmia,
which were t r a n s i t o r y and not v e r y pronounced.

The i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e e f f e c t of v i b r a t i o n on t h e human organisrn

i s s o considerable t h a t s c i e n t i f i c d i c t i o n a r i e s f o r s p e c i a l i s t s even contain
t h e term Ifvibration r e s i s t a n c e " . V i b r a t i o n - n o n r e s i s t a n t t ' s u b j e c t s manifest a
pronounced i n t o l e r a n c e f o r t h e s e i n f l u e n c e s (marked v e g e t a t i v e symptoms of phy­
s i o l o g i c a l discomfort: p a l l o r , excessive d i a p h o r e s i s , e t c . ; unpleasant subjec­
t i v e s e n s a t i o n s , mainly of pain, and general psychic depression).

The p r e c i s e opposite of t h i s group are persons with e x c e p t i o n a l l y high v i ­

bration resistance.

Confinement i n a s m a l l room exerts a s p e c i f i c i n f l u e n c e on t h e orsanism,

which i s i n t e n s i f i e d i f t h e s u b j e c t i s i n s o l i t u d e .

During stay i n such a n i s o l a t i o n room, electrocardiograms (FIX) were Lk?,

made a t s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v a l s , and t h e p u l s e r a t e w a s taken during t h e e n t i r e
period. The EGG showed normal c a r d i a c f u n c t i o n under t h e s e conditions. Study

37
o f t h e p a t t e r n s o f mutual habituation and coordination o f a group of o p e r a t o r s
during prolonged i s o l a t i o n i s of g r e a t c u r r e n t i n t e r e s t . Small groups of op­
e r a t o r s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n our s t u d i e s and were kept f o r long periods of time i n
s p e c i a l l y equipped s e a l e d chambers.

Alternation of a c t i v i t y and rest of t h e s u b j e c t s was prescribed by s p e c i a l

i n s t r u c t i o n s . Throughout t h e e n t i r e period of t h e study, t h e physiological and
psychological r e a c t i o n s of t h e s u b j e c t s t o t h e conditions i n i s o l a t i o n chambers
were recorded. The conclusion can be drawn from t h e r e s u l t s t h a t prolonged
s t a y of a group of s u b j e c t s under conditions of i s o l a t i o n i n a small room does
not i n t e r f e r e with t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s and t h a t , i n f a c t ,
t h e s p e c i a l f e a t u r e s of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e determined primarily by t h e
moral q u a l i t i e s of p e r s o n a l i t y of t h e group members and by t h e degree of syn­
chronization of t h e tempo of t h e i r psychic a c t i v i t y (F.D.Gorbov and M.A.Novi­
kov). No pronounced d e v i a t i o n s i n physiological functions, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e
cardiovascular system, were observed i n any mem'cer of t h e group.

38

 METHODS OF INVESTIGATING H W N ACTIVITY. EXPERIIVENTAL

PETHODS 4ND EQ'JIPMENT

APPLICATION OF THE METHODS OF T'rIE THEORY OF MASS SERVICING

TO THE PROBLEMS OF ENGINEERING PSYCHOLOGY

L,V.Fatkin
(Moscow)

On t h e b a s i s of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l assumptions contained i n a paper by V.P.

Zinchenko and N.I.Mayzelt and concerning t h e a c t i v i t y of a n operator, a discus­
s i o n i s ,$veri on t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s and e s p e c i a l l y on t h e limits of a p p l i c a b i l ­
i t y of t h e methods of ' t h e theory of mass s e r v i c e t o a n a n a l y s i s of t h e o p e r a t o r
a c t i v i t y i n a complex automatic c o n t r o l system (ACS).

The information i n p u t system i n t h e ACS under study c o n s i s t e d of a s e r i e s

of u n i t s , a l l of t n e same type, on which a l i m i t e d s e t of s t a t e s of t h e i n d i v i d ­
ual single-type components of t h e system was indexed. The d e c i s i o n s of t h e
operator, taken for each of t h e s e s l a t e s , were f e d i n t o t h e ACS by coded i n ­
s t r u c t i o n s whose s e t w a s l i k e w i s e l i m i t e d , and t h e s e l e c t i o n and d i s p a t c h of
t h e command w a s accomplished by means of pushbutton s e l e c t o r switches. A l i m ­
i t e d time w a s p r e s c r i b e d for making t h e d e c i s i o n f o r each 9f t h e s t a t e s , and
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of a simultaneous change of s t a t e of a l l u n i t s of t h e system
w a s k e p t small ( c o n d i t i o n a l ) .

A model of such a working s i t u a t i o n , i n which t h e o p e r a t o r must search f o r

information i n a n information domain e s t a b l i s h e d by a r e p r 5 s e n t i n g device o r
simulator and then t u r n t o t h e data-input u n i t of t h e ACS, may b e represented
by a system of mass s e r v i c e with a Poisson t r a f f i c of c a l l s on a s i n g l e s e r v i c e
u n i t w i t h provision for formation of t u r n s ( i . e . , without f a i l u r e s of s e r v i c e ) .

The methods of t h e theory of m a s s s e r v i c e w e r e used t o d e r i v e formulas for

a given type of s e r v i c e system, r e f l e c t i n g t h e dependence of t h e mean w a i t i n g
t i m e and t h e mean d u r a t i o n of a t u r n on t'le number of single-type blocks served
by t h e operator, under two assumptions r e l a t i v e t o the s e r v i c i n g time of one
c a l l : 1) t h e s e r v i c i n g time i s d i s t r i b u t e d according t o a n exponential-decay
l a w and 2) t h e s e r v i c i n g t i m e p e r c a l l i s constant. By t h e a i d of t h e s e m
formulas w e p l o t t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s p e r m i t t i n g u s t o f i n d , f o r a s p e c i f i e d aver­
age s e r v i c i n g t i m e and a s p e c i f i e d number of u n i t s served, t h e mean diiration of
a t u r n and t h e mean w a i t i n g time f o r s e r v i c e .

On t h e basis of t h e mathematical and engineering psychological a n a l y s i s of

a given concrete problem, we made recommendations f o r rearrangement of t h e op­
erative work conditions.

39

 . ,. . . .- -.
....

ON THE HANDLING CAPACITY OF AN OPERATOR I N A I R

TRAFFIC CONTROL

Yu. M. Porkhovnik
( Leningrad)

!\vailable p r a c t i c a l experience i n a i r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l (ATC) permits t h e

conclusion t h a t t h e most convenient data-input system of e l e c t r o n i c computers
(EC), which i n f u t l w e w i l l be widely used on ATC problems, i s a device showing
images on various types of cathode-ray t u b e s and a u x i l i a r y f l u o r e s c e n t screens.
O f such i n d i c a t o r devices, cathode-ray t u b e s w i t h v i s u a l d i s p l a y a r e most easi­
l y read f o r ATC systems. Such devices a r e described i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e . The
author d i s c u s s e s t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work, r e p r e s e n t i n g him as a
communications channel. The maximum handling c a p a c i t y of a n operator i s taken
as L&O b i t s .

The form and q u a n t i t y of information t h a t can b e t r a n s f e r r e d from comput­

e r s t o a n image i n t h e case of a n ATC system are determined. Information i n
l e t t e r - d i g i t form i s considered.

The concept of t h e blank as a l e t t e r - d i g i t a l image on t h e i n d i c a t o r , giv­

i n g b r i e f information on t h e c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t i s discussed. Three t y p e s of
blanks a r e considered as i l l u s t r a t i v e examples. The q u a n t i t y of information i n
each type of blank i s calculated, t a k i n g account of t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of appear­
ance of t h e i n d i v i d u a l s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t s .

The author d e f i n e s t h e m a x i m u m number of c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t s t h a t an oper­

a t o r can handle, depending on t h e t y p e and composition of t h e blank.

The i n f l u e n c e of t h e o p e r a t o r f s experience and t h e planned n a t u r e of a i r

t r a f f i c on t h e allowable number of o b j e c t s served i s taken i n t o account.

METHODS OF COIZRELATION WORKUP OF NONSTATIONARY PROCESS5 AND Lsl

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING APPARATIJS FO3 OPERATIVE STATISTICAL
ANALYSIS OF PIHSI0LCX;ICAL INFORMATION

G.A.Sergeyev and A.F.Romanenko

( Leningrad )

The problem of o p e r a t i v e s t a t i s t i c a l workup of p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes

w i t h t h e o b j e c t of f i n d i n g t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e parameters c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e dy­
namic p r o p e r t i e s of v a r i o u s p h y s i o l o g i c a l systems i s a c q u i r i n g g r e a t c u r r e n t
interest.

The v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e dynamic parameters of t h e physiological r e g u l a t o r s

connected, on t h e one hand, d t h t h e a c t i o n of uncontrolled f a c t o r s on t h e flow
of t h e processes and, on t h e o t h e r hand, w i t h t h e nonlinear character of t h e
processing of information obtained from t h e e x t e r n a l environment, i s r e s p o n s i b l e
f o r t h e nonstationary c h a r a c t e r of p h y s i o l o g i c a l information.
 A p e c u l i a r i t y of t h e processing of informatfon of t h i s type i s t h e un­
s u i t a b i l i t y of t h e means of analog computer technology, which a r e based on t h e
i n i t i a l hypothesis t h a t the processes t o be handled are s t a t i o n a r y .

The automation of the workup of processes, based on a nonstationary model

of f l u c t u a t i o n s i s l i n k e d t o t h e n e c e s s i t y of r e a l i z i n g very complex algorithms.

C o r r e l a t i o n analysis of p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes and procurement o f i n ­

formation parameters t h u s r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s
f i r s t b e c a l c u l a t e d i n t'?e time and frequency domains.

The c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n i n t h e time domain i s

where i s t h e c e n t r i c random process.

The c o r r e l a t i o n f:mction i n t h e frequency domain reads

where q,)i s t h e normalized c u r r e n t s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e random process.

We note t h a t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of variance i n t h e frequency domain permibs

judging t h e f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e highest analyzer c e n t e r s t h a t r e a l i z e the
proi:ram of c o n t r o l l i n g some p h y s i o l o g i c a l parameter. From t h e viewpoint of
engineering r e a l i z a t i o n of t h e a l g o r i t h m of c a l c u l a t i o n of the s t a t i s t i c a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h e frequency domain, i t i s expedient t o u t i l i z e t h e proper­
t i e s of t h e f u n c t i o n f [ T ( t ) ] which r e f l e c t t h e c h a r a c t e r of v a r i a b i l i t y of t h e
c u r r e n t p e r i o d of t h e random process, i n s t e a d of t h e frequency.

To e v a l u a t e t h e c u r r e n t c o r r e l a t i o n i n t e r v a l of t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l pro­
cesses i n t h e time and frequency domains, t h e a u t h o r i n t r o d u c e s a parameter of
r
t h e form ?(,)=2 j O,,(RN ( t , r ) l d z ; where 6 ( t ) i s a c e r t a i n f u n c t i o n al-
I-T
lowing f o r t h e v a r i a n c e of remote branches of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n func­
t i o n obtained under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of r e s t r i c t e d s e l e c t i o n .

A study of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e weighting information f u n c t i o n shows t h a t

I

an expression of t h e form ~(,,=2 { R i (f, T)& ,

t- r
where O ( t , T) = R N ( t , Z) may be

used as a n e f f e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n f o r t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i n t e r v a l of p h y s i o l o g i c a l
processes.

The a u t h o r s j u s t i f y t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of designing a n analog-type device t o

perform t h e t a s k of c a l c u l a t i n s , on t h e real-time s c a l e , t h e c u r r e n t e s t i m a t e
of the c o r r e l a t i o n i n t e r v a l of t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l processes i n t h e t i m e and f r e -
 quency domains, recording them on s u i t a b l e recorders.

Knowledge of t h e c u r r e n t e s t i m a t e s of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n i n t e r v a l s makes i t
p o s s i b l e t o judge t h e changes i n t h e handling c a p a c i t y of physiological i n f o r ­
mation elements, when s i g n a l s of nonstationary t y p e a c t on t h e i r i n p u t . To es­
timate t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e nonlinear s t a t i s t i c a l transformations of informa­
t i o n , t h e a u t h o r s i n t r o d u c e t h e concept of t r a n s f e r r e d information function,
Ninput(t d t ) is
defined b y a r e l a t i o n of t h e form
( t1
, where Ninput(t) = -
Tt (t)
NOUtDUt
t h e r a t i o of t h e number of noncorrelateh elements i n t h e time domain t o t h a t i n
the f r e uency domain a t t h e i n p u t of t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l information system w h i l e
?t) i s t h e i r r a t i o a t t h e output of t h e system. The paper t h e n consid­
f e a t u r e s of t h i s f u n c t i o n with r e s p e c t t o t h e case of a n a n a l y s i s of
t h e self-adjustment of t h e human operator.

P o s s i b l e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s of t h e proposed apparatus a r e discussed.

ANALYSIS OF THE ELECTBOENCEPYALCGRJI DURING INTENSE MENTAL Lrz.

WORK, USING THZ METHOD OF THE COLWZLATIONWOHKUP OF
NONSTATIONARY PROCESSES

.
L. P Pavlova and G. A. Sergeyev
( L e d ngrad )

I n v e s t i q a t i o n s of t h e mechanisms of t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of brainwork a r e of
t o p i c a l i n t e r e s t today.

A study of t h e electroencephalogram (Ea) during i n t e n s e work p r e v i o u s l y

l e d one of u s (L.Pavlova) t o t h e conclusion t h a t t h e p r i n c i p l e of f u n c t i o n a l
s u b s t i t u t i o n i n t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of t h e nerve c e n t e r s i s one of the important
mechanisms of t h e working capacity of t h e b r a i n .

I n a v i s u a l a n a l y s i s of t h e EEG of 24 s u b j e c t s (dextro-manual) we estab­

l i s h e d t h e phenomenon of f u n c t i o n a l asymmetry i n t h e p a i r w i s e functioning of t h e
hemispheres of t h e b r a i n , expressed i n t h e prevalence of frequency o s c i l l a t i o n s
-
of t h e b i o c u r r e n t s (13 80 cps) i n t h e l e f t hemisphere and t h e alpha rhythm
(8 - 13 cps) i n t h e r i g h t hemisphere. .The l a t t e r result was a l s o obtained by
a number of o t h e r a u t h o r s (Golikov, 1950; Khoruzhaya, 1962; Grinberg and Zubkov,
1963; and o t h e r s ) and confirms t h e e x i s t e n c e of a dominant hemisphere i n man.
On t h e other hand we discovered t h e phenomenon of a p e r i o d i c s h i f t of t h e
"focit1 of p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y and, subsequently, of t h e a l p h a rhythm from one
hemisphere t o t h e o t h e r and back, i n t h e course of t h e performance of i n t e n s e
mental o r muscular work (Pavlova and Tochilov, 1960; Pavlova, 1962, 1963).
These f a c t s a r e i n p a r t confirmed by t h e data of Khoruzhaya (l962), Penov (1960)
and Falaleyeva (1962). The f i n d i n g s permit speaking of f u n c t i o x i l displace­
ments i n t h e pairwise functioning of t h e hemispheres of t h e waking human b r a i n .

The problem of e l u c i d a t i n g t h e f i n e r q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
s t r u c t u r a l t h e parameters of t h e EEG demands development of s p e c i a l methods
of o p e r a t i v e s p e c t r a l - c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s (G.A. Sergeyev and A. F.Romanenko,
1.963). The hypothesis of t h e locally-nonstationary c h a r a c t e r of t h e s t r u c t u r e
of t h e b i o c u r r e n t s was t a k e n as b a s i s . This hypothesis more e f f e c t i v e l y sat­
i s f i e s t h e requirements of adequacy of t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s u l t s obtained t h a n
do t h e f u n c t i o n a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e b i o c u r r e n t s , whose parameters may vary
w i t h i n r a t h e r s h o r t t h e i n t e r v a l s . The r e s u l t a n t method can b e used as a sys­
h e m of graphic workup of EEG and a l s o f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e c u r r e n t c o r r e l a t i o n
i n t e r v a l s on d i g i t a l computers.

The workup of t h e EM: shows t h a t i n t h e waking unfatigued s t a t e , i n 4 dex­

t r o -manual s u b j e c t s , t h e s t a t i s t i c a l i n d i c e s of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n f u n c t i o n s f o r
l e a d s from t h e l e f t hemisphere, e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e r e g i o n of t h e motor b.4
speech centers, d i f f e r from t h e corresponding v a l u e s i n t h e r i g h t hemisphere.
An a n a l y s i s of t h e c u r r e n t i n t e r v a l s of q u a n t i z a t i o n of the p a r t s of t h e EEG
shows t h a t t h e a c t i v i t y of the l e f t h e m i s p h e r e * i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e
r i g h t . I n t u r n , t h e v a l u e of t h e interhemispheric asymmetry d i f f e r s i n t h e
v a r i o u s p o r t i o n s of t h e b r a i n and i s l i k e w i s e not c o n s t a n t , being a t times
higher f o r c e r t a i n l e a d s from t h e r i g h t hemisphere. We note t h a t t h i s i s not
always revealed by v i s u a l a n a l y s i s of t h e EM;.

W e a l s o found a n expansion of t h e frequency spectrum i n t h e KEG during

work, i n d i c a t i n g t h e varying degree of desynchronization of t h e resonant neuron
assemblies.

I n d i v i d u a l c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r a number of EEG l e a d s r e v e a l a more complex

and dynamic p i c t u r e of t h e f u n c t i o n a l s h i f t s than those found by visual exami­
n a t i o n of t h e EEG. The paper gives a number of supplementary s t a t i s t i c a l char­
a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e EEG, c a l c u l a t e d on t h e computer. Analysis of t h e course of
e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y of t h e e x c i t e d neuron assemblies may b e performed by t h e
dynamic p a t t e r n method..

The results not only confirm t h e e x i s t e n c e of f u n c t i o n a l asymmetry i n t h e

p a i r w i s e f u n c t i o n of t h e hemispheres of t h e waking human b r a i n , b u t a l s o i n d i ­
c a t e a complication of t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e c o n s t e l l a t i o n of nerve c e n t e r s dur­
i n g a period of strenuous work, owing t o t h e mechanisms of interhemispheric and
intrahemispheric f u n c t i o n a l s h i f t s .

The method of mathematical processing employed permitted s u b s t a n t i a l sup­

plementation and deepening of t h e EXG reading and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , d i s c l o s e d t h e
phenomenon of low-frequency modulation of t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s power spectrum of
t h e a l p h a rhythm, whose c h a r a c t e r d i f f e r s g r e a t l y from s u b j e c t t o subject. The
r e s u l t a n t algorithms of operations a n a l y s i s of t h e s t a t i s t i c a l EM: s t r u c t u r e
can be used as t h e b a s i s for designing s p e c i a l i z e d equipment of t h e analog type.

TtIE USE OF COMPUTFm I N PROCESSING T:-IE RESIJLTS OF

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTS
Yu. M.Baraboshkin
(Moscow)

It i s a r a t h e r l a b o r i o u s process t o work up t h e r e s u l t s of psychological

43
 tests, r e q u i r i n g g r e a t time expenditlure b y t h e programmer. I n t h i s respect, ,&
i t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o use e l e c t r o n i c computers (EC) t o process such r e s u l t s .

We developed a s e r i e s of programs f o r u n i v e r s a l computers, designed f o r

t3e mathematical workup of empirical data. The programs permit a n e v a l u a t i o n
f o r sample averages and sample variances as w e l l as a n e v a l u a t i o n f o r correla­
t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . It i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o compare two mean v a l u e s c a l c u l a t e d
from t h e data of sampling observations of two general populations. Ti?e compar­
i s o n i s made by means of Student's c r i t e r i o n a t a p r e s c r i b e d l e v e l of s i g n i f i ­
cance.

The program does n o t use e x t e r n a l memory u n i t s f o r t h e computer. A l l t h e

i n i t i a l data and t h e program i t s e l f a r e handled d i r e c t l y i n t h e operative mem­
ory of t h e computer. To i n c r e a s e t h e amount of d a t a processed, t h e information
i s fed i n t o t h e memory i n rlconvolutionalrrform.

An arrangement i s provided f o r o p e r a t i v e c o n t r o l of t h e q u a n t i t y of i n ­
formation on t h e computational r e s u l t s f e d t o t h e p r i n t e r . The c o n t r o l e l e ­
ments of t h e program are s e t during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . A complete c a l c u l a t i o n ,
using t h e program of e s t i m a t i n g t h e means and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ,
t a k e s no more t h a n 30 - k0 d n .

STVDY OF THE INTERXELATION OF STEADY STATFS OF THE PHYSIOLOGICAL

FUNCTIONS BY MEANS OF A DIGITAL COMF".JTER

.
K P. But eyko and D .V Demin
( Novosibirsk )
.
The steady s t a t e of t h e f u n c t i o n a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l system i s defined by t h e
n-fold r e a l i z a t i o n of a k-dimensional random v e c t o r .

On i n t r o d u c t i o n of a physiological l o a d one must expect t r a n s i t i o n of t h e

system t o a new steady s t a t e , which i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e deformation of t h e sta­
t i s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e vector; one-, two-, k-dimensional d i s t r i b u t i o n s , of a
c o r r e l a t i o n matrix, and of i n d i c e s of regression.

To analyze t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n of t h e human f u n c t i o n s we used t h e correla­

t i o n technique [V.S.Pugachev. Theory of Random Functions and i t s Application
t o Problems of Automatic Control (Teoriya sluchaynykh funktsiy i yeyeprimeneniye
k zadacham avtomaticheskogo upravleniya). Fizmatgiz , 19621 which has given
good r e s u l t s i n econometric and s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s (G.g.Yule and M.J .Candell,
Theory of S t a t i s t i c s . Gosstatizdat, 1960). The mathematical program made pro­
v i s i o n t o o b t a i n t h e following s t a t i s t i c a l i n d i c e s : mathematical expectation,
mean-square or standard deviation, asymmetry, excess of each v e c t o r component
of t h e matrix of t h e normalized pairwise and p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i - fi
i e n t s , r e g r e s s i o n parameters, m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , and confidence
i n t e r v a l s of t h e parameters.

To o b t a i n t h e s t a r t i n g m a t e r i a l we ran a mass c l i n i c a l experiment (with

about 100 s u b j e c t s ) during whicn t h e p r i n c i p a l physiological f u n c t i o n s were

44
synchronously recorded: pulmonary v e n t i l a t i o n , oxygen and GO2 content of t h e
i n s p i r e d and expired a i r and of t h e a r t e r i a l blood, pulse, a r t e r i a l o s c i l l a t o r y
index, a r t e r i a l blood pressure, and plethysmogram. The physiological l o a d con­
s i s t e d i n a change i n t h e oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration i n t h e i n ­
haled a i r and p a i n f u l hyper- and hypoventilation. The t e s t s i n d i c a t e d a regu­
l a r s h i f t of t h e i n d i c e s , which w a s i n t e r p r e t e d as a change i n tine s t a t i s t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e of t h e v e c t o r .

The t a b l e of v e c t o r coordinates obtained as a r e s u l t w a s processed 011a

d i g i t a l computer. The c a l c u l a t i o n was used f o r checking t h e correspondence of
t h e a c t u a l experimental m a t e r i a l w i t h a p r i o r i p h y s i o l o g i c a l concepts. An in­
t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s r e q u i r e s d e t a i l e d amtomicophysiologi­
c a l a n a l y s i s and may p o s s i b l y supplement a v a i l a b l e q u a n t i t a t i v e data on t h e in­
t e r r e l a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n a l systems of t h e organism.

STUDY OF THS DYPJAIQCS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS ON

DIGITAL COMPUTERS

K.P.Buteyko and D.V.Demin

( Novosibirsk )

I n our l a s t paper, t h e s t a t e of t h e f u n c t i o n a l physiological systems w a s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a random v e c t o r whose s t a t i s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e i s deformed under
the a c t i o n of s p e c i a l t e s t s . A continirous k-dimensional f u n c t i o n k ( t ) was i­
d e a l i z e d a s a s e r i e s of steady statves R , , whose a l t e r n a t i o n i s induced b y ap­
p l i c a t i o n of l o a d s .

I n this paper we s h a l l analyze t h i s continuous f u n c t i o n . The program of

mathematical processing provides for t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n
matrix / ; r pIpi of normalized c o e f f i c i e n t s [K.P.Buteyko and D.V.Demin, Cross-
C o r r e l a t i o n Analysis of Physiological Functions (Kross-korrelyatsionnyy analyz
f i z i o l o g i c h e s k i k h f u n k t s i y ) . Izv. S O AN SSSR, s e r . b i o l . , No.8, 19631.

The s t a r t i n s data w a s a synchronous multichannel record of t h e physiolog­

i c a l i n d i c e s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e l a s t paper. The record w a s t a b u l a t e d a t a time
i n t e r v a l A t = 10 s e c and w a s worked up f o r t e n s u b j e c t s on a d i g i t a l computer;
t h e m a x i m u m d e l a y time w a s 600 sec.

I n conjunction w i t h a d e t a i l e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s , t h e cross- Lil

c o r r e l a t i o n method r e p r e s e n t s a means of v e r i f y i n g and deepening t h e q u a n t i t a ­
t i v e concepts of t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n a l systems, by determining
t h e following s t a t i s t i c a l parameters:
r a d i u s of a u t o c o r r e l a t i o n ;
s p e c t r a l d e n s i t y of t h e process;
effective delay interval;
reciprocal spectral density.

The c l a s s i c a l l i n e a r c r o s s - c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s should b e g e n e r a l i z e d t o
nonlinear i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b y developing a method based, f o r example, on t h e
p r i n c i p l e of c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y o r of entropy [ c f . N .S.Rayman, On Variance
Functions aqd Reciprocal Variance Functions ( 0 dispersionnoy i vzaimnoy d i s ­

45
I I 1111111111 I I 1111.1111111111111 I 1111II 1111IIIII. I 1 111111.11111 ,I I I I I II m I . I I .
I ,.,..,,..
1 11- - ..
,, .....,.,,,..,,.,, ,,,, ,, ,.. .-.­

persionnoy funktsiyakh). V I I t h All-Union Conference on t h e Theory of Proba­

b i l i t y and Mathematical S t a t i s t i c s , T b i l i s i , 19631.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUESTION OF AUTOMATION OF THE

WORKUP OF ELECTROENCEPHALOGMMS

V.I.Kopanev and P.G.Shamrov

(Nos cow)

One of t h e major problems of modern medicine i s t o l i g h t e n human work i n

t h e system man - machine. The proper d i r e c t i o n f o r s o l u t i o n of this problem
l i e s i n matchinr; t h e a b i l i t i e s of t h e human o p e r a t o r with those of t h e machine.
However, t h e c a p a c i t y of human s u b j e c t s undergoes constant changes depending on
z i v e n c a n d i t i o n s ( e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l ) . This proves t h e n e c e s s i t y of develop­
i n g c r i t e r i a t h a t w i l l permit a r a p i d e v a l u a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e of a n
o p e r a t o r and of i n t r o d u c i q g t h e required c o r r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e system man - ma­
chine. The EEG i s o f t e n used as such a n i n d i c a t o r . The visual method of i n t e r ­
p r e t i n g a n EEG i s not a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e s e conditions, s i n c e i t r e q u i r e s a l a r g e
expenditure of t i m e and work. Success i s p o s s i b l e only by a n automated workup
of 3% on e l e c t r o n i c d i g i t a l computers (EDC). It i s w e l l known t h a t , f o r a n
aqitomatic a n a l y s i s of EEG and f o r programming t h e work of t h e EDC, norms must
b e introduced i n t o t h e computer memory ( p o s s i b l y , t h e limits of f l u c t u a t i o n )
together with c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s . Their presence w i l l permit a n automatic
comparison with t h e experimental d a t a and t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of necessary cor­
r e c t i o n s i n t o t h e system man - machine.

W e studied t h e b i o l o g i c a l a c t i v i t y of t h e c e r e b r a l c o r t e x during a func­

t i o n a l t e s t c o n s i s t i n g of opening and c l o s i n g t h e eyes, i n order t o f i n d t h e
q u a n t i t a t i v e p a t t e r n s . The work was done on h e a l t h y s u b j e c t s , using a n SKTB
electroencephalograph manufactured by t h e f f B i o f i z p r i b o r l fand IrSaneyfrCompan­
ies.

On analyzing t h i s m a t e r i a l we found t h a t it w a s unnecessary t o i n t r o d u c e

t h e amplitude parameters of t h e 4;EG i n t o t h e computer memory, s i n c e t h e s e pa­
rameters vary over a n exceptionally wide range during t h e experiment.

This f a c t can be explained by t h e i r dependence on a l a r g e v a r i e t y of con­

d i t i o n s : design f e a t u r e s of t h e electroencephalographs, pickups, methods of
l e a d i n g out t h e b i o c u r r e n t s , and p h y s i c a l s t a t e of t h e s u b j e c t s .

Better-defined d a t a were obtained on t h e frequency of t h e b i o e l e c t r i c

rhythms. D u r i n g a f u n c t i o n a l t e s t , t h e s e rhythms were as a rule s t a b l e , i n
agreement with t h e results of o t h e r experimenters (V.A.Adamovich, 1956; P.I.
Gulyayev, 1960, and o t h e r s ) .

We found t h a t a considerable amount of information can be obtained b y ccm­

p a r i n g t h e b i o e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l s of v a r i o u s r e g i o n s of t h e c s e b r a l cortex.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , we c a l c u l a t e d t h e following:
-
c o e f f i c i e n t of interhemispheric asymmetry ( CIAI) b y f i n d i n g t h e r a t i o of
t h e i n t e s r a l v a l u e s of c e r t a i n f r e q u e n c i e s from i d e n t i c a l p o i n t s of t h e r i g h t
and l e f t hemispheres;

46
 - c o e f f i c i e n t of intrahemisp%eric asymmetry ( C I k ), by d i v i d i n g t h e i n t e ­
<rralv a l u e s of c e r t a i n frequencies of t h e EEG from t h e f r o n t a l and o c c i p i t a l
reZions of the same hemisphere;
- c o e f f i c i e n t of f u n c t i o n i n g (CF), by f i n d i n g t h e r a t i o s of t h e i n t e g r a l
v a l u e s of t h e b i o c u r r e n t s of t h e b r a i n f o r each frequency while recording t h e
EEG with open and closed eyes.
Xe found t h a t t h e value of each of t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s remains a t a c e r t a i n
l e v e l during t h e study and t h a t t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e almost t h e same i n most
s u b j e c t s examined.

A l l t h i s permits u s t o recommend i n c l u s i o n of such c o e f f i c i e n t s i n t o t h e

program of d i g i t a l computer work.

The q u a n t i t a t i v e p a t t e r n s obtained were t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of functioning,

t h e intrahemispheric, and t h e interhemispheric asymmetry. O f course, t h e s e
will become s t i l l more p r e c i s e with f u r t h e r advance i n p r a c t i c a l experience.
Even today, i t i s obvious t h a t such a q u a n t i t a t i v e approach t o t h e e v a l u a t i o n
of b i o e l e c t r i c phenomena w i l l h e l p considerably i n improving a s c i e n t i f i c anal­
y s i s of t h e data, and w i l l y i e l d methqds of f i n d i n g t h e optimum r e l a t i o n s i n
t h e system man - machine.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF AUTOMATIC DIAGNOSIS

OF MENTAL FATIGUE FROPI EEG DATA

A .A. Genkin
(Leningrad)

Changes t h a t occur f n t h e EXG on mental f a t i g u e have been f a r from s u f f i ­

c i e n t l y i n v e s t i g a t e d (Yu. Pratusevich, 1962; L .P .Pavlova, 1963; and o t h e r s ) and
t h e d a t a cannot b e used f o r a r e l i a b l e automatic d i a g n o s i s of t h e onset of men­
t a l f a t i g u e . It i s w e l l known t h a t even s o d i s t i n c t a change i n t h e f u n c t i o n a l
s t a t e of a s u b j e c t as s l e e p does not always produce s p e c i f i c changes i n t h e EEG
i f t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e e l e c t r i c a l process a r e evaluated on t 5 e b a s i s of ampli­
tude-frequency c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (Gess, 1961; L.P .Latash, 1963; and o t h e r s ) .

I n r e c e n t years, a parameter A, has been proposed f o r a q u a n t i t a t i v e char­

a c t e r i z a t i o n of EM; d a t a . This parameter c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e mean asymmetry l e v ­
e l of t h e d u r a t i o n s of t h e r i s i n g and f a l l i n g phases of t h e p o t e n t i a l s during
t h e time T (A.A.Genkin, 1962, 1963). Zxperimental s t u d i e s have shown t h a t dur­
i n g mental f a t i g u e , as during d e p r i v a t i o n of s l e e p , t'ne mean l e v e l of asymmetry
d e c l i n e s . However, i f we consider successive l e v e l s of asymmetry, separated by
a f i x e d averaging i n t e r v a l T,

t h e n t h e decrease i n t h e mean l e v e l i s not monotonic b u t of a wave form. A s

t h e i n t e r v a l T shortens, t h e amplitude of t h e o s c i l l a t i o n s AT i n c r e a s e s . Since
AT behaves i n t h i s way, i t i s impossible t o decide from a s i n g l e value, o r even
from s e v e r a l successive v a l u e s of A , , whether t h e r e i s i n f a c t a s t a t e of fa­

47
 tigiie, and s t a t i s t i c a l d i s c r i m i n a t i v e procedures must be used t o answer t h i s
questi o n .

Assume t h a t , f o r a given s u b j e c t , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s Fl(A,) and F 2 ( A T ) have

been obta.ined i n advance, t h e former for work i n t h e waking s t a t e , the l a t t e r
a g a i n s t t h e background of mental f a t i g u e , determined from t h e d i r e c t i n d i c e s of
f i t n e s s r o r work.

The v a l u e of t h e s e d i s t r i b u t i o n s permits u s t o use a s p e c i a l i z e d computer

t o r e a l i z e t h e fol1owin.g s t a t i s t i c a l procedure: For each v a l u e of AT we calcu-

l a t e t h e r a t i o of the l i k e l i h o o d L =
F2 ( A T
F1 (AT
1
1
. I f L < 1, then mental f a t i g u e

nas not y e t s e t i n . Beginning with t h e f i r s t i n t e r v a l f o r which L > 1, we per­

form biald's s e q u e n t i a l sampling (1947) with t h e l e v e l of e r r o r s CY and B of t h e
f i r s t and second kind, r e s p e c t i v e l y , which a r e pre-assigned. I f t h i s leads t o
t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t t h e s t a t e i s one of waking, t h e n t h e s e q u e n t i a l sampling of
M O T )
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y r a t i o i s broken o f f and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y r a t i o i s again
F1 (a, )

t e s t e d f o r eacn value o f A T . If, however, i n t h e s e q u e n t i a l sampling t h e (60

probabili-cy r a t i o exceeds t h e p r e s c r i b e d t h r e s h o l d , then with a given l e v e l of
F e l i a b i l i t y a , b, one can diagnose t h e presence of mefital f a t i g u e .

The q u e s t i o n of f i n d i n g t h e optimum l e n g t h of t n e time i n t e r v a l T, so as

Lo ensure t h e most r a p i d d e t e c t i o n of the s u b j e c t ' s change of s t a t e , r e q u i r e s
s p e c i a l study.

PZVALU.I\TION OF THZ FIJNCTIONAL STATE OF AN OPERATOR I N

AUTOMATIC DIAGNOSIS

R.S.Dadashev
( Moscow)

The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of tLle work of an o p e r a t o r , and conseque"t1y of t h e en­

t i r e system man - machiqe, depends l a r g e l y o n t h e f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e of t h e sub­
j e c t . A study of t h e closed system "man - machine" should t h e r e f o r e be based
not o n l y on t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a q t e r i s t i c s of t h e c o n t r o l
process i t s e l f b u t a l s o on t h e e l e c t r o p h y s i o l o g i c a l i n d i c e s of t h e operator.

The emotional-physical s t r e s s of t h e human s u b j e c t can be judged on a com­

b i n a t i o n (symptom complex) of physiological parameters, where v a r i o u s values of
t h e s e parameters correspond t o v a r i o u s s t a t e s of t h e man. Not a l l t h e physiol­
ofrical parameters i n t h e syndrome, however, have t h e same e f f e c t on t h e change
of s t a t e of t h e organism. I n t h e syndrome c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e s e n e r a 1 s t a t e we
t h e r e f o r e d i s t i n g u i s h , according t o t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e , between b a s i c ( l e a d i n g )
and secondary physiological parameters. The l e a d i n g physiolqgical parameters
for one s t a t e may be secondary i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n of another s t a t e . I n t h i s
connection, we i n t r o d u c e i n t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n t h e concept of "weightl' ( s i g n i f i ­
cance) of t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l parameters i n t h e symptom complex f o r evaluation of
t h e s t a t e . The weight r a t i o s of the p h y s i o l o g i c a l parameters c o n s t i t u t e c r i ­

48

t e r i a f o r a n evaluation of the f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e and maybe used as t h e b a s i s

f o r automatic diagnosis. The weight r a t i o s of t h e physiological parameters i n
t h e symptom complex, however, undergo changes i n t h e evaluation of d i f f e r e n t
states.

APPLJCATION OF THE POLY-EFFECTOR IETIlOD FOR EVALUATING /61

THE PSYCHOP:-TYSIOLOGICAL ABILITIES OF AN OPERATOR
I N TFJE SYSTEM MAN - MACHINE

.
V F. Onishchenko, A . A .Volkov and S G. We1 1 nik
( PI0 scow )
.
The automation of c o n t r o l processes makes new demands on human s u b j e c t s a s
t h e operator. !4hile f r e e i n g man from heavy p h y s i c a l l a b o r , t h e automatic ma­
chine does not e l i m i n a t e h i s neuropsychic stress i n accomplishing t h e c o n t r o l
processes.

I n t h e s e s t u d i e s , we attempted t o e v a l u a t e t h e working capacity of a n op­

e r a t o r during t h e c o n t r o l process not only from t h e i n d i c e s of a poly-effector
record of physiological f uqct i o n s ( electroencephaloqams, electromyograms,
electrocardiograms, galvanic s k i n r e s i s t a n c e , and pneumograms).

The experimental results showed t h a t t h e same amount of work, with t h e

same q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , w a s performed by operators
a t t h e e-xpenditure of d i f f e r e n t degrees of neuropsychic stress.

An i n c r e a s e i n t h e emotional s t r e s s of t h e operator during c o n t r o l was

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an i n c r e a s e i n the b i o e l e c t r i c a c t i v i t y of t h e high-frequency
rhythms of the c e r e b r a l cortex, of t h e b i o e l e c t r i c a c t i v i t y of t h e muscles, t h e
amplitude of t h e galvanic s k i n r e a c t i o n , t h e r a t e of h e a r t contractions, and
t h e r a t e of r e s p i r a t i o n .

The use of t h e poly-effector method permitted a more complete evaluation

of t 5 e i n d i v i d u a l psychophysiological c a p a b i l i t i e s of each operator during t h e
c o n t r o l p m c e s s and a comparative o b j e c t i v e a n a l y s i s of v a r i o u s cl?ntrol systems.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUESTION OF THE bETHODS OF EYALUATING

T!IE PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL STATE OF A PILOT I N AN EMEtZGENCY
SIYJATION D'JRING FLIGHT

L. -4.Kut ayev-Smyk ,I .P(Moscow)

.Neum;yvakin and V .A. Ponomarenko

An e v a l u a t i o n of t h e psychophysiological s t a t e of a p i l o t under a c t u a l
? l i g h t conditions y i e l d s t h e optimum s o l u t i o n of t h e problem of including man
i n the c o n t r o l sys.tem "man - a i r c r a f t " . I n v i e w of t h e progress i n a v i a t i o n
technology and t h e i n c r e a s e d demands on t h e p i l o t i n f l i g h t , t h i s q u e s t i o n i s
becoming more and more important.

I n f l i g h t , a t t h e t i m e of a n a r t i f i c i a l l y provoked emergency situ;ht,ion /62

49
(ES) i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n f o r landing, we measured r e s p i r a t i o n , pulse, pulmonary
v e n t i l a t i o n (by t h e a i d of a p o r t a b l e bronchospirometer), ECG, change i n t h o r a x
perimeter, v e r b a l r e a c t i o n t i m e of t h e pilot,, speed and a l t i t u d e of f l i g h t , and
other indices.

Two types of physiolo(yica1 r e a c t i o n s of t h e p i l o ? t o a n ES were noted.

The f i r s t t y p e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a c e r t a i n i n c r e a s e i n a l l physiological i n ­
d i c e s during t h e p e r i o d of expectation of t h e E, and b y a sharp r i s e i n t h e
p u l s e and t h e pulmonary v e n t i l a t i o n on d e t e c t i o n and e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e S . The
r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e increased o d y s l i g h t l y . Reactions of t h i s type a r e charac­
t e r i z e d by r a p i d recovery of a l l p h y s i o l o g i c a l i n d i c e s t o t h e i r i n i t i a l l e v e l
w i t h i n 1 m i n a f t e r e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e ES by t h e p i l o t .

The second type w a s c 9 a r a c t e r i z e d by a c e r t a i n lowering of t h e l e v e l of

physiolo!$cal functions w h i l e awaiting t h e E,a g l a d d i n c r e a s s i n pulmonary
v e n t i l a t i o n and t'?- r e s p i r a 2 o r y rate, with t h e m a x i m a reached only a f t e r elim­
iqatio.1 of t h e Es , while the pirlse r a t e i n c r e a s e d only s l i g h t l y . 2ecovery of
t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s t o t h e i r i n i t i a l l e v e l took p l a c e w i t h i n 2 - 3 min
a f t e r e l i m i n a t i o n of t h e a.

-4s t h e p i l o t s became accustomed t o the occurrence of a n ES, t h e r e w a s a

tendency toward l e s s e n i n g of t h e change i n p h y s i o l o y i c a l functions.

The p i l o t ' s delayed r e a c t i o n t h e decreased during expectation of the ES

and increased during i t s d e t e c t i o n .

APPLICATION OF SIMULATION MXTHODS TO TFE ST'JDY OF

T1-E ELEMXNTS OF A BLOCK OPERATOR POINT

V. F.Venda
(Moscow)

I n connection with the work of the C e n t r a l Research I n s t i t u t e for Combined

Automation of a l a r g e t h e r m o e l e c t r i c c e n t r a l s t a t i o n , we solved t h e problem of
e s t a b l i s h i n g a complex system of c e n t r a l i z e d c o n t r o l ru? mainly by a c o n t r o l
computer ( C C ) and an operator.

The c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t consisted of a power u n i t : 2 b o i l e r s -

2 turbogener­
a t o r s - i: peak preheating b o i l e r s . The power of t h e u n i t was 200,000 kw, with
production of a l a r g e q u a n t i t y of heat. The comple,xity of t h e equipment t o b e
c o n t r o l l e d can be i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e following example: For t h e system t o op­
erate under o p t b u m regimes, i t w a s necessary t o c o n t r o l over 400 parameters
and marsipdate over 500 c o n t r o l s .

For t h e operator t o b e a b l e t o follow t h e operations of t h e c o n t r o l /63

computer, a l l of them must b e i n d i c a t e d on t h e d a t a panel. This makes i t man­
d a t o r y t o prove t h e adequacy of t h e information shown on t h e panel.

One of t h e methods af proof can be based on t h e theory of alyxithms.

The determination of t h e amount of information from t h e p u r e l y t e c h n i c a l

II:

p o s i t i o n i n developing t h e d a t a o r instrument panel, t h e b a s i c matching element

of the system %mn and axtomatic machine" i s only t h e f i r s t and. r e l a t i v e l y
simple stage. More complex q u e s t i o n s arise i n s e l e c t i n g t h e most e f f e c t i v e
method, w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e p e r c e p t i o n and processing of t h e information by t h e
human s u b j e c t , feeding of t h e information t o t h e operator, and determination of
the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e instrument panel and t h e c o n t r o l desk. It i s of
course g e n e r a l l y knom t h a t t h e r e a r e as yet no methods f o r a n a n a l y t i c inves­
t i a a t i o n of t h e s e questions. Fkperimental study reqilires t h e designing of spe­
c i a l a p p a r a t u s which must meet numerous requirements, most of them r e s u l t i n g
from t h e n e c e s s i t y of having t h e perception and processing of information and
t h e r e a c t i o n s of t h e s u b j e c t correspond with t h e conditions of t h e a c t u a l ob­
j e c t , i n a l l t h e i r complexity.

Zxperience has sho-m t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of l a b o r a t o r y s t u d i e s of t h e p a r t i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s , l e t us say, between t h e b r i g h t n e s s o r d e n s i t y of t h e s i g n a l s and
the r e a c t i o n t i m e have l i m i t e d a p p l i c a t i o n i n s o l v i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l problems of
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of multicomponent d a t a panels.

S a t i s f a c t i o n of the above requirements i s ensured by an experimental setup

whose m a i n p a r t i s an e l e c t r o n i c model of the technological o b j e c t s .

To simulate a block of a thermoeleztric c e n t r a l power s t a t i o n , i t i s nec­

e s s a r y t o have an e m c t matnematical d e s c r i p t i o n of i t s dynamics and i t s sta­
t i c s , i . e . , t i e t r a n s f e r f u n c t i o n s on a l l channels. The complexity of t h i s
problem i s obvious when t h i n k i n g of t h e f a c t t h a t , t o d e s c r i b e a power-plant
block as an o b j e c t of c o n t r o l with a s u f f i c i e n t degree of accuracy, i t i s nec­
e s s a r y t o s e t up a system of d i f f e r e n t i a l equations of t h e f o r t i e t h order.

It should be noted t h a t p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e simulation, namely, t h e an­

a l y t i c d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e o b j e c t and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of i t s
dynamics, i s a b i g job. However, t h e r e i s no need f o r a s p e c i a l experimental
i n v e s t i q a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p l e s of r a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e o p e r a t i v e su­
p e r v i s i o n and control, s i n c e data obtained i n t h e development of t h e automatic
c o n t r o l system and i n f i n d i n g t h e optimum design parameters can b e used.

The use of a n experimental setup, i n c l u d i n g a mathematical m7del of t h e

" b o i l e r - turbo,:enerator'I block, permits u s (under l a b o r a t o r y conditions) t o
f i n d t h e optimum c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e instrument panel and t h e c o n t r o l desk.

PETIIODS OF ilEC0fU)ING TFE EXERIMENTAL DATA 3Sm I N /64

STUDYING CERTAIN QJESTIONS OF ENGINEETING PSY­
CHOLOGY

V. I .Butov
(Leningrad)

A c o r r e c t experimental s e t u p p l a y s a l e a d i n g r o l e i n r e s e a r c h work. One

of t h e most important a s p e c t s of experimental work i s t h e recording of t h e ex­
perimental d a t a , used as b a s i s f o r analysis, f o r drawing p r a c t i c a l conclusions,
or f o r confirmation of t h e o r e t i c a l p r o p o s i t i o n s .

... . __
 The success of any experimental work depends l a r g e l y on t h e speed and ac­
curacy with which t h e experimental s e t u p permits t h e experimental data t o b e
recorded as w e l l as on t h e complexity of t h e decoding of t h e c o l l e c t e d m a t e r i a l .

The ever i n c r e a s i n g requirements of quality, accuracy, and r e l i a b i l i t y of

experimental d a t a demand improved equipment which Will permit more e f f e c t i v e
use of new and o l d techniques.

I n s e t t i n g up a n experiment, however, i t i s not always p o s s i b l e t o u s e ex­

perimental techniques t h a t w e r e . p r e v i o u s l y worked out and t e s t e d i n a c t u a l
work. I t i s very o f t e n necessary t o u s e e n t i r e l y new methodological approaches
t o s o l v e some s p e c i f i c problem.

I n t h e work of any l a b o r a t o r y , a c e r t a i n amount of p r a c t i c a l experience i s

accumdated i n t h e development of new and o r i g i n a l methods, i n t h e use of i m ­
proved apparatus, and i n t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n of new mperimental s e t ­
ups. This experience may b e highly u s e f u l f o r o t h e r l a b o r a t o r i e s working on
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d problems.

I n t h i s paper, the a u t h o r s consider c e r t a i n methods of recording experi­

mental data used i n t % e i r l a b o r a t o r y .

The methods of recording sxperimental d a t a a r e discussed on t h e b a s i s of

examples of s p e c i f i c experimental s e t u p s , designed i n t h e engineering psychology
l a b o r a t o r y at, t h e Zhdanov S t a t e [ J n i v e r s i t y of Leningrad:

1. -1 s e t u p for studying t h e work of r a i l r o a d d i s p a t c h e r s .

2. A setup f o r studying t h e s p a t i a l and temporal components of t h e v i s u a l
image
3 . A s e t u p f o r determining t h e c r i t i c a l f l i c k e r frequency of a t e s t o b j e c t
presented t o t h e s u b j e c t .
4 . A s e t u p for determining t h e s t a b i l i t y of c l e a r v i s i o n .
5. A p r o j e c t i o n tachystoscope t o record t h e l a t e n c y periods of sensoriver­
b a l and sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s .

After a b r i e f i n t r o d u c t i o n t o each such setup, t h e recording of t h e /65

experimental data and t h e equipment used f o r t h i s purpose a r e discussed i n de­
tail.

The author notes t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of measuring t h e frequency of p e r i o d i c a l ­

l y r e c u r r i n g processes by the Lissajous-figure methods. I n p a r t i c u l a r , he d i s ­
cusses t h e measurement of t h e f l i c k e r frequency of t h e t e s t o b j e c t i n d e t e r ­
minin.? t h e c r i t i c a l f l i c k e r frequency.

The use of o p t i c a l and magnetic pickups i n t h e recording system i s d i s ­

cussed.

52

 CONTRIBUTION TO Ti% TECIiI'JIQlJE OF STUDYING VISUOMOTOR

REACTIONS, TAKING ACCOUNT OF T I E FEATURES
OF PER1PI-ERAL VIS1ON

Yu. N.Verkhal.0
(Leningrad)

Today, i n s p i t e of the e x i s t e n c e of various methods f o r studying t h e motor

a c t i v i t y of human s u b j e c t s , many i n v e s t i g a t o r s a r e devoting much a t t e n t i o n t o
t h e study of visuomotor r e a c t i o n t h e as a n index of t h e degree of p r e p a r a t i o n
f o r handling i n c i p i e n t l o a d s ( o r a f t e r exposure t o them).

I n v e s t i y a t o r s have proposed many v e r s i o n s of techniques (and i n s t r u m e n t s )

f o r i n v e s t i K a t i n g t h e visuomotor r e a c t i o n time b u t , as a rule, t h e s e reduce
down t o the d i s p l a y of v i s u a l s t i m u l i on s m a l l s c r e e n s bounding t h e f i e l d of
view. Such methods do not a l l o w a s t u d y of r e a c t i o n f e a t u r e s connected w i t h
the i n c l u s i o n of t,he p e r i p h e r a l zones of v i s i o n . Nevertheless, i n s t u d i e s on
mot,qr a c t i v i t y , s p e c i a l emphasis must b e placed on t h e change i n r e a c t i o n time
i n view of t h e asymmet,ry of the nerve t r a c t s and of t h e b r a i n hemispheres.

,I study of t h e r e a c t i o n s of a s u b j e c t t o s i q n a l s a r r i v i n g i n t h e p e r i ­
p h e r a l zones of v i s i o n permits a more rapid and more d i s t i n c t determination of
the f u n c t i o n a l s t a t e (and of t h e sLlifts) of the nervous systems and t h e motor
apparatus.

For such s t u d i e s the author, i n c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h Professor A.B.Gandel's­

man, has developed a chronospheroelectroreflexometer device f o r studying t h e
l a t e n t visuomotor r e a c t i o n time t o 1is;ht s t i m u l i a t any p o i n t of t h e r e t i n a ,
w i t h exact l o c a l i z a t i o n of t h e s e p o i n t s , exact recording of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e
o p t i c a l st,imulus, and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a s s o c i a t i n g i t w i t h o t h e r s t i m u l i . By
t h e a i d of t h i s instrument, which c o n s i s t s of a hemispherical screen, a projec­
t i o n stand (we used a modernized stand from a type PRP i n d u s t r i a l perimeter) /66
w i t h a s e t of s t i m u l i and a c o n t r o l desk, t h e r e a c t i o n s can b e s t u d i e d under
l a b o r a t o r y conditions, s e p a r a t e l y f o r the r i g h t and l e f t eyes, t a k i n g account
of t h e f e a t u r e s of p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n . The i n c l u s i o n of a n a d d i t i o n a l chrono­
m e t r i c u n i t permits determination n s t o n l y of the l a t e n c y period b u t a l s o of
the t o t a l r e a c t i o n t i m e .

However, s i n c e t h i s apparatus i s r a t h e r complicated, a new panoramic de­

v i c e w a s developed and i s now being used. This c o n s i s t s of a p r o j e c t i o n head
with a l e n s and photographic frames ( i n t h e form of l i g h t s t i m u l i o r a t h l e t i c
s i t u a t i o n s ) , a c o n t r o l desk and elements f o r t h e s u b j e c t ' s response. The s t i m ­
u l i a r e p r o j e c t e d on a f o l d i n g o r s h i f t i n g panoramic screen. Two e l e c t r i c a l
chronometers i n the c o n t r o l desk measure t h e l a t e n c y and motor p e r i o d of t h e
motor r e a c t i o n s and o t h e r r e a c t i o n s . The contact elements f o r recording t h e
s u b j e c t ' s response can b e mounted i n t h e instruments, c o n t r o l s e t c . , t h u s i n ­
c r e a s i n g t h e similarity of t h e t e s t conditions t o t h o s e of m a l a c t i v i t y .

53

 REFLEX ~TEASUFEMl3NTAND ITS DEVELOPMENT I N

THE NEAR FUTURE

A .B. Gandel' s m n and Yu. N.Verkhalo

(Leningrad)

The measurement of t h e r e a c t i o n t h e and t h e magnitude of response reac­

t i o n s i n t h e i r development i n t h e "reflex a r c " i s t h e s u b j e c t of reflexometry.

Reflexometry measures d l e x t e r o c e p t i v e ( d i s t a n t and c o n t a c t ) , interocep­

t i v e and p r o p r i o c e p t i v e r e f l e x e s such as, f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e visucmotor, audio-
motor, tactual-motor, interoceptive-motor, e t c . r e f l e x e s .

Hardly anyone today d i s p u t e s t h e n e c e s s i t y of a c c u r a t e measurement of t h e

l a t e n c y period, t h e stimulus value, and t h e d u r a t i o n of t h e response r e a c t i o n
i n studying r e f l e x e s , b o t n unccnditioned o r i n b o r n r e f l e x e s and conditi3ned re­
flexes acquired during t h e l i f e t i m e of humans o r animals. Reflexometry, how­
ever, has not y e t been properly developed on t h e l e v e l of modern tecnnolo(?y.

The f a i l u r e adequately t o a p p r e c i a t e reflexometry makes i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t

t o s o l v e problems of l a b o r and of s p e c i a l i z e d expert testimony, l a b o r devices,
medical supervision of physical t r a i n i n g and f i t n e s s f o r such t r a i n i n g , and re­
s e a r c h on physioloTy, psychology, and hygiene on t h e l e v e l of modern technology.

If t h e need f o r t h e development of reflexometry i s recognized, our man- /67

u f a c t u r e r s of medical s u p p l i e s should pay s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n t o t h e manufacture
of reflexometers.

Primarily, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o manufacture reflexometers of optimum design

f o r visuomotor and audiomotor measurements (perhaps, compound meters).

The f i r s t s t e p would b e t o s e l e c t t h e p r a c t i c a l l y most u s e f u l p r o t o t y p e s

of instruments and - a n important p o i n t - of v a r i o u s attachments, t o b e placed
i n t o production. These can be of two types, s t a t i o n a r y ( l a b o r a t o r y ) and port­
a b l e (dismountable), r e a d i l y adaptable t o complex c o n d i t i o n s of i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
i n i n d u s t r i a l shops, a t h l e t i c f i e l d s , e t c .

The manufacture of s t a t i o n a r y ( l a b o r a t o r y ) devices should take p r i o r i t y ,

s i n c e t h e y would serve as t h e o r i g i n a l instruments and as standards f o r t h e
p o r t a b l e devices. The s t a t i o n a r y instruments should b e s u i t a b l e f o r d e t a i l e d
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w i t h a wide accuracy range f o r measuring b o t h stimuli and re­
sponses as w e l l as f o r measuring t i m e .

It i s important f o r such instruments t o provide 1) f a c i l i t i e s f o r e x a c t

dosage of t h e stimulus, f o r i n s t a n c e , l i g h t i n l u x e s , shape and s i z e of t h e
luminous spot, sound i n frequency, loudness i n d e c i b e l s , e t c . ; 2) p r o v i s i o n f o r
s t r i c t l o c a l i z a t i o n of t h e stimulus. S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n should be p a i d t o t h e
p e r i p h e r a l r e g i o n s of t h e r e t i n a , t h e d i s t a n c e from stimulus t o r e c e p t o r , t h e
e x t e n t of t h e response r e a c t i o n w i t h a n accuracy t o w i t h i n 0.001 - 0.0001 sec,
i t s qualitative characterization, etc.

54
 A s f a r as p o s s i b l e , every p o s s i b l e e f f o r t should b e made continuously t o
t r a c e t h e processes t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e "reflex arc", e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e nerve
c e n t e r s ( f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e a c t i o n p o t e n t i a l s ) . Continuous and a c c u r a t e quan­
t i t a t i v e recording of t h e r e f l e x processes determines t h e success of s t a t i o n a r y
reflexometers.

Portable reflexometers should b e adapted t o t h e complex conditions of

t h e i r use ( t h e y inust not break down, even when exposed t o considerable vibra­
t i o n , and t h e i r r e a d i n s must not b e influenced by temperature, humidity, bar­
ometric pressure, etc.7. T n s i r accuracy and t h e number of processes t h a t can
be measured depends on t h e s p e c i f i c p r a c t i c a l problems. For example, a study
of t h e l a t e n c y p e r i o d of a simple motor r e a c t i o n t o sound, t o sudden f a c t o r y
noise, and t o o t h e r s t i m u l i , does n o t require a n accuracy higher t h a n 0.01 ­
0.05 sec, according t o p r a c t i c a l requirements. For a study of t h e l a t e n c y and
motor periods of t h e visuomotor r e a c t i o n , extensive use should be made of pro­
j e c t i o n reflexometers which permit convenient s t i m u l a t i o n of many i n d u s t r i a l
conditions.

There i s every reason today t o promote e x t e n s i v e use of reflexometry i n

a l l i t s forms.

DLVICE FOR EXPERIMENTAL STiJDY OF THE SPEED OF INFORMATION /68

PROCESSING BY AN OPERATOR :JNDER ACTUAL CONDITIONS

A . I. Galaktionov

(Moscow)

The speed of processing information by a n o p e r a t o r under r e a l c o n d i t i o n s

i s i n v e s t i g a t e d ( r e a l co'ntrol system o r i t s model; r e a l events, a c t u a l l y ex­
istin,.; i n t h e o b j e c t and c o n s i s t i n g of a combination of s e v e r a l parameters
which have exceeded t h e allowable limits and s i g n i f y some t r o u b l e i n t h e con­
t r o l l e d o b j e c t ; r e a l d u r a t i o n of t h e working s h i f t ; r e a l continuous streams of
such events; knowledge by t h e o p e r a t o r of t h e flow s h e e t , t h e diagram of t h e
c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t , t,he p o s s i b l e e v e n t s and t h e l a w of p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
of t h e i r occurrence o r of t h e p r o b a b i l i t i e s of t h e i r s i g n s ) .

The device c o n s i s t s of a s i m p l i f i e d model of a mnemonic diagram of a ce­

ment p l a n t , of g e n e r a t i v e random numbers, a u n i t of temporary o p e r a t i n g regime,
a u n i t f o r a s s i g n i n g p r o b a b i l i t i e s , a measuring u n i t , a u n i t f o r determining
t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t n e o p e r a t o r ' s work, a u n i t f o r switching events, a u n i t f o r
c o n t r o l l i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n of t h e elements of t h e p l a n t , and a n automatic re­
cording u n i t . There i s a n a d d i t i o n a l device f o r studying t h e a c t i o n diagram of
t h e human o p e r a t o r i n solving t h e s e problems.

55

F,

11111 111111 111111111 II II I I II III11111 I II III111111111 111111IIIII1111111IIIIIII1111111111111 111 I I1 I I I1 I 1 1111111 1111111111111111111111111.111.1

 RSCEPTION OF INFORMATION BY KJIV" SUBJECTS : EVALYATION OF /69

INFORYATION RECEIVED , SENSORY PROCESSES AND C'&RACTE;RISTICS

OF THE: SENSORY SYSTEYS, SIIvIULATION OF PEXCEPTION AND
RECOGNITION, CODING OF INFORMATION

CONTRIBUTION TO THE PROBLEM OF THE qdANTITATIVE EVALITATION

OF EVENTS OF COMPLEX STRUCTURE

A . I. Galaktionov
(Noscow)

An o p e r a t o r ' s s o l u t i o n of r e a l problems of automatic c o n t r o l o f t e n reduces

t o a determination of t h e causes ( o r llsubcausesfl)of t r o u b l e i n t h e c o n t r o l l e d
o b j e c t o r i n t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l process (determination of events).

Such problems a r e h i g h l y complex, s i n c e each event i s i t s e l f a combination

of s e v e r a l successive s t a g e s of t h e complex s e l e c t i o n of parameters.

The complexity of t h e determination of t h e q u a n t i t y of information con­

t a i n e d i n such events, by t h e a i d of formulas of t h e information theory, leads
t o a painstaking a n a l y s i s of the s t r u c t u r e of such events and t h e scheme of
-their interrelations.

The author i n t r o d u c e s the concepts of t h e group of i n t e r r e l a t e d events and

of t h e s t r u c t u r a l scheme of events, which form t h e b a s i s f o r a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
of t h e s e events according t o degree of s t r u c t u r a l complexity; they permit a
considerable s i m p l i f i c a t i o n of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the q u a n t i t y of information
according t o formulas of t h e information theory.

HOY~T O EVALlTATE THE QUANTITY OF IXFORNATION IN SYbIBOLS,

WHEN THE LENGTH OF TXEIR ALPWET AND Ti33 PROBABILITY
OF THEIR OCCiJRRENCE ARE 'IJNKNOWN

P.B.Nevel'skiy
(Kharkov)

I n experiments w i t h i n a study of t h e memory capacity, t h e sane word l i s t

f o r memorizing w a s divided i n t o v a r i o u s numbers of l o g i c a l groups. The l a b e l s
given t o t h e groups were conventional concepts whose e x t e n t decreased w i t h JQ
/
i n c r e a s i n g number of groups. It w a s assumed t h a t , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g number of
q-oups i n t o which t h e l i s t was divided and with decreasing e x t e n t of each
group, t h e amouqt of information p e r word e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e group of narrowest
e x t e n t would d e c r s a s e , s i n c e t h e indeterminacy of t h i s word w i t h i n t h e limits
of t h e group would decrease. I n a n o t h e r case, a l i s t of pairwise a s s o c i a t e d
g e n e r i c and s p e c i e s concepts w a s presented and t h e g e n e r i c concepts were r e ­
produced i n terms of s p e c i e s o r t h e s p e c i e s i n terms of generic. It w a s postu­
l a t e d t h a t t h e g e n e r i c concept c o n t a i n s less information than t h e s p e c i e s con­
cept, s i n c e t h e choice of t h e g e n e r i c concepts, t h e e x t e n t of wnich i n c l u d e s
t h e given s p e c i a l concept, i s more r e s t r i c t e d t h a n t h e choice of t h e s p e c i e s
concepts contained i n t h e e x t e n t of t h e g e n e r i c concept. I n t h e s e cases, how-
ever, i t w a s impossible t o c a l c u l a t e t h e q u a n t i t y of information, without know­
i n g t h e number of c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e symbols and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e i r occur­
rence.

An empirical method was developed f o r evaluating t h e q u a n t i t y of informa­

t i o n i n words and concepts. The following p o s t u l a t e s were made i n t h i s connec­
t i o n : The p r a b a b i l i t y of occurrence of any synibol e q u a l s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
p r e d i c t i n g or guessing t h e occurrence of t h a t symbol. The p r o b a b i l i t y of
s u e s s i n g t h e occurrence of a symbol can be evaluated by t h e frequency of guess­
i n g , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e r a t i o of t h e number of c o r r e c t guesses t o t h e t o t a l num­
b e r of guesses. The q u a n t i t y of i n f o r m a t i o n p e r symbol, i n b i t s , may be eval­
uated as t h e negative b i n a r y l o T a r i t h m of t h e frequency of guessing or as t h e
b i n a r y l o y a r i t h of t h e r a - t i o of t h e t o t a l number of guesses t o t h e number of
c o r r e c t guesses.

To check t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s method, t h e a u t h o r made experiments i n

w e s s i n g two-digit numbers. The a l p h a b e t of two-digit numbers equals 90. They
appear with equal p r o b a b i l i t y 0, 0 (1) and c a r r y 6.49 b i t s of information. The
o b j e c t of t h e experiments w a s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e e x t e n t t 9 which a n empirical e­
v a l u a t i o n of t h e q u a n t i t y of i n f o r m a t i o n would d i f f e r from i t s t r u e value.
Twelve mathematical s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e experiments. Thiy were i n ­
s t r u c t e d t o guess or, more c o r r e c t l y speakin.5, simply t o w r i t e out, on t h e ex­
perimenter's order, t h e f i r s t two-di,yit number coming i n t o t h e i r mind. About
2500 numbers i n a l l were w r i t t e n out. Tne frequencies of occurrence of t h e
v a r i o u s numbers were c a l c u l a t e d . These PTequencies range from 0.003 t o 0.032.
The mean frequency w a s 0.011. One thousand l i s t s of t e n two-digit numbers each
were t h e n prepared from a t a b l e of random numbers and t h e mean frequency of
guessing t h e numbers from each of t h e 1000 l i s t s w a s c a l c u l a t e d . It w a s from
Lhis mean frequency of guessing t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y of information w a s c a l c u l a t e d .
From 1000 empirical v a l u e s obtained f o r t h e q u a n t i t y of i n f m n a t i o n contained
i y 1 t h e two-dipit numbers, 993 d i f f e r e d l e s s than 0.5 b i t from i t s t r u e v a l u e
and 762 l e s s than 0.25 b i t .

To evaluatn t h e q u a n t i t y of information i n a l i s t of words presented by

u s , when t h i s l i s t w a s divided i n t o v a r i o u s numbers of groups, we asked t h e
s u b j e c t s t o guess and t o w r i t e out t h e f i r s t words belonging t o any qroup t h a t
came i n t o t h e i r mind; f o r example, 16 words from o r g a n i c nature, 8 p l a n t s ,
IL t r e e s , o r 2 evergreen t r e e s . The number of words t h e y were asked t o t h i n k of
correspovtded t o t h e niimber of words of t h i s ;=roup i n our l i s t whose q u a n t i t y of
information we wis?ied t o evaluate. Thc q u a n t i t y of informati3n p e r word w a s
evaluated from t h e frequelicy of guessing t h i s word, and t h e mean q u a n t i t y of i n ­
formation p e r word i n t h e l i s t from the mean frequency of guessing p e r word.
The experiments showed t h a t , when o u r l i s t of 32 words w a s divided i n t o 2, 4,
8, and 16 groups, r;he mean q u a n t i t y of information p e r word w a s evaluated re­
s p e c t i v e l y a t 8.1, 6.3, IL.l,, and 3.1 b i t s . ' k i s e v a l u a t i o n w a s based on t h e
following number of guesses f o r each v a l u e obtained, r e s p z c t i v e l y : 39,936;
29,696; 998L; 2176.

The mean q1Jantity of information contained i n t h e g e n e r i c and s p e c i e s con­

cepts, composing 50 a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r s , w a s similarly evaluated. The q u a n t i t y
of information whi-,il on t h e average i s c a r r i e d b y a s p e c i e s concept i n t h i s
l i s t , i f t h e g e n e r i c concept w a s known, w a s evaluated a t 3 b i t s , and t h e mean

57
q u a n t i t y of information i n a generic concept, if t h e s p e c i e s concept was known,
a t 0.6 b i t .
I n p r i n c i p l e t h i s method i s not o r i g i n a l . The guessing method was f i r s t
used by Shannon (1951) t o evaluate t h e c o n d i t i o n a l entropy o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f
a n English p r i n t e d t e x t . H e assumed t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n a l entropy &., determines
t h e d i f f i c u l t y of guessing t h e h t h c h a r a c t e r from t h e h -
1preceding charac­
t e r s . The d i f f i c u l t y o f guessing was evaluated from t h e mean number of at­
tempts required t o f i n d t h e c o r r e c t answer.

SUBJECTIVE REDUNDANCY OF INFORMATION PERCEIVED BY MAN

B.B.Kossov and R.A.Ratanova
(Moscow)

It i s u s e f u l t o d i s t i n g u i s h oln;jective and s u b j e c t i v e redundancy of in­

formation perceived by t h e human s u b j e c t . I n t h i s connection we introduce t h e
following d e f i n i t i o n s :

D i s t i n c t i v e c r i t e r i o n of obcjects (DC) - a c r i t e r i o n by which o b j e c t s a r e

d i s t i n g u i s h e d from each other.

I&, - t h e q u a n t i t y of information contained i n t h e minimum s u f f i c i e n t

number of d i s t i n c t i v e c r i t e r i a .

Lax- t h e q u a n t i t y of information contained i n t h e a c t u a l number o f d i s ­

t i n c t i v e c r i t e r i a . I,, i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence of
t h e corresponding maxi” number of conditioned connections between t h e L 2
c r i t e r i a and t h e r e a c t i o n s . The o b j e c t i v e redundancy of information &,b i s

defined by t h e formula Q b = 1 - -H
%lax
, i.e., u n i t y minus t h e r e l a t i v e en-

tropy, where H i s c a l c u l a t e d w i t h allowance f o r t h e minimum number of d i s ­

t i n c t i v e c r i t e r i a andha,w i t h al.lowance f o r t h e i r a c t u a l number. I n t h e

A dominant a t t r i b u t e or t r a i t (DT) determines t h e q u a l i t y of a c t i o n (or

r e a c t i o n ) of a person. A r e c e s s i v e t r a i t (RT) i s o p p o s i t e t o a dominant t r a i t .
Resultant t r a i t s (ReT) equally determine t h e q u a l i t y of a c t i o n of a human sub­
j e c t a f t e r perception of o b j e c t s . Perceived information ( Isub) i s contained i n
a dominant t r a i t ( I d . .) or i n r e s u l t a n t t r a i t s ( I r e ) . The sub,jective redun­
1
dancy of information Rsub) i s c a l c u l a t e d by t h e above formula f o r Q b , but i n
t h i s case ha i s found taking account of t h e number of conditioned connections
of t h e dominating or r e s u l t a n t t r a i t s , while H i s found by s t a r t i n g o u t from
t h e minimum number of a l l d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t s .

I n our experimental study we i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e dependence of t h e magnitude

of Rsub on t h e v a r i a t i o n of each of two f a c t o r s : a ) t h e degree of d i f f e r e n c e
between two versions of t h e d i s t i n c t i v e t r a i t s i n two o b j e c t s ; b) t h e degree
of indeterminacy of t h e problem p u t t o t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e verbal i n s t r u c t i o n s .

58
 Redundant information n o t only i n c r e a s e s t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e s u b j e c t ' s
a c t i o n (Glezer, Nevskaya, Seredinskiy, Tsukkerman, 1962) and sometimes de­
c r e a s e s h i s r e a c t i o n t i m e (L.B.Filonov, 1961), but w i t h a c e r t a i n change i n t h e
conditions can become n e c e s s a q f o r s u c c e s s f u l a c t i v i t y of a person, i.e., it
can become u s e f u l . This was one of t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t l e d u s t o study t h e
f a c t o r s determining t h e value of RSub and i n p a r t determine t h e technique of
t h e study.

I n o u r experiments t h e s u b j e c t s were shown two o b J e c t s , A l E l and &b,

d i f f e r i n g i n two a t t r i b u t e s A and B ( s l o p e and l e n g t h of t h e l i n e s ) . The o b
j e c t s w e r e shown on a s c r e e n w i t h equal p r o b a b i l i t i e s (PI = Pz = 0.5). The
second of t h e d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e s vas t h e only source of redundant informa­
t i o n . I n all. series of experiments pQb was constitilt (Imin 1 :)it;Inax = 2
b i t s ; h b = 0.5).

To determine R?,b, t h e s u b j e c t s were shown t h e o b j e c t s AIRz and b B . 1 with

a new combination o v a r i a n t s o f t h e same a t t r i b u t e s . From t h e c h a r a c t e r of
t h e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e s e c o n t r o l o b j e c t s , we found t h e dominance of one of t h e
a t t r i b u t e s or t h e equal a c t i v i t y of t h e two a t t r i b u t e s (Kossov, 1954). W e t h e n
determined RSub f o r each s u b j e c t or f o r t h e group as a whole.

Other conditions being equal, t h e value of RSub i n o u r experiments v a r i e d

i n t h e d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s i n t h e range 0 < RSub < 0.5. If one a t t r i b u t e was
completely dominant ( r e a c t i o n s t o a l l t h e c o n t r o l l e d ob,jects i n accordance

only w i t h t h e v a r i a n t s of t h i s a t t r i b u t e ) , RSub = 1 - -I1 - 0. When t h e a t t r i ­

1
b u t e s were equival-ent, RSub = 1 - -
2
- 0.5.

The value of RSub depends on t h e degree of d i f f e r e n c e between t h e v a r i a n t s

of t h e d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e i n t h e o b j e c t s being discriminated. This depend­
ence was most pronounced under t h e c o n d i t i o n s of **indeterminatef'preliminary
i n s t r u c t i o n . Here, t h e s u b j e c t s received no information on t h e d i s t i n c t i v e
a t t r i b u t e s of t h e i r o b j e c t s . The r e a c t i o n s were developed on t h e p r i n c i p l e of
freach-time reinforcement" (modified method of A.G.Ivanov-Smolenskiy; KOSSOV,
1956). A t a d e f i n i t e degree of d i f f e r e n c e between t h e o b j e c t s i n t h e two at­
t r i b u t e s , we obtained a mean value of RSUb ahnost equal t o zero. When we in­
creased t h e degree of d i f f e r e n c e i n one of t h e a t t r i b u t e s , we increased i t s
dominance, l e a d i n g t o a n i n c r e a s e i n Rsub. The dominance may perhaps be based
on t h e mechanism of n e g a t i v e induction. W e can t h e r e f o r e conclude t h a t nega­
t i v e induction performs t h e f u n c t i o n of d e c o r r e l a t i o n o f a t t r i b u t e s i n o b j e c t s ,
thereby decreasing t h e redundancy of t h e information perceived. Our r e s u l t s
are t h u s i n agreement w i t h t h e suggestion o f V.D.Glezer and 1.I.Tsukkerman
( 1961) t h a t n e u r a l i n d u c t i o n encourages t h e f r d e c o r r e l a t i o n of imagesfr.
The a r r i v a l . of information about stimuli by way of t h e semantic system may
t o a c e r t a i n degree change t h e l e v e l of redundancy of information t h a t i s char­
a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e same s i t u a t i o n , b u t under c o n d i t i o n s o f indeterminate in­
s t r u c t i o n s . Thus, i f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e s p e c i f i c variants of one d i s t i n c ­
t i v e a t t r i b u t e and t h e r e q u i r e d r e a c t i o n s (%onCrete p o s i t i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s w i t h
r e q u e s t t o r e a c t t o one d e f i n i t e a t t r i b u t e " ) , t h e n i n most cases t h i s l e a d s t o
dominance of t h e p r e s c r i b e d a t t r i b u t e and decreases Rsub. I n t h e presence of

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 a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e v a r i a n t s of t h e prescribed a t t r i b u t e ,
however ( b u t s t i l l 2 - 3 times as g r e a t as t h e threshold of discrimination1 ) ,
and o f a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e o t h e r a t t r i b u t e , conditioned connections t o
t h i s o t h e r a t t r i b u t e f r e q u e n t l y occur. Consequently, t h e r e g u l a r i t y of percep­
t i o n o f t h e v i s u a l o b j e c t s may counteract t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e information con­
t a i n e d i n t h e i n s t r u c t i o n . I n some cases, f o r example, i n t h e case of general,
i n s u f f i c i e n t l y concrete i n s t r u c t i o n s , we even observe a paradoxal i n f l u e n c e of
t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s on Rsub: t h e informational content of' t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s should
i n c r e a s e Rsub, but i n r e a l i t y t h e opposite was observed with s t a t i s t i c a l re­
l i a b i l i t y , namely, a decrease i n Rsub. A l l t h e s e examples suggest t h a t esti­
mation of t h e information a r r i v i n g by way of t h e semantic system i s indeed a
complex process.

THE PROCESSING OF AMBIGUOUS VERBAL INFORMATION

BY TKE HUMAN SUBJECT

G. V .Y eyger
(Kharkov)

One of t h e important problems i n studXing t h e decoding of speech by human

s u b j e c t s i s t h e problem of semantic noise, i.e., o f noise a r i s i n g not i n t h e
communications channel i t s e l - f , but produced by t h e absence of c1.ear r u l e s of
t r a n s i t i o n from t h e system dispatching t h e communication t o t h e system of the
perceiver.

Such n o i s e may, i n p a r t i c u l a r , r e s u l t from t h e ambiguous use i n t h e com­

munication, of l i n g u i s t i c elements and t h e i r combinations.

Psychologically, t h e occurrence of ambiguity i s explained by t h e d i f f e r e n t

a t t i t u d e of t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s i n v e r b a l communication t o t h e l i n g u i s t i c means:
t h e t r a n s m i t t e r o f information concentrates on t h e choice o f l i n g u i s t i c means
with one d e f i n i t e meaning t o express a given content, whereas t h e r e c e i v e r of
t h e information decodes t h e communication only on t h e b a s i s of t h e verbal ma­
t e r i a l received, which may lead t o an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o t h e r than t h a t intended
by t h e author.

The following experiment was performed on Russian and German t e x t s , i n or­

d e r t o d e f i n e t h e pathways of decoding v e r b a l information: t h e s u b j e c t was
shown a t e x t including one o r several p r o p o s i t i o n s admitting o f ambiguous in­
t e r p r e t a t i o n , and was requested t o read t h e t e x t . The a c t u a l a t t i t u d e t o w h a t
was read and t h e delay i n t h e reading process were determined by means of a
special device. A f t e r reading t h e t e x t , t h e s u b j e c t was questioned i n d e t a i l .

The experiments showed t h a t :

1. I n cases where t h e f a c t u a l information d i f f e r e d only i n s u b s t a n t i a l l y

from t h a t s t a t e d (from t h e p o i n t o f v i e w of understanding t h e e n t i r e communi­
c a t i o n ) n e i t h e r re-reading nor any de! ay i n understanding were observed.

2. If c o r r e c t understanding w a s p o s s i b l e only with a wider knowledge of

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t h e material previously given, or i f it required a d e t a i l e d acquaintance w i t h

t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r of t h e exposition, we observed a c e r t a i n sl.owing i n t h e pro­
cess of reading; non-special.ists i n t h e f i e l d made mistakes i n s e l e c t i n g t h e
c o r r e c t version.

3. Whenever t h e p r o p o s i t i o n was i n d i r e c t c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h t h e informa­

t i o n obtained a f t e r reading t h e e n t i r e necessary context, t h e proposition was
re-read. Since proper s e l e c t i o n i s homologous with t h e c o r r e c t i o n of noise,
t h e process of eliminating semantic n o i s e obeys Shannon's Tenth Theorem: t o
eliminate e r r o r s , a t l e a s t t h e same number of b i t s o f information must flow
through t h e c o r r e c t i n g channel. Lu
Such a c o r r e c t i o n can be accomplished by keeping t h e transformations in­
v a r i a n t (without changing t h e amount of information o r i n c r e a s i n g i t ) .

For cases where t h e ambiguity i s removed by using t h e formal i n d i c e s of

t h e narrow context, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o s e t up a program f o r automatic e d i t i n g of
t h e t e x t , f a c i l i t a t i n g d i a g n o s i s and c o r r e c t i o n of c e r t a i n semantic noise.

The completeness of such a program will depend on t h e degree of formaliza­

t i o n of t h e context.

I n organizing t h e transmission of informational and command information,

t h e n e c e s s i t y of eliminating semantic n o i s e must be taken i n t o account.

DEPENDENCE OF THE SPmD AND ACCURACY OF INFORMATION

PROCESSING ON THE DISCRIXINABILITY OF SIGNALS

PI. A. D m i t r i yeva
( Leningrad)

I n designing control desks and i n determining t h e degree of a c t i v i t y of a n

o p e r a t o r i n remote c o n t r o l , it i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o be guided merely by t h e psy­
chophysiological t h r e s h o l d s of t h e sensory organs. It i s al.so necessary t o
know t h e t?operative thresholds", i.e. , t h e l e v e l s of d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y a t which
t h e r e i s no s u b s t a n t i a l i n f l u e n c e on t h e speed and accuracy of t h e operator's
processing of t h e information received by him.

W e i n v e s t i g a t e d , i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , v i s u a l d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y and consid­
ered f i r s t only a s i n g l e form: discrimination of t h e height of two p a r a l l e l
l i n e s . This study was conducted by means of two experimental methods.

I n t h e first method, t h e su.bjects s o r t e d cards (55 x 90 mm) on which two

s h o r t p a r a l l e l l i n e s , 2 m i n thickness and 20 and 20 mm i n height or 20 and
20 + 4 mm i n height were entered. The d i f f e r e n c e 4 was kept constant i n each
s e r i e s , from f 0.5 m i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s t o -)r 10 mm i n t h e eleventh s e r i e s ,
i.e., from one t o twelve times t h e psychophysiological threshold. I n each
series t h e s u b j e c t s received 30 cards, 10 o f which had equal l i n e s and 20, un­
equal l i n e s . The s u b j e c t ' s t a s k was t o r e j e c t t h e cards w i t h l i n e s of unequal
height, as ??poor drawings'*. The time spent was measured w i t h a stopwatch.
Thirty-three s u b j e c t s w e r e used i n a l l .

61
 I n t h e second method, two s i g n a l s were p r o j e c t e d onto a screen, i n op- fi
p o s i t e c o n t r a s t . Two l i n e s appeared before t h e s u b j e c t on a s m a l l . screen, 50 x
x 50 m, on t h e t e s t desk. The'subject was i n s t r u c t e d t o depress a white but­
t o n i f he considered t h e l i n e s equal and a red button i f he considered them un­
equal. The l i n e s were 15 and 15 mm o r 15 and 15 + 4 mm i n height. I n t h e f i r s t
series = 0.5 mm, i n t h e l a s t , Uth s e r i e s , 4 = 7.5 mm. Each s e r i e s consisted
of 30 frames, 20 o f which had a p a i r o f l i n e s of unequal height and 10 a p a i r
of equal. height. Tine r a t e was a r b i t r a r y , and t h e r e a c t i o n time was recorded on
t h e s t r i p c h a r t of a n ink-recording oscillograph. F i f t e e n s u b j e c t s were used.

The q u a n t i t y o f information p e r s i g n a l ( p a i r o f l i n e s ) was ca1.culated from

t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence of a s i g n a l and remained constant a t 27.51~ 'nits
f o r al-1 of t h e s e r i e s . Each equal p a i r of l i n e s erroneously considered unequal
by t h e s u b j e c t , meant,a l o s s of information equal t o one b i t . The rate of in­
formation processing depended on t h e number of e r r o r s and on t h e time taken t o
evaluate a l l 30 frames ( o r cards) of t h e s e r i e s . I n t h e second group of ex­
periments, besides t h e t o t a l . time, we a l s o estimated t h e 1-atency periods of re­
a c t i o n t o a frame with l i n e s of equal height.

The r e s u l t s of t h e two methods were t h e same. The q u a n t i t y of information

t r a n s f e r r e d ( b i t / s e c ) i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e of height of t h e
l i n e s being compared, but a f t e r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e reaches 10 psychophysiological
thresholds, a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of d i f f e r e n c e has no e f f e c t on t h e speed and ac­
curacy of information processing. The q u a n t i t y of information t r a n s f e r r e d p e r
second remained constant for a d i f f e r e n c e from 10 t o 20 times t h e psychophysio­
logical. threshold i n t h e f i r s t group of experiments and from 1G t o 30 t i m e s t h e
threshold i n t h e second group of experiments. (The threshold of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
of t h e height of t h e t r a n s i l l u m i n a t e d s i g n a l s was only h a l f t h a t i n t h e f i r s t
group of experiments.) The l a t e n t r e a c t i o n p e r i o d s l i k e w i s e obey t h i s law:
They decrease with i n c r e a s i n g d i f f e r e n c e , but above t e n times t h e thresho1.d
value they f l u c t u a t e s l i g h t l y about a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e a b s c i s s a axis.

The q u a n t i t y equal t o t e n times t h e pyschophysiological. threshold was

c a l l e d t h e "operative threshold" of v i s u a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of t h e height of two
p a r a l l e l l i n e s . Beyond t h i s threshold, i n t h e i n t e r v a l studied by us, a change
i n t h e d i f f e r e n c e has no e f f e c t on t h e speed and accuracy of information pro­
cessing.

A METHOD OF NEASURING PERCEIVED DATA L22

S.M.Kozlovskiy and Yu.1.Ionin
(No scow)

I n solving various probl ems of motion-picture and tel evision technol-om i t

i s important t o e s t a b l i s h t h e l a w s of v a r i a t i o n i n t h e physical parameters of
images with any v a r i a t i o n i n t h e conditions of observation. For example, i n
t h e problem of reproduction of sound, we must e s t a b l i s h t h e l a w s of v a r i a t i o n
of t h e reproduced degree of c o n t r a s t ; in developing a method of estimating t h e
geometric d i s t o r t i o n i n motion p i c t u r e s , we must e s t i m a t e t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e
perceived amount of t h e s e d i s t o r t i o n s as i t depends on t h e various conditions
of perception.

62

 The c u r r e n t method of s o l v i n g t h e s e problems i s t o e v a l u a t e t h e perception

i n units of t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l t h r e s h o l d of sensation. However, as shown by ex­
periment, t h i s method o f measurement cannot be used i n many cases, owing t o t h e
f a c t t h a t above-threshold q u a n t i t i e s are n o t a d d i t i v e t o q u a n t i t i e s of t h e d i f ­
f e r e n t i a l t h r e s h o l d of sensation.

The method of measuring t h e s u b j e c t i v e values by comparing them w i t h a

system of o b j e c t i v e e q u i v a l e n t s may be used t o s o l v e a number of prohlems.
These e q u i v a l e n t s are t e s t o b j e c t s w i t h p h y s i c a l parameters t h a t vary i n ac­
cordance with a c e r t a i n l a w .

The use of t h i s method i n estimating perception i n s t u d i e s of sound re­

production and geometric d i s t o r t i o n s i n motion p i c t u r e s has shown a number o f
advantages; t h e q u a n t i t i e s perceived are expressed i n o b j e c t i v e u n i t s , i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o make wider use of t h e mathematical apparatus i n s t a g i n g t h e exper­
iments, t h e r e i s a low d i s p e r s i o n of t h e responses of observers, e t c .

EFFECTIVENBS OF THE PERCEPTION OF SYNBOLS I N SUPERVISION

AND CONTROL, QUANTITATIVE MPIZESSION AND CONNECTION

WITH THE ACCURACY OF PERCEPTION

V.Ya. Dymerskiy
(Moscow)
The evaluation of t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of human s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r o l of nu­
merous types of apparatus and machines, t h e s e l e c t i o n o f c e r t a i n optimum de­
s i g n f e a t u r e s , t h e determinati.on of t h e optimum methods of perception as neces­
s a r y conditions of s u p e r v i s i o n and c o n t r o l , and t h e development of t h e corre­
sponding techniques f o r , t r a i n i n g a l l depend substantial.ly on t h e quantita­
t i v e estima-te of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of perception and i t s connection w i t h t h e
accuracy of perception.

The perception o f many symbols of o b j e c t s and phenomena of t h e real world,

i n c l u d i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n necessary i n t h e supervision and c o n t r o l o f apparatus
and machines, i s accomplished on t h e basis of an a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e s e symbols
with t h e s e n s a t i o n s from o t h e r symbols. I n t h e g e n e r a l case, t h e adequacy of
such perception depends on t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n be­
tween t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e perceived and sensed symbols and
c e r t a i n o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s t h a t appear as conditions of perception. L e t

A=F(B, c, D, . . . . N)

be t h e above f u n c t i o n a l dependence, A t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e expression o f t h e sensed

s y " o i , B t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e expression of t h e perceived symbol, C, D, ... N the
q u a n t i t i e s c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f perception, PA t h e t h r e s h o l d of
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n o f t h e symbol A ( d i f f e r e n t i a l t h r e s h o l d of s e n s a t i o n ) .

Since t h e q u a n t i t y A depends n o t only on B b u t al-so on C, D, N, it

follows t h a t t h e change (or d i f f e r e n c e ) of A i s determined by t h e change (or
...
63
 d i f f e r e n c e s ) of t h e values of a l l t h e independent v a r i a b l e s B y C, D, ... N. It
i s by t h e changes ( d i f f e r e n c e s ) of a l l t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s t h a t the.sensed change
( d i f f e r e n c e ) of A i s i n f a c t determined.

( d i f f e r e n c e s ) of B, C, D,
t h e f u n c t i o n (1):
...
The r e l a t i o n between t h e complete change (difference) o f A on t h e change
N, may be expressed bx t h e t o t a l d e r i v a t i v e of

The corresponding sensed change ( d i f f e r e n c e ) of A i s expressed by t h e following

quantity." :

Each of t h e q u a n t i t i e s

determines t h e s h a r e of t h e represented change ( d i f f e r e n c e ) o f A, caused re­

s p e c t i v e l y by t h e change ( d i f f e r e n c e ) of each of t h e q u a n t i t i e s B, C y D,... N.
The r a t i o[-I: (All3
PA, on t h e one hand, and Lla

on t h e other, c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e dependence of A on B i s

"masked" by t h e dependence of A on C, D, ... N and, consequently, how "effec­
t i v e " t h e perception o f t h e q u a n t i t y B i s on t h e basis of i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h
t h e q u a n t i t y A.

Let us c a l l t h e expression

t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e perception of B by means of A (bP).

3:-Cf. V.Ya.Dymerskiy 'Method of Q u a n t i t a t i v e Analysis of t h e Perception of

S p a t i a l and Spatial-Temporal Relations". C o l l e c t i o n "Inzhenernaya Psikhologiyatt
(Engineering Psychology), Moscow S t a t e University, 1961,.

64.

_I
1--1 I1 I I
 1. If

and, consequently h p = 1 then the change (difference) of A is completely due

to the change (differencej of B. Other changes do not %askf* this dependence
so that there exists an optimum possibil.ity of perceiving the change (differ­
ence) of B by means of the change (difference) of A.
In this case we sha3.1 consider the effectiveness of perception (q)of B

by means of A as al-sobeing numerically equal to unity.

and, consequently, h P is smal-lerthan uni%y but greater than zero, then the
changes (differences) C, D, ...
N Will %ask** the dependence of A on B and de­
crease the effectiveness of perception of E by means of A the more, the smaller
the value of h P in this interval. ( 0 ; 1.). We sha1.l consider the effectiveness
of perception as being numerically equal to k p . Consequently,

0<�,<1.

3. If

and k P = 0, this means that the changes (differences) of A due primarily to

the changes (differences) of a1.l the other elements (C, D, ...
N) might be said
to cancel each other:?.
It is logical that, in this case, the perception of B by means of A /80
Will be impossible so that Ep = 0.
4.. If

then k p < 0. This means that the change (difference) of A as a result of the
by
the changes (differences)
changes (differences) of E is completely **maskedf*
of the quantities C, D, ... in them. In this

N, and might be said to be l*l.ost**

case, of course, the perception of B by means of A is 1.ikewise impossible. The
effectiveness of Ep in this case, for simplicity and by analom with the pre­
.­

3: See preceding footnote.

65

I
 ceding case, Will l i k e w i s e be p u t as zero.

5. S t a r t i n g o u t from t h e above, t h e accuracy o f perception of B by means

of A (T,) may, i n t h e general case, be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e following quantity:

where

TlME CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROCESS OF DETECTION AND

IDENTIFICATION OF AN OBJECT I N THE FDLD OF VISION

Yu.B.Giopenreyter and L.P.Shchedrovitskiy

(Moscow)

The time d e f i c i t or time limit c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e work o f an o p e r a t o r i n

modern technological systems i s responsible for t h e a c u t e i n t e r e s t i n s t u d i e s
of i t s time parameters. I n t h i s connection t h e study of t h e motor processes
i n t h e human r e c e p t o r systems becomes p a r t i c u l a r l y important , and e s p e c i a l l y i n
t h e v i s u a l a n a l p o r s i n c e t h e movements of t h e eye are a necessary component of
any vissa1 a c t i v i t y .

The o r i e n t i n g and focusing movements of t h e eyes, which f i x t h e region o f

c l e a r v i s i o n on t h e o b j e c t , a r e a r e l i a b l e i n d i c a t o r of t h e d e t e c t i o n reaction.
A t t h e same time, t h e i n s t a n t of termination o f t h e f i x i n g movement i s t h e be­
ginning o f t h e process of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and of c e n t r a l processing of t h e sig­
n a l which conclu-des t h e execution of motor r e a c t i o n .

The problems o f t h i s study were: 1. To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e latency periods of

t h e f i x i n g movements of t h e eyes ( d e t e c t i o n times) as they depend on t h e s i t e
of appearance of a s i g n a l i n t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n . 2. Their comparison w i t h t h e
l a t e n c y periods o f simple motor r e a c t i o n s under t h e same conditions. 3. The
measurement o f t h e time of t h e complex motor r e a c t i o n on random occurrence o f
a s i g n a l i n various regions of t h e f i e l d o f v i s i o n .

I n accordance w i t h these proS3ems we devel-oped a technique a s s u r i n g /81 -

t h e random production o f a s i g n a l a t any of t h e p o i n t s lo”, 2& 30‘, and 4.0”
from t h e p o i n t o f f i x a t i o n by folrr s t r a i g h t and f o u r oblique d i r e c t i o n s , re­
cording t h e components of t h e complex r e a c t i o n (T,, ): TI -
l a t e n c y period of
t h e t r a i n i n g jump of t h e eyes; T!: - d u r a t i o n of t h e .jump; T3 -
time of recog­
n i t i o n of t h e s i g n a l and c e n t r a l switching o f t h e command t o t h e e f f e c t o r ;
T4 - duration of t h e e f f e c t o r movement. I n a s p e c i a l s e r i e s , under t h e same
conditions, t h e simple r e a c t i o n time ( T8 ) was measured. The latency periods
o f t h e <jumpof t h e eyes was measured by means o f an electro-millisecond-meter
(EVE),s t a r t e d a t t h e i n s t a n t t h e s i g n a l was given and stopped by t h e p o t e n t i a l
f e d from t h e eye a c r o s s an a m p l i f i e r t o t h e i n p u t of t h e DTS.

66

 The r e s u l t s of t h e experiments showed a s u b s t a n t i a l s i m i l a r i t y between t h e

l a t e n c y period of t h e orienting-focusing r e a c t i o n of t h e eye and t h e simple
n o t o r r e a c t i o n or' tne hand i n both a b s o l u t e value and c h a r a c t e r of t h e depend­
ence on t h e angular d e v i a t i o n f r o m t h e c e n t e r of f i x a t i o n .

The mean values of t h e l a t e n c y periods of t h e jm8s of t h e eyes (and of

t h e simple motor r e a c t i o n s ) vary from 230 msec ( f o r 10 ) t o 290 msec ( f o r 40')
i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s and are independent of t h e d i r e c t i o n .

The mean d u r a t i o n of t h e f i x i n g jump depends on t h e a n g u l a r d i s t a n c e of

t h e s i g n a l from t h e o c e n t e r of f i x a t i o n . I n o u r experiments it w a s 60 msec f o r
, -
10" 70 msec f o r 20 , 90 msec f o r 30' , and 100 120 msec f o r 40'.
The time of t h e c e n t r a l element of a complex r e a c t i o n depends on t h e i n d i ­
v i d u a l t r a i t s of t h e s u b j e c t s . Two groups of s u b j e c t s are distinguished ac­
cording t o t h i s parameter: t h e ??fast** ( c e n t r a l processing time 120-200 msec)
and t h e '!slow" ( c e n t r a l processing time 4.10 msec).

I n t h e s e experiments we observed cases of r e c o g n i t i o n of signals t h a t oc­

curred 2 e f o r e o r without f i x i n g movement of t h e eyes, mainly when t h e signals
were 10 from t h e c e n t e r of f i x a t i o n . T h i s f a c t confirms t h e existence of an
o p e r a t i v e f i e l d of v i s i o n l a r g e r than t h e region of c e n t r a l v i s i o n , i n which
t h e v i s u a l information i s processed.

EYE MOVEMENTS I N VISUAL SELECTION AND SEARCH /83

V.E.Mil*mn
(Moscow)

We studied t h e f e a t u r e s of eye movements i n performing t a s k s of v i s u a l

s e l e c t i o n . The t a s k was t o f i n d a pathway i n a %-aze'' by making s e v e r a l choices
i n succession according t o a prescribed r u l e .

When t h e performance was mastered, t h e mean s e l e c t i o n time decreased from

2 . a s e c t o 1.07 s e c and t h e mean number of eye f i x i n g s p e r s e l e c t i o n decreased
from 3.16 t o 2.25. T h e most probable value i n t h e s e r i e s of d u r a t i o n d i s t r i b u ­
t i o n of f i x a t i o n was 0.2 sec. When t h e performance had not been mastered, t h e
maximum d u r a t i o n of a f i x a t i o n exceeded 4 s e c , and a f t e r l e a r n i n g t h e longest
f i x a t i o n was 2.2 s e c .

When t h e complexity of t h e t a s k was increased, t h e mean s e l e c t i o n t i m e i n ­

creased from 0.74 s e c t o
f i x a t i o n s of t h e eye p e r
h a l f . The most probable
and t h e m a x i m u m 1.0 s e c ,
increased t o 0.3 s e c and
1.51 s e c , i . e . , t o almost double, and t h e number of
choice increased from 2.22 t o 3.31, i.e., by almost
d u r a t i o n of a f i x a t i o n i n a simple choice w a s 0.2 s e c ,
while i n t h e complex choice t h e most probable d u r a t i o n
t h e maximum t o 1.4 sec.

These r e s u l t s permit t h e conclusion t h a t t h e time c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of eye

f i x a t i o n can be used as an index of t h e s u b j e c t i v e complexity of t h e v i s u a l
t a s k s being performed.

67
 STUDY OF THE OPERATOR'S WORK I N SEARCHING FOR INFORMATION
W N PERFORMING A TASK OF SEQUENTIAL ARRANGEMENT
FOR SERVICE

Yu.B.Gippenreyter and G.N . I l ' i n a + c

(Moscow)

I n analyzing t h e work of a n o p e r a t o r , two forms of s e a r c h f o r i n f o r m t i o n

are c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d : information s e a r c h followed by immediate s e r v i c i n g
and i n f o r m t i o n s e a r c h w i t h delayed s e r v i c i n g ( s e e t h e a b s t r a c t of t h e paper by
V.P.Zinchenko and N.I.&yzey). The o b j e c t of t h e p r e s e n t work was t o s t u d y /83
t h e information s e a r c h with delayed s e r v i c e .

With a l a r g e number of o b j e c t s r e q u i r i n g s e r v i c e t h e o p e r a t o r must, a t a

given i n s t a n t , s e l e c t a l i m i t e d number of o b j e c t s and a r r a n g e them i n sequence
f o r s e r v i c e according t o c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a .

I n o u r experiments, we used v a r i o u s background o b j e c t s and c r i t i c a l ob­

j e c t s . The c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e c r i t i c a l condition w a s t h e number of t h e o b j e c t .

We found that i n performing t h e t a s k of s e q u e n t i a l arrangement, c o l l e c t i v e s

of f i f t e e n o r more c r i t i c a l o b j e c t s are d i f f i c u l t and s u p e r - d i f f i c u l t . Work
w i t h them i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by constant occurrence of e r r o r s and a n i n c r e a s e of
t o t a l time t o s e v e r a l t e n s of minutes. A comparison of t h e t a s k of s e q u e n t i a l
arrangement with immediate s e r v i c e t o follow, when a l a r g e number of c r i t i c a l
o b j e c t s are involved, shows that i n t h e l a t t e r case t h e q u a l i t y of t h e opera-
t o r t s work d e c l i n e s . S e q u e n t i a l arrangement f o r s e r v i c e , which impses a heavy
load on t h e memory, has t h e p o s i t i v e a s p e c t of good o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e situa­
tion.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF FACTORS INFLUENCING

PERCEPTION BY PERIPHERAL VISION

,
N.D .Zavalova V.A.Ponomarenko , V.M.Sivolap,
and L.A.Kitayev-Smyk
(Moscow)

When a n o p e r a t o r i s overloaded w i t h v i s u a l information, h e o f t e n over­

looks i n p o r t a n t v i s u a l s i g n a l s . I n t h i s connection, t h e o p e r a t i v e f i e l d of
v i s i o n and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e perception of various o b j e c t s by p e r i p h e r a l v i ­
s i o n has been s t u d i e d i n s e p a r a t e p r o j e c t s (Yu.B.Gippenreyter, A.F.Pakhomov and
.
A.M. I z m i l f t s e v )

We s t u d i e d t h e f e a t u r e s of perception of a moving i n d i c a t o r by p e r i p h e r a l
v i s i o n . We i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e e f f e c t of i n d i c a t o r speed and l o c a t i o n on t h e t i m e
and accuracy of s i g n a l perception, when v a r i o u s o b j e c t s were simultaneously

* L.P.Shchedrovitskiy,M.D.Gustyakov, M.A.Karena and V.N.Safonov participted i n

t h i s work.

68
perceived by c e n t r a l v i s ion.

W e t e s t e d t h r e e i n d i c a t o r p o s i t i o n s and f o u r i n d i c a t o r speeds i n combina­

t i o n with t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t a s k s f o r t h e operator: 1. To f i x t h e gaze on a point
being s i g h t e d . 2. To follow a moving p o i n t e r i n t h e f i e l d of c e n t r a l vision.
3 . Together w i t h t h e last t a s k , t o s o l v e simple mathematical problems. The /s4.
r e s u l t s of t h e operator's work on a simulated c o n t r o l desk were recorded on a n
oscillograph.

The s t u d i e s disclosed t h e conditions ensuring t i m e l y and c o r r e c t percep­

t i o n of information by p e r i p h e r a l v i s i o n when t h e operator's a t t e n t i o n was con­
s i d e r a b l y burdened by o b j e c t s perceived by c e n t r a l vision.

VARIATION I N DISCRIMINATIVE VISUAL SENSITIVITY

UNDER EXTREME CONDITIONS

V. V.Suvorova
(Moscow)

T h i s work w a s done under l a b o r a t o r y conditions, using t h e e q u a l i z a t i o n

method t o measure t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e v i s u a l s e n s i t i v i t y . The s e t u p permitted
p r e c i s e s e l e c t i o n of t h e standard l i g h t stimulus and d e t e c t i o n of t h e e r r o r s
mad.e by t h e s u b j e c t s i n an attempt t o o b t a i n t h e same l i g h t as t h e standard on
t h e screen.

Five t o s i x experiments were made on each of t e n s u b j e c t s . Three of them

were devoted t o measurements of t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y under o r d i n a r y
q u i e t conditions (background) , and two o r t h r e e measurements of t h e discrimina­
t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y under extreme conditions ( s t r e s s experiment). The extreme
conditions were e s t a b l i s h e d by g i v i n g t h e s u b j e c t s a n unsolvable problem on t h e
sampling counting of t h e number of s t i m u l i used i n t h e experiment and applying
a s t r o n g a u d i t o r y stimulus of a pure tone, by means of which t h e s u b j e c t s were
informed o f t h e committed e r r o r s .

A comparison of t h r e e i n d i c e s - mean e r r o r of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , c o e f f i c i e n t
of v a r i a t i o n , and number of r e a c t i o n s without e r r o r - showed t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n ­
t i a l v i s u a l s e n s i t i v i t y i n t h e background experiments d i f f e r e d i n d i f f e r e n t
s u b j e c t s : Eight s u b j e c t s o u t of t e n matched b e t t e r with weak s t i m u l i whereas
two s u b j e c t s equalized b e t t e r w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g stimulus.

Complicating t h e work conditions ( s t r e s s experiments) r e s u l t e d i n consid­

e r a b l e changes i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e v i s u a l s e n s i t i v i t y of a l l s u b j e c t s . The
s u b j e c t s were divided i n t o two groups according t o t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r
change i n s e n s i t i v i t y . The f i r s t group included t h e f o u r s u b j e c t s whose d i s ­
criminative s e n s i t i v i t y declined under extreme conditions a t a l l luminous in­
t e n s i t i e s a p p l i e d ; t h e second group included t h e s i x s u b j e c t s whose s e n s i t i v i t y
increased o r ( i n one case) remained unchanged.

An a n a l y s i s of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e a c t i v i t y , behavior, and e r r o r s of t h e
s u b j e c t s whose d i s c r h i n a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y increased under extreme conditions
showed that t h e i n c r e a s e i n d i s c r i m i n a t i v e s e n s i t i v i t y i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e /85
69
t y p o l o g i c a l t r a i t s of t h e s u b j e c t s , i n t e n s i t y and concentration of t h e excita­
t i o n process o r i n t e n s i t y and concentration of t h e a c t i v e d i s c r i m i n a t o r y inhi­
b i t i o n . I n o t h e r words, p r o d u c t i v i t y of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i s ensured whenever, i n
a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x c i t a t o r y i n h i b i t o r y process a l s o t h e a c t i v e i n h i b i t o r y pro­
cess plays a l e a d i n g r o l e .

A decrease i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e v i s u a l s e n s i t i v i t y under extreme condi­

t i o n s took place i n s u b j e c t s with r e l a t i v e l y weak productive c o r t i c a l processes
on t r a n s i t i o n of t h e c o r t e x t o u l t r a l i m i n a l defensive i n h i b i t i o n .

DWEXMINATION OF THE SENSORY THRESHOLD OF THE HUMAN AUDITORY

ANALYSOR BY THE IIIETHOD OF TKE CONDITIONED-CONDITIONED-
UNCONDITIONED REFIXX

G.F. Plekhanov, G.A .Aksenov , A. P. Voyarkina, V. V. Vedyushkina ,

L.P.Nagayev and Ye.I.Osinskaya
(Novosibirsk)

Two p r i n c i p z l methods of developing conditioned r e f lexes a r e known, t h e

conditioned-unconditioned where a n i n d i f f e r e n t stimulus i s associated with an­
o t h e r stimulus causing a n unconditioned r e a c t i o n ( t h e Pavlovian techniques and
t h e i r modifications) and t h e conditioned-conditioned, i n c l u d i n g t h e second sig­
n a l system i n t h e r e f l e x a r c ( t h e Ivanov-Smolenskiy technique). I n t h e present
work we used a combination of t h e s e methods. The s u b j e c t s , i n s t r u c t e d i n ad­
vance, were t o perform some elementary o p e r a t i o n on perception of a c e r t a i n
s i g n a l (depress a key). If t h i s o p e r a t i o n i s not performed, a p a i n f u l e l e c t r o ­
cutaneous reinforcement is given. If t h e s u b j e c t depresses t h e key i n t h e ab­
sence of a s i g n a l , he a l s o c l o s e s t h e c i r c u i t f o r t h e electrocutaneous r e i n ­
forcement.

The a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s technique t o determination of t h e a u d i t o r y thresh­

o l d s permitted i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e concept of s u b j e c t i v e and o b j e c t i v e thresh­
o l d , and likewise t h a t of t h e lowering of t h e s u b j e c t i v e sensory threshold as
a r e s u l t of t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a conditioned-conditioned-unconditioned ref l e x .
The s u b j e c t i v e threshold here means t h e minimum i n t e n s i t y of t h e signal con­
s c i o u s l y perceived by a given s u b j e c t under given s p e c i f i c conditions. The ob­
j e c t i v e threshold o f s e n s a t i o n i s t h a t i n t e n s i t y of t h e s i g n a l which i s not y e t
sensed by t h e s u b j e c t but a l r e a d y causes c e r t a i n s h i f t s i n some physiological
functions.

We measured t h e s u b j e c t i v e t h r e s h o l d s in s e v e r a l s u b j e c t s , with and with­

o u t electrocutaneous reinforcement (over 200 t e s t s ) and developed a method /s6
of s t a t i s t i c a l analysis of t h e r e s u l t s . It was shown t h a t , i n t h e development
of t h e conditioned-conditioned-unconditioned r e f l e x , t h e s u b j e c t i v e threshold
is lowered i n a l l s u b j e c t s ( i n some cases t o h a l f o r l e s s ) . It can be assumed
t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of electrocutaneous reinforcement t o t h e t r a i n i n g of oper­
a t o r s w i l l improve t h e i r s e n s i t i v i t y t o c e r t a i n signals.

70

I I
 AUDITION OF VERBAL SIGNAIS TRANSMITTED AGAINST THE
BACKGROUND OF WHITF, NOISE

1.M.Lushchikhina
(Leningrad)

Verbal s i g n a l s , when t r a n s m i t t e d over a g r e a t d i s t a n c e , undergo consider­

able changes o r a r e l o s t e n t i r e l y under t h e i n f l u e n c e of various kinds o f
noise: i n t e r n a l noise, depending on t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e v e r b a l m a t e r i a l and
on t h e d i c t o r , on t h e one hand, and t h e a u d i t o r on t h e o t h e r ; e x t e r n a l noise,
depending on t h e q u a l i t y of t h e communications l i n k and external influences.

I n t h i s connection t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of a n o p e r a t o r r e c e i v i n g various types

of information i n o r a l v e r b a l form may be inadequate, possibly l e a d i n g t o un­
necessary complications o r even a c c i d e n t s .

The general problems of t h i s study were: f i r s t , t o e l u c i d a t e t h e limits of

t h e a u d i t o r ' s a b i l i t y f o r c o r r e c t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of a communication d i s t o r t e d
by noise o r being of inadequate completeness; second, t o f i n d t h e optimum con­
d i t i o n s of organization of t h e v e r b a l material and proper s e l e c t i o n of t h e aud­
itors.

To sol-ve t h e s e problems w e devised an experimental s e t u p by means of which

v e r b a l s i g n a l s could be mixed with white noise and t h e i n t e n s i t y l e v e l s of both
s i g n a l and noise could be v a r i e d .

During t h e experiments we varied t h e composition of t h e programs, t h e in­

t e n s i t y of t h e input speech and of t h e masking noise, and t h e grouping of t h e
a u d i t o r s (according t o age, g e n e r a l l e v e l o f education, occupation, and domi­
nant language).

The i n v a r i a n t f a c t o r s were t h e r a t e of transmission of t h e spoken s i g n a l s ,

t h e d i c t o r , t h e r a t i o of i n t e n s i t y of speech t o n o i s e , t h e experimental condi­
t i o n s , and t h e s t a t e of t h e a u d i t o r ' s hearing (only s u b j e c t s w i t h normal hear­
i n g were used).

The programs i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e of t h e s t u d y included words of various

types (of varying length, p o s i t i o n of t h e accented s y l l a b l e , and q u a l i t i e s of
t h e accented vowel and of t h e surrounding sounds) and various word combinations
( t h e determining c r i t e r i a were t h e quality of t h e c o n t r o l l i n g word and t h e type
o f i t s s y n t a c t i c connection with t h e c o n t r o l l e d word)

The r e s u l t s showed t h a t a d i f f e r e n t degree of mastery of Russian

under a l l conditions a f f e c t s t h e recognition of t h e spoken signals. Auditors
L9
of dominant Russian-language background were f a r more o f t e n a b l e t o recognize
t h e v e r b a l s i g n a l s t h a n a u d i t o r s of nondominant Russian tongue ( d i f f e r e n c e up
t o 15%). The c h a r a c t e r of t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n s a l s o d i f f e r e d under t h e s e condi­
t i o n s . S u b j e c t s of predominantly, Russian tongue made fewer s u b s t i t u t i o n s , but
all of them m d e attempts t o understand words o r word-combinations. Subjects
of nondominant Russian tongue made f a r more s u b s t i t u t i o n s , b u t t h e s e w e r e p r i ­
marily not semantic b u t phonetic. A s a r e s u l t , meaningless sound groups ap­

71

 peared.

The experiments confirm t h e assumption t h a t t h e speech-to-noise r a t i o

p l a y s a d e c i s i v e r o l e i n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of spoken s i g n a l s . For t h e lower com­
ponents, t h e a u d i t i o n s t i l l gains by comparison with t h e h i g h e r components.
Apparently, t h e high l e v e l of n o i s e (and o f speech) l e a d s t o a more r a p i d o n s e t
of f a t i g u e .

Analysis of t h e a u d i t i o n of various elements of t h e program ms performed

on t h r e e a s p e c t s : lexico-semantic, morphologo-syntactic and phonetic.

S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n w a s given t o phonetic analysis. The experiments con­

firmed t h e conclusion t h a t t h e lengthening o f a word i n c r e a s e s t h e auxiliary
c r i t e r i a f o r r e c o g n i t i o n and t h e r e b y enhances t h e accuracy of a u d i t i o n . Sub­
s t i t u t i o n s of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d signal by c l o s e l y r e l a t e d sounds were most o f t e n
observed i n t h e case of s h o r t words. Thus, monosyllabic words were c o r r e c t l y
heard under unfavorable conditions i n 12.5% of t h e c a s e s , while s i x - s y l l a b l e
words were c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t e d i n 40.6% of t h e cases. Here, 30% and &.6%
of t h e words were, r e s p e c t i v e l y , s u b s t i t u t e d .

We a l s o observed a tendency toward more a c c u r a t e a u d i t i o n of words begin­

ning with a vowel, i n comparison w i t h words beginning with a consonant ( t h e
d i f f e r e n c e being about 10%).

The p o s i t i o n of t h e accented s y l l a b l e i n t h e word a l s o plays a c e r t a i n

r o l e . If t h e a c c e n t c a m e a t t h e end of t h e word, t h e n t h e e n t i r e word was rec­
ognized considerably more e a s i l y ( t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n r e c o g n i t i o n of words with
a c c e n t on t h e f i r s t and t h i r d s y l l a b l e s is 20%).

The p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e rhythmic s t r u c t u r e of t h e word, with a more or

less d i s t i n c t r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e elements of t h e accented u n i t ( t h e accented
vowel and parts of t h e consonants surrounding it) i s obviously a n important
f a c t o r i n perception. These elements were s t u d i e d i n d e t a i l .

The experiments confirmed t h e assumption t h a t t h e l o u d e s t of a s e r i e s of

vowel sounds of varying loudness (a, 0 ) mask t h e consonants surrounding them,
t h e r e b y diminishing t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of c o r r e c t r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e words con­
t a i n i n g them. The p h o n e t i c a l l y weak vowels (y, i ) i n t h i s case g i v e more fav­
o r a b l e conditions f o r c o r r e c t a u d i t i o n .

The consonants surrounding t h e accented vowe1.s were analyzed i n t h e same

way ( a l l t h e consonants were divided i n t o f i v e groups, according t o t h e /88
, , ,
degree of t h e i r phonetic power: sonants s p i r a n t s s i b i l a n t s p l o s i v e s and ,
f r i c a t i v e s ) . The p o s i t i o n of t h e consonant t o t h e r i g h t or l e f t of t h e accented
vowel w a s t a k e n i n t o account i n t h e a n a l y s i s . We found t h a t f o r t h e l e f t posi­
t i o n t h e most f a v o r a b l e i s a s p i r a n t and f o r t h e r i g h t p o s i t i o n , a s i b i l a n t .
The poorest are l e f t sonants and r i g h t p l o s i v e s .

The experiments showed that t h e morphological l a w s play no s u b s t a n t i a l

r o l e i n t h e c o r r e c t r e c o g n i t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l words. We found that n e i t h e r t h e
part of speech nor t h e d i s t i n c t , o r more o r less merged, etymological r o o t have
any e f f e c t on t h e a u d i t o r ' s d e c i s i o n i n s e l e c t i n g a response.

72

~...,..
1
,..,.. ,,, , I , , ,I. m , ,.,, I, 111
 We have scheduled s t u d i e s on t h e dependence of t h e accuracy of r e c o g n i t i o n
on t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence of v e r b a l signals.

We a l s o intend t o study t h e influence of s y n t a c t i c connections on t h e rec­

o g n i t i o n of phrases.

ON THE CYBERNE;TIC MODEL OF CONSTANT PERCEPTION

A .M. Parachev
(Leningrad)

The problem of constancy of t h e v i s u a l i m g e of a perceived o b j e c t i s d i s ­

cussed i n terms of cybernetics. The a u t h o r s s u c c e s s i v e l y consider t h e follow­
i n g models of constant perception:

1. Computational model. On t h e basis of measurement of t h e parameters

d e s c r i b i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n , t h e parameters of t h e k a g e o f t h e o b j e c t s formed on
t h e r e t i n a a r e converted i n t h e v i s u a l c e n t e r t o t h e i r t r u e value.

2. C o r r e l a t i o n model. The o b j e c t s possess a system o f s t a t i s t i c a l l y in­

terconnected symbols, some o f them being i n v a r i a n t s of a transformation group.
I n t h e v i s u a l c e n t e r , on t h e b a s i s of t h e i n v a r i a n t c r i t e r i a , a s t a t i s t i c a l
conclusion i s formed as t o t h e t r u e value of t h e o t h e r parameters of t h e ob­
ject.
3. The G e s t a l t model. Two o b j e c t s a r e placed i n t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n ; one
known o b j e c t with a t t r i b u t e s unambiguously connected w i t h it and one o b j e c t m­
known whose a t t r i b u t e s are t o be determined. On t h e b a s i s of t h e d i s t o r t i o n s
produced on t h e r e t i n a of t h e image of t h e f i r s t o b j e c t , t h e s i t u a t i o n parame­
t e r s are c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h i s o b j e c t f i r s t and t h e n t h e parameters f o r t h e second
object .
4. Adjustment model. The image o f an o b j e c t on t h e r e t i n a i s t h e re- /89
s u l t o f a p p l i c a t i o n of a n o p e r a t o r belonging t o a c e r t a i n group. The parameters
o f t h i s o p e r a t o r ( t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n ) a r e unknown b u t , i n compen­
s a t i o n , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e s e parameters i s known. This d i s ­
t r i b u t i o n simulates t h e "adjustment" of t h e s u b j e c t . A c e r t a i n value of t h e
o p e r a t o r parameters i s s e l e c t e d and applied t o t h e image on t h e r e t i n a . If
t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n changes, t h e n t h e transformation applied t o t h e image a l s o
changes, which means t h a t t h e form-qualities of t h e o b j e c t change.

I n t h e r e a l perception process a constancy mechanism f u n c t i o n s according

t o any one o f t h e s e models, depending on t h e concrete conditions of perception.

DEVICE FOR AUTOMATIC RECOGNITION OF PATTERNS AS A

MODEL OF HUMAN PERCEFTION

V.A.Makhonin (Moscow)

I f , i n automatic r e c o g n i t i o n o f forms, a human-type c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of

73
d e s c r i p t i o n is r e q u i r e d , i . e . , of s i g n a l s from a system of transmitters-recep­
t o r s , t h e n t h e recognizing device must possess t h e p r o p e r t i e s of perception,
and i n designing t h e automatic machine one m u s t s t a r t o u t from t h e s e proper­
ties.

The a u t h o r shows t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a scheme of a recognizer

w i t h t h e p r o p e r t i e s of i n t e g r i t y and constancy.

The s o l u t i o n s o f such a device a r e preserved under transformations o f t h e

signals accompanied by l o s s e s of information ( i n t e g r i t y ) and under isomorphic
transformations o f t h e o b j e c t of r e c o g n i t i o n (constancy).

SIMULATION OF C3NSTANT PROPERTIES I N THE KECOGNITION

OF PLANE FIGURES

..
V. A. Pakhonin and V P Save1 yev '
(Mos cow)

The plane images of many o b j e c t s do n o t change t h e i r values f o r c l a s s i f i ­

c a t i o n by a human s u b j e c t if t h e y undergo changes that can be described by a
continuous group of transformations. Such a constancy i n a n automatic machine
may be provided by a device f o r r e d u c t i o n of a n image t o t h e standard form.

Two methods of r e d u c t i o n are t e c h n i c a l l y convenient :

i n t e g r a l , based on t h e p r o p e r t i e s of two-dimensional moments /90
of d i f f e r e n t o r d e r s ;
d i f f e r e n t i a l , making use of s i n g u l a r p o i n t s of t h e images.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUEsTION OF THE OPTIMUM CODING OF

INFORMATION TRANSMITTED T 3 THE OPERATOR
OF A CONTROL SYSTEM

B.F.Lomov
(Leningrad )

I n remote-control systems, t h e o p e r a t o r cannot d i r e c t l y observe t h e con­

t r o l l e d o b j e c t s ; t h e information t r a n s m i t t e d t o him through t h e system of tech­
n i c a l devices i s u s u a l l y coded. To o b t a i n a high e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e opera­
t i o n of t h e c o n t r o l system, a method of coding t h e information must be s e l e c t e d
such as t o ensure t h e assigned speed and r e l i a b i l i t y of i t s r e c e p t i o n by t h e
operat0 r .
Optimum coding of information presupposes t h e s o l u t i o n of problems such as
t h e choice of t h e p h y s i c a l alphabet of t h e s i g n a l , t h e t%aturationfT of each
s i g n a l with information t o t h e extent allowed by t h e information transmission
rate, and a number of o t h e r problems.

A s o l u t i o n of a l l t h e s e problems is impossible without a n a n a l y s i s of t h e

mechanisms by which t h e o p e r a t o r r e c e i v e s and processes t h e information.

74
 The o p e r a t i o n of r e c e p t i o n of i n f o r m t i o n includes t h e processes of s e a r c h
(and d e t e c t i o n ) , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and recognition. T h e i r i n t e r ­
r e l a t i o n i s determined by t h e s p e c i f i c problems of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s work.

The development of a method of coding information t o be transmitted t o t h e

o p e r a t o r simultaneously encompasses t h e development of a c e r t a i n o r g a n i z a t i o n
of t h e above processes. Obviously, t h e optimum method of coding will be one
developed i n accordance with t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s e processes and of
t h e i r interrelations.

I n t h e choice of t h e physical a l p h a b e t of s i g n a l s , t h e b a s i c c r i t e r i o n i s
t h e degree of t h e i r d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y which i s l i m i t e d by t h e values of t h e d i f ­
f e r e n t i a l s e n s i t i v i t y ("resolving power") of t h e human a n a l y s o r s .
It could be assumed t h a t t h e high d i f f e r e n t i a l s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e analy­
s o r s with r e s p e c t t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t i e s of t h e stimulus would permit
formulation of a n a l p h a b e t of s u f f i c i e n t l e n g t h from one-dimensional s t i m u l i
(assuming t h a t t h e l e n g t h of t h e a l p h a b e t i s l i m i t e d o n l y by t h e l e v e l of t h e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n threshold of t h e i n d i v i d u a l property). However, experimental
r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t , i n u s i n g such a n a l p h a b e t , t h e rate of information /91
r e c e p t i o n i s very low and, a t t h e same t i m e , t h e u n r e l i a b i l i t y and ambiguity of
r e c e p t i o n i s high. The optimum c o n d i t i o n s f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n occur only where
t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a wir of a d j a c e n t one-dimensional s t i m u l i considerably
exceeds t h e threshold value. This f a c t l i m i t s t h e a l l o w a b l e l e n g t h of t h e s i g ­
nal a l p h a b e t . Another l i m i t a t i o n i s t h e low a b i l i t y of a human s u b j e c t accu­
r a t e l y t o i d e n t i f y one-dimensional s t i m u l i .

The length of t h e a l p h a b e t , meaning a l s o t h e "saturation" of each informa­

t i o n symbol, can be increased i f multi-dimensional s t i m u l i a r e used. Here, t o o ,
however, t h e r e a r e 1i m i t a t i o n s . The perception of multi-dimensional s t i m u l i of
conrplex groups of s t i m u l i i s not j u s t t h e simple sum of p a r a l l e l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
processes. It has been e s t a b l i s h e d experimentally t h a t t h e r e i s a c e r t a i n se­
quence of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s ( a t t r i b u t e s ) of a given
s t i m u l u s , t h a t under c e r t a i n conditions one of them may mask o t h e r s , and t h a t
t h e same s u b j e c t i v e e f f e c t s may be obtained f o r d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s between
c e r t a i n a t t r i b u t e s . There i s reason t o assume t h a t a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e number
of a t t r i b u t e s of a s i g n a l w i l l permit a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e of information
r e c e p t i o n only up t o a c e r t a i n l i m i t . A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s l i m i t t h e speed, ac­
curacy, and r e l i a b i l i t y of t h e processes of search, d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , and i d e n t i ­
f i c a t i o n of multi-dimensional s t i m u l i .

The processes of d e t e c t i o n , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n are n o t t h e

o n l y elements i n t h e o v e r a l l o p e r a t i o n of i n f o r m t i o n r e c e p t i o n . Its f i n a l
s t e p i s recognition, i.e., decoding of t h e s i g n a l . The speed, accuracy, and
r e l i a b i l i t y of decoding depend on t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e process of r e c o g n i t i o n
which i s , i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , determined by t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e s e t of
signals t o t h e s e t of o b j e c t s ( o r t o t h e s e t of t h e i r s t a t e s ) .

According t o experimental d a t a , t h e method of coding t h a t i s optimum with

r e s p e c t t o t h e process of r e c o g n i t i o n i s t h e method i n which t h e number of in­
formative a t t r i b u t e s of t h e signal equals t h e number of a t t r i b u t e s of t h e ob­
j e c t . Here, optimum results are a t t a i n e d i n cases where t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e

75
s i g n a l reproduce, even i f p a r t i a l l y , t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e o b j e c t , t h u s ensuring
t h e active p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n - b y - s i m i l a r i t y mechanism i n t h e a c t s
of recognition.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUESTION OF THE RELIABILITY OF

THE PROCESS OF RGCOGNITION

B.F.Lomv, R.M.Mansurov and G.V.Sukhodol*skiy

(Leningrad )

Psychologically considered, r e c o g n i t i o n i s a system of sensory and i n ­

t e l l e c t u a l a c t i o n s which comprise t h e a c t s of d e t e c t i o n and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of
t h e s i g n a l , i t s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and i t s a s s o c i a t i o n with t h e o b j e c t repre­
s e n t e d . The r e l i a b i l i t y of r e c o g n i t i o n can be evaluated from t h e i n d i c e s
of i t s accuracy and speed.
E
The r e l i a b i l i t y of recognition i s a f u n c t i o n of many v a r i a b l e s , t h e most
important of which are:
a) d egree of d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y of t h e s i g n a l , t a k e n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e
r e s o l v i n g power of t h e human r e c e p t o r system;
b ) number of a t t r i b u t e s of t h e signal, r e l a t e d t o t h e human a b i l i t y
f o r simultaneous processing of information a r r i v i n g o v e r several.
channels ;
c ) l e n g t h and complexity of t h e c h a r a c t e r s , with r e f e r e n c e t o t h e pe­
c u l i a r i t i e s of hurran memory.

The d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y of each i n d i v i d u a l a t t r i b u t e of t h e s i g n a l may be

expressed by t h e value of. i t s divergence from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l t h r e s h o l d of t h e
co rres p n d i n g a n a l y s o r :

Q = -n
A

where Q = d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y of t h e a t t r i b u t e ;
n = divergence of t h e a t t r i b u t e as i t s o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ;
A = t h r e s h o l d value of t h e divergence, determined by t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l
t h r e s h o l d of t h e a n a l y s o r .

The p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r - f r e e r e c o g n i t i o n i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e discrimin­
a b i l i t y & r = f (Q) .
FGr each of t h e i n p u t s of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n system we may f i n d a v a l u e of Q
such t h a t I&, a s y m p t o t i c a l l y approaches u n i t y .

The alphabet with which t h e o p e r a t o r must work may c o n s i s t of e i t h e r one-

dimensional o r multidimensional symbols. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f multidimension­
a l symbols can be accomplished by e i t h e r successive o r simultaneous scanning o f
their attributes.

I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e , s e v e r a l channels f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n of information cp­

76
erate i n parallel. However, h m n a b i l i t y t o make simultaneous use of s e v e r a l
sensory channels i s l i m i t e d .

Under a c t u a l conditions of work, a man usually does not scan a l l a t t r i ­

b u t e s i n sequence but may, depending on t h e s p e c i f i c conditions of recognition,
more o r less ffjumprffrom one t o t h e o t h e r , thus considerably shortening t h e
r e c o g n i t i o n time. Here t h e i d e n t i f y i n g a t t r i b u t e s of m a x i m u m d i s c r i m i n a b i l i t y
from a l l o t h e r s a r e picked o u t of t h e conglomerate.

The recognition time i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e number of ffsteps" t h a t must be

taken t o r e l a t e t h e s i g n a l t o t h e o b j e c t . The number of such f f s t e p s f fdepends
on t h e organization of t h e memory processes.

A d e t a i l e d study of t h e components of t h e r e c o g n i t i o n process and of i t s

s t r u c t u r e i s an extremely important condition f o r s o l v i n g t h e problem of op­
t i m u m coding of t h e information f e d t o t h e operator, and of enhancing t h e re­
l i a b i l i t y o f i t s reception.

THE ROLE OF CLASSIFICATION I N THE RECOGNITION OF

OBJECTS FROM THEIR EXTERNAL OUTLINE

V.A.Ganzen and R.M.Granovskaya

(Leningrad)

I n t h e a c t of cognition, information about a visual form ( o u t l i n e ) e n t e r s

t h e c e n t r a l nervous system from t h e r e t i n a and oculomotor apparatus, i s com­
pared, and then processed. A number of authors (V.D.Glezer, A.L.Byzov, L.M.
Vekker, B.F.Lomov and V.P.Zinchenko) who i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e s t r u c t u r e and func­
t i o n of t h e v i s u a l system have come t o t h e conclusion t h a t s e v e r a l prirrary at­
t r i b u t e s can be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d i n t h e o b j e c t of v i s u a l perception. The in­
coming information i s e v i d e n t l y processed i n s e v e r a l s t a g e s .

I n t h e model under consideration, two s t a g e s of t h i s processing a r e de­

s c r i b e d . I n t h e f i r s t s t a g e , t h e o u t l i n e i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d f i r s t , a f t e r which
t h e circumference and i t s curvature a t each point a r e determined; t h e o u t l i n e
i s t h e n broken up i n t o a f i n i t e number o f i n t e r v a l s , and each such i n t e r v a l i s
described by a group of primary a t t r i b u t e s . The following a r e used as such at­
t r i b u t e s : 1) t h e condition f o r zero curvature; 2) t h e s i g n o f t h e curvature;
3) t h e m a x i m u m a b s o l u t e value of t h e curvature; 4) t h e value of t h e a b s o l u t e
increment of t h e s l o p e of t h e tangent; 5) t h e local dimensions of t h e i n t e r v a l .
Each a t t r i b u t e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a number, and each i n t e r v a l of t h e o u t l i n e
is characterized by a group of such numbers. The code of t h e o u t l i n e as a whole
c o n s i s t s of a n ordered sequence of such groups. The code obtained i s compared
with t h e code r e t a i n e d i n t h e m e m o r y , and i n t h i s way r e c o g n i t i o n can t a k e
place.

Codes of t h i s t y p e are i n v a r i a n t under transformations such as t h e t r a n s ­

formations of s i m i l a r i t y , r o t a t i o n , p a r a l l e l t r a n s l a t i o n , l i n e a r deformations
of t e n s i o n and s h e a r , and s p e c i a l forms of nonlinear transformations.

I n t h e second s t a g e t h e r e s u l t a n t codes are transformed. The following

77
 I 11111111.111 I. 1-1
. ...-
I-.I I ..... .. --.._
~~~ I

t r a n s f o p m t i o n s , more s p e c i f i c a l l y , a r e considered:

1) Transverse f i l t r a t i o n : Those groups of t h e code possessing a n assigned

value of one a t t r i b u t e a r e distinguished. This o p e r a t i o n may s e r v e f o r re­
covery of t h e most informative p r t s of t h e contour.

2 ) Longitudinal f i l t r a t i o n : Out o f a l l groups of t h e code, one and t h e

same a t t r i b u t e i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d . This o p e r a t i o n ray be used t o recover t h e
most informative primary a t t r i b u t e s .

3) Recovery of t h e a t t r i b u t e o r group of a t t r i b u t e s with t h e same value i n

a l l code groups: These a t t r i b u t e s a r e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e o b j e c t as a whole and
can be i s o l a t e d i n t o a s e w r a t e group s t a n d i n g ahead of t h e code.

A s a r e s u l t of such transformations we o b t a i n a new code, c o n s i s t i n g of

t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e contour as a whole (secondary). The d e s c r i p t i o n be- &
comes s h o r t e r and changes i n t o a n unordered sequence of secondary a t t r i b u t e s .

A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of o b j e c t s is constructed based on t h e secondary a t t r i ­

b u t e s , d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e sets and s u b s e t s and t h e a t t r i b u t e s
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l o b j e c t . These a t t r i b u t e s have various weights. The s t r a t e g y
of r e c o g n i t i o n becomes r i g i d l y connected with t h e t a s k , i.e., it i s required
e i t h e r t o recognize t h e s e t , or t h e subset from which t h e o b j e c t i s s e l e c t e d ,
cir t o recognize t h e o b j e c t from i t s i n d i v i d u a l a t t r i b u t e s .

,
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n permits economies i n n o t a t i o n , s t o r a g e and counting o f i n ­
formation, i n agreement with experimental d a t a obtained by psychologists es­
p e c i a l l y by P.1.Zinchenko who has shown t h a t mastery o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n pro­
cess by a c h i l d s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e s t h e number of o b j e c t s remeEbered.

DEPENDENCE OF THE RATE AND ACCUFtACY OF PERCEPTION AND

FECOGNITION OF VISUAL DISPLAYS ON THE CHANGES
I N THEIR ANGULAR DIMENSIONS

M. K.Tutushkina
(Leningrad)

One of t h e most important problems o f engineering psychology i s t h e prob­

l e m of s e l e c t i n g t h e optimum conditions f o r t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n of information t o
a n operator. This problem becomes p r t i c u l a r l y important i n studying t h e con­
d i t i o n s of p r e s e n t a t i o n of d i s p l a y s on t h e screen of a cathode-ray tube, s i n c e
t h e r a t e and accuracy o f recognition of v i s u a l d i s p l a y s l a r g e l y depends on such
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as t h e c o n t r a s t between d i s p l a y and background , brightness of
t h e d i s p l a y , and i t s a n g u l a r dimensions. A l l t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e c l o s e l y
i n t e r r e l a t e d and e x e r t a great mutual i n f l u e n c e . However, f o r more d e t a i l e d
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s it i s necessary t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and assume,
f o r purposes o f t h e study, t h a t t h e o t h e r s are optimum.

I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e problem was t o study t h e i n f l u e n c e of a change

i n a n g u l a r dimensions o f a given d i s p l a y on t h e accuracy and r a t e o f i t s per­
ception and recognition by t h e operator.
78
 Analysis of l i t e r a t u r e d a t a on t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e spatial. t h r e s h o l d
of v i s i o n and a determination of t h e optimum a n g u l a r dimensions of various d i s ­
plays showed t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r problem had previously been s t u d i e d with t h e
t e s t o b j e c t shown t o t h e s u b j e c t a t a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from him, i n r e f l e c t e d
l i g h t . Only i n a very f e w i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , a l l of a preliminary n a t u r e , was t h e
o p e r a t o r shown luminous d i s p l a y s on a s c r e e n .

I n t h e p r o j e c t under d i s c u s s i o n , a luminous d i s p l a y w a s shown t o t h e L92

s u b j e c t on a s c r e e n n o t more t h a n 75 cm from him. T h i s d i s t a n c e was held con­
s t a n t throughout t h e experiment, and t h e a n g u l a r r a d i i were v a r i e d by changing
t h e l i n e a r dimension of t h e d i s p l a y on t h e screen.

Four series of experiments were staged. Two of them w e r e devoted t o a

s t u d y of t h e rate and accuracy of p e r c e p t i o n of unknown d i s p l a y s of various an­
g u l a r r a d i i with l i m i t e d or unlimited p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e , and t h e o t h e r two se­
ries concerned t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of d i s p l a y s of various a n g u l a r r a d i i under t h e
same conditions.

A s a r e s u l t of t h e experiments w e determined t h e t h r e s h o l d s of s e p a r a t e
v i s i o n and r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e contours of simple and complex plane f i g u r e s ,
v i s u a l d i s p l a y s , and separate p a r t s and l e t t e r s i n t h e d i s p l a y with l i m i t e d and
unlimited p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e . We found t h a t , f o r unlimited p r e s e n t a t i o n time,
t h e contours of simple f i g u r e s i n t h e form of a t r i a n g l e , trapezium or polygon
a r e perceived a t a n a n g u l a r r a d i u s of 6 9 and are recognized without e r r o r a t a n
a n g u l a r r a d i u s of 121, whereas t h e same contours, b u t complicated by various
e x t e r n a l or i n t e r n a l d e t a i l s such as l e t t e r s , a r e perceived a t a n a n g u l a r r a d i u s
of 189 and recognized a t a n a n g u l a r r a d i u s of 151. Details i n t h e d i s p l a y are
d i s t i n c t l y perceived a t a minimum a n g u l a r dimension or s p a c i n g of 3' ( l i n e a r
dimension, 1 mm), which i s t h r e e t i m e s as g r e a t as t h e t h r e s h o l d of normal vis­
u a l a c u i t y i n r e f l e c t e d l i g h t , and almost a g r e e s with t h e r e s u l t s of D.N.Laz­
a r e v on t h e r e s o l v i n g power o f t h e eye for two 1.uminous p o i n t s , which i s 2'1+0".
The t h r e s h o l d of r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e smallest d e t a i l was somewhat lower, about
29. F o r unlimited p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e , t h e r e i s no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e
value of t h e spatial t h r e s h o l d s between t h e perception o f a n unkncwn d i s p l a y
and i t s recognition. There i s , however, a considerable d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e t i m e
of e r r o r - f r e e reading, which, f o r r e c o g n i t i o n , i s o n l y h a l f t h a t f o r perception
of t h e d i s p l a y . Perception and r e c o g n i t i o n of a complex d i s p l a y with a l l i t s
d e t a i l i s completely f r e e from e r r o r a t a n a n g u l a r r a d i u s of 33 - 35'.

When t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n time w a s l i m i t e d , we noted a considerable d i f f e r e n c e

between perception and r e c o g n i t i o n b o t h i n speed (evaluated by t h e t h r e s h o l d
p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e ) and i n accuracy (evaluated by t h e spatial t h r e s h o l d ) . W e
found a c e r t a i n dependence between t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e of a d i s p l a y and i t s
a n g u l a r r a d i u s under t h e conditions of e r r o r - f r e e perception and recognition.
The t h r e s h o l d of v i s i o n of t h e smallest d e t a i l i n a n unknown d i s p l a y a t presen­
t a t i o n t i m e s of 0.05 s e c i s 309, i.e., t e n times as great as f o r unlimited pre­
s e n t a t i o n time. For r e c o g n i t i o n , t h i s t h r e s h o l d i s 6 - 89.

The r e s u l t s of t h e s t u d y make it p o s s i b l e t o determine c e r t a i n opera- /96

t i v e spatial t h r e s h o l d s of p e r c e p t i o n and r e c o g n i t i o n of visual d i s p l a y s , t h e i r
contours , and smallest d e t a i l s , a t l i m i t e d and unlimited p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e .

79
 I I I

VISUAL PERCEPTION OF A DISPLAY WITH LIMITED

PRGSENTATION TIME

M. K .Tutushkina
(Leningrad)

The operator's work i n c o n t r o l systems i s extremely varied. I n a psycho­

l o g i c a l analysis of t h i s a c t i v i t y , t h e cognitive processes, by which t h e oper­
t o r receives and processes information, occupy t h e primary position. These
processes include s e n s a t i o n , perception, r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , and thought. I n read­
i n g d i s p l a y s from a screen, t h e o p e r a t o r must f i r s t of a l l perceive t h e d i s p l a y
with a l l i t s d e t a i l s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e n c o r r e l a t e t h e given d i s p l a y w i t h
t h e mental image of t h e d i s p l a y a l r e a d y formed i n h i s imagination, i . e . , s o l v e
t h e problem of cognition and decoding o f information.

The o b j e c t of o u r study was t o e v a l u a t e t h e configuration o f d i s p l a y s rel­

a t i v e t o t h e i r s t r u c t u r e as geometrical f i g u r e s , and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e
s t r u c t u r e of a d i s p l a y with t h e information encoded i n it. Apparently, t h i s
problem can be solved only by comparing t h e processes of perception and recog­
,
n i t i o n of d i s p l a y s . Under r e a l o p e r a t i n g conditions t h e o p e r a t o r must i d e n t i ­
f y v i s u a l d i s p l a y s . But t h e process o f recognition i t s e l f i s t h e r e s u l t of a
c e r t a i n t r a i n i n g , and t h e complete s t r u c t u r e of v i s u a l perception i s condensed
i n it. It follows t h a t , t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e perception of d i s p l a y s of a c e r t a i n
configuration and t o evaluate them, one m u s t s e l e c t a method whereby t h i s pro­
cess can be unrolled and i t s s t r u c t u r e defined. I n o t h e r words, we must study
t h e process of formation, i.e., t h e gradual formation of a complete idea of t h e
display. For a more d e t a i l e d study of t h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e perception of a
complex d i s p l a y , it was necessary t o l i m i t t h e t i m e o f perception and study t h e
perception of t h e d i s p l a y with l i m i t e d p r e s e n t a t i o n t i m e .

A p r o j e c t i o n tachystoscope with a time r e l a y was t h e experimental apparatus

used i n t h i s study. Time delays of 0.03, 0.05, 0.07, 0.1, 0.15, 0 . 2 , 0.25, 0.3,
0.35 s e e were used i n t h e experiments. The s u b j e c t s were shown unknown d i s ­
plays (of angular r a d i u s 1°,!+O1) and were i n s t r u c t e d f i r s t t o perceive them and
t h e n t o sketch them. The d i s p l a y s were exhibited u n t i l completely perceived by
the subjects .
The d i s p l a y s were divided i n t o t h r e e compl.exity groups. The complexity of
a d i s p l a y m s determined by t h e number o f d e t a i l s and c h a r a c t e r s , and by
t h e s i z e o f t h e d e t a i l s and t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e d i s p l a y .
m
The experiments permitted us t o f o l l o w t h e gradual formation o f t h e v i s ­
ual concept of t h e d i s p l a y as it depended on t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n time and complex­
i t y of t h e d i s p l a y . Simple d i s p l a y s were completely perceived i n 0.03 s e c ,
d i s p l a y s of moderate complexity i n 0.07 s e c , and complex d i s p l a y s i n 0.3 s e c .

An a n a l y s i s of t h e e x p e r h e n t a l data permitted us t o d i s t i n g u i s h a c e r t a i n
s t r u c t u r e i n t h e process o f formation of a concept of t h e d i s p l a y under time
d e f i c i t conditions.

F i r s t , t h e s u b j e c t s d i s t i n g u i s h t h e contour of t h e d i s p l a y as i t s most

80
 i n f o r r a t i v e part t o g e t h e r with t h e i n t e r n a l o r external d e t a i l s that are easiest
t o d i s t i n g u i s h ( l i n e with a c i r c l e , hatched p r t i o n s ) ; t h e n t h e i n t e r n a l and
e j r t e r n a l d e t a i l s are d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h a t a r e smaller but f a r apart. The small­
e s t d e t a i l s and t h e c l o s e l y spaced d e t a i l s (two l i n e s , s h c r t l i n e s ) are r e f i n e d
a f t e r complete perception of t h e rmjor d e t a i l s .

The g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y i n perception was produced by l e t t e r s i n s i d e o r

o u t s i d e t h e contour of t h e d i s p l a y .

The c h a r a c t e r of t h e formative process i s expressed by s c r u t i n y and d i s ­

c r i m i n a t i o n of each of t h e smallest d e t a i l s of t h e d i s p l a y .

The s t r u c t u r e of t h e process i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e o r d e r i n which t h e ele­

ments o f t h e d i s p l a y are sketched by t h e s u b j e c t s .

Under t i m e d e f i c i t conditions, t h e spatial t h r e s h o l d s of v i s i o n vary con­

s i d e r a b l y . Exposure f o r 0.03 s e c i s s u f f i c i e n t t o see a d e t a i l with a n angu­
l a r r a d i u s of 30 - 4.09, b u t almost t e n t i m e s as long i s needed t o see a d e t a i l
of a n a n g u l a r r a d i u s of 3 t o 6'.

This experimental work permitted a n e v a l u a t i o n of t h e configuration of

d i s p l a y s or of geometric f i g u r e s with r e s p e c t t o t h e i r d i s c r i - m i n a b i l i t y under
conditions of t i m e d e f i c i t .

SELECTION OF THE CONTIWST FACTOR I N THE: PERCEFTION

OF A VISUAL DISPLAY

V.Ye.Bushurova
(Leningrad)

The perception of a visual d i s p l a y i s g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by conditions of

i t s p r e s e n t a t i o n , such as i t s a n g u l a r dimensions, f l i c k e r frequency, and con­
t r a s t between d i s p l a y i l l u m i n a t i o n and background i l l u m i n a t i o n .

The o b j e c t of t h i s s t u d y was t o f i n d t h e optimum c o n t r a s t f a c t o r between

d i s p l a y and background i l l u m i n a t i o n . The experiments w e r e conducted i n dark­
ness, t o which t h e s u b j e c t s had been adapted i n a 15-min Feriod. On a
s c r e e n 70 ~ x ni n diameter appeared a d i s p l a y i n t h e form of a geometric figure
m
r e p r e s e n t i n g some real o b j e c t . The image w a s projected by a p r o j e c t o r behind
t h e s c r e e n , i . e . , it w a s t r a n s i l l u m i n a t e d .

The s c r e e n w a s 70 cm from t h e subject's eyes. The a n g u l a r r a d i u s of t h e

d i s p l a y on t h e long s i d e of i t s o u t l i n e w a s about 33'.

I n t h e experiments w e used reverse c o n t r a s t , i.e., t h e d i s p l a y w a s il­

luminated on a dark background. The choice of reverse c o n t r a s t was based on
t h e data by A.A.Stepnov who showed that when a d i s p l a y i s thrown on a s c r e e n
by t r a n s i l l u m i n a t i o n , reverse c o n t r a s t has several advantages over d i r e c t con­
t r a s t . I n our s t u d y it was important t o determine t h e c o n t r a s t f a c t o r f o r per­
c e p t i o n of t h e d i s p l a y under t h e s e conditions.

81

 The experiments t o f i n d t h e optimum c o n t r a s t were divided i n t o f o u r s e r i e s .

I n S e r i e s I, t h e d i s p l a y s were shown t o t h e s u b j e c t a t f i v e c o n t r a s t fac­

t o r s , 32%, .!J+%, 6&%,86$, and 97%-2. The s u b j e c t s were a l r e a d y familiar w i t h
t h e d i s p l a y s . They were asked t o i d e n t i f y t h e d i s p l a y and estimate t h e con­
t r a s t by giving one of f i v e grades. The l a t e n c y period of s e n s o r i v e r b a l reac­
t i o n and estimation of t h e c o n t r a s t showed that a c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e f a c t o r s 32%
and 44% was extremely inconvenient, s i n c e it involved visual stress. The high­
est grade ( 5 ) was given by t h e s u b j e c t s t o a 97% c o n t r a s t , and t h e lowest t o a
32% c o n t r a s t . The c o n t r a s t of 86% was estimated a t grade 4 , 64%a t grades 3
o r 4 , and 44% a t grade 2 o r 3 .

I n S e r i e s 11, t h e purpose was t o f i n d t h e optimum c o n t r a s t f a c t o r . The

o n l y d i f f e r e n c e f r o m S e r i e s I was that t h e s u b j e c t was shown t h e d i s p l a y f o r a
l i m i t e d period o f 0.05 s e c .

Because of t h e more d i f f i c u l t perception conditions i n t h i s s e r i e s , we

used t h e e r r o r s of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as an index, which permitted a more a c c u r a t e
d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e optimum c o n t r a s t l e v e l .

The r e s u l t s o f S e r i e s I1 suggest t h a t t h e r e a r e no s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s
i n t h e accuracy of i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e d i s p l a y s i n t h e range from 60 t o 97%
c o n t r a s t . The subject’s estimate of c o n t r a s t agreed with t h e d a t a on i d e n t i f i ­
c a t i o n accuracy.

I n S e r i e s 111, t h e d i s p l a y s were shown t o s u b j e c t s u . n f a m i l i a r with them,

i.e., w h a t took place was not a process o f recognition b u t a process of per­
ception. A s was shown i n one of OUT e a r l i e r s t u d i e s , perception - as a forma­
t i v e process - i s much more s u i t a b l e than recognition f o r discovering t h e d i f ­
f i c u l t i e s produced by various conditions of d i s p l a y on t h e i n d i c a t o r (angu- /99
l a r dimensions, b r i g h t n e s s , e t c . ) . T h i s a p p l i e s equally t o t h e c o n t r a s t . It
was p r e c i s e l y f o r t h i s reason that t h i s s e r i e s of experiments w a s based on t h e
perception of d i s p l a y s .

This s e r i e s , i n which t h e c o n t r a s t s w i t h f a c t o r s of 65%, 75%, 85%, and

95% were analyzed, l i k e w i s e showed no perceptib1.e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e con­
trast d a t a .

I n S e r i e s I V Y we used t h e p r i n c i p l e of having t h e s u b j e c t himself give

t h e degree of c o n t r a s t most convenient f o r perception of t h e d i s p l a y . The sub­
j e c t was allowed t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d e s i r e d c o n t r a s t on t h e screen: 65%, 70%, 75$,
80%, 90%, o r 95%.

Three l e v e l s of d i s p l a y brightness were used: 20, 30, and 50 n i t .

The experiments with 50 s u b j e c t s showed t h a t , a t a d i s p l a y brightness of

3O‘and 50 n i t , 85% was t h e optimum c o n t r a s t f a c t o r and a t a brightness of 20
n i t , it was 90%.

$5 The d i s p l a y s were photographed on f i l m and t h e c o n t r a s t f a c t o r was then meas­

ured

82

 The conclusion may be drawn from a l l t h e s e r i e s t h a t t h e working range f o r

perception of a d i s p l a y should be t h e range from 65 t o 95% c o n t r a s t . A con­
trast of 8 5 -
90% i s optimum i n t h i s range.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE Q W T I O N OF THE CRITICAL FLICKER

FUSION FREQUENCY I N STUDYING THE PERCEPTION
OF A VISUAL DISPLAY

..
T P Zinchenko
(Leningrad)

One of t h e s p e c i f i c problems i n engineering psychology i s t o i n v e s t i g a t e

t h e perception of v i s u a l d i s p l a y s on t h e s c r e e n of a cathode-ray tube. One of
t h e f a c t o r s influencing v i s u a l perception i s t h e f l i c k e r frequency of images
on a screen. The v i s u a l s e n s a t i o n experienced on reaching t h e c r i t i c a l f l i c k e r
frequency (CFF) of a discontinuous l i g h t stimulus i s equivalent t o t h e visual
s e n s a t i o n of a stimulus constant throughout t h e t i m e of emission.

The t e c h n i c a l conditions under which a d i s p l a y i s shown i n modern systems

make it necessary t o determine t h e minimum CFF s i n c e , with i n c r e a s i n g amount of
information supplied i n u n i t time, t h e noise r e s i s t a n c e of t h e system decreases.
To avoid f l i c k e r i n g i n modern t e l e v i s i o n , a r a t e of 50 - 60 frames a second /lo0
i s o r d i n a r i l y used, and i n motion p i c t u r e s , 48 frames a second.

I n many s t u d i e s on psychology, physiology, and l i g h t i n g technology, t h e

e f f e c t of various f a c t o r s on t h e CFF has been i n v e s t i g a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h e
b r i g h t n e s s of t h e l i g h t stimulus ( d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p ) . An i n c r e a s e i n t h e
a n g u l a r dimensions of t h e f l a s h i n g image has t h e same e f f e c t on t h e CFF as a n
i n c r e a s e i n brightness.

The r e l a t i o n of t h e CFF t o t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e f l a s h i n g source h a s been

s t u d i e d f o r p i c t u r e images ( t e l e v i s i o n , motion p i c t u r e s ) and � o r luminous s p o t s .
Inadequate study has been devoted t o t h e v a r i a t i o n i n CFF i n t h e perception of
complex plane f i g u r e s , d i s p l a y s of a c e r t a i n configuration, of s m a l l angular
radius. It i s w e l l known t h a t every v a r i a t i o n i n t h e a r e a of t h e illuminated
s u r f a c e of an in-age e n t r a i n s a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e a r e a of t h e illuminated s u r f a c e
of t h e retina, which i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e CFF of a n i n t e r m i t t e n t l i g h t stimulus.

The o b j e c t of t h e present study was t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e dependence of t h e

CFF on t h e brightness and configuration of a t r a n s i l l u m i n a t e d display.

The experimental technique was as follows: After 10 minutes of dark-adap­

t a t i o n t h e s u b j e c t , by changing t h e r o t a t i o n a l speed of a two-blade d i s k ob­
t u r a t o r (with a light-dark r a t i o of 1 : 1) d e f i n e s t h e p o s i t i o n a t which t h e
f l i c k e r i n g of t h e image disappears. The frequency was recorded by t h e Lissa­
jous-f i g u r e method*.

x- The experimental s e t u p was designed by engineers V.I.BUtGV and D.N.Char­

torizhskiy.

83
 The d a t a presented consisted of d i s p l a y s which were geometric f i g u r e s of
various configurations. T h e i r a n g u l a r r a d i u s was 33'. When t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n
o f t h e d i s p l a y was changed, t h e area of t h e i l l u m i n a t e d s u r f a c e also changed
(for example, a t a source b r i g h t n e s s of 120 n i t , t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e d i s ­
plays v a r i e d from 0.72 l u x t o 1.19 lux). The b r i g h t n e s s of t h e source v a r i e d
over t h e range from 1 - 2 n i t t o 120 n i t .

Our experiments showed ' t h a t , on v a r i a t i o n of t h e d i s p l a y b r i g h t n e s s from

1 - 2 n i t t o 120 n i t , t h e CFF v a r i e d i n t h e range from 16 t o 30 cps. The hy­
p o t h e s i s that t h e CFF depends on t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e d i s p l a y was a l s o con­
firmed. Thus, a t a source b r i g h t n e s s of 50 n i t , t h e mean CFF f o r a d i s p l a y
whose area w a s i l l u m i n a t e d a t 0.32 lux, was 24 cps. The mean CFF f o r a d i s p l a y
of d i f f e r e n t c o n f i g u r a t i o n , with a n i l l u m i n a t i o n of 0.53 lux, was 28.3 cps.

Thus a decrease i n t h e CFF can be obtained e i t h e r by a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e

b r i g h t n e s s of t h e l i g h t stimulus or by a d e c r e a s e i n t h e area of t h e i l l u m i n a t e d
s u r f a c e , obtained by reducing t h e a n g u l a r dimensions of t h e d i s p l a y or by
changing i t s configuration.

We found a considerable i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a t i o n i n t h e CFF. I n d i v i d u a l d i f ­

f e r e n c e s appeared most d i s t i n c t l y a t minimum and mximum b r i g h t n e s s of t h e d i s ­
play ( c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n , 16%). A t moderate b r i g h t n e s s (50 n i t ) , t h e /101
a;%.
c o e f f i c i e n t of v a r i a t i o n was

ON THE MEASURENEXT OF SIMILARITY I N GRAPHIC IMAGES

.
V. G S tepanov
(Moscow)

I n t h i s paper, t h e a u t h o r d i s c u s s e s t h e measurement of t h e degree of sim­

i l a r i t y of graphic irraages (advertisements o r p o s t e r s ) with various amounts of
information. The subj e c t i v e - s t a t i s t i c a l e s t i m a t i o n s of t h e degree of s i m i l a r i t y
were used t o determine t h e weighting f a c t o r s i n t h e formula f o r e v a l u a t i n g si­
m i l i t u d e , proposed by V.A.Jkkhonin a t t h e conference Wan and Automatic Machine"
(December, 1963). The paper g i v e s t h e experimental d a t a .

DEPENDENCE OF THE PERCEPTION OF ELECTRONIC DIGITAL INDICATOR

READINGS ON THE ILLUMINATION OF THE I N D I C A T I N G PORTIONS

A .A .Krylov
(Leningrad)

The use of e l e c t r o n i c d i g i t a l measuring devices as d a t a sources on c o n t r o l

desks i s becoming widespread. The p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e of such devices, with re­
s p e c t t o perception of t h e i r readings, i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y d i s p l a y a luminous
colored image of t h e d i g i t s . I n one type of such d e v i c e s , s p e c i a l m u l t i - p l a t e
t u b e s are used, w i t h p l a t e s i n t h e form of t h e d i g i t s from 0 t o 9 . The image
of a given d i g i t i s obtained when t h e corresponding anode begins t o glow. I n
devices o f a n o t h e r t y p e , t h e images of t h e d i g i t s are produced by t h e lumines-
 cent glow of c e r t a i n i s o l a t e d parts (segments) of a phosphor. I n l a y i n g o u t
t h e e l e c t r o n i c d i g i t a l i n d i c a t o r s on t h e instrument panels of c o n t r o l desks,
t h e question n a t u r a l l y arises as t o t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n l e v e l s a t which t h e i n d i ­
c a t i n g portions o f f e r t h e most f a v o r a b l e conditions f o r v i s u a l perception of
t h e i r readings. We discovered no papers on t h i s problem i n t h e USSR and f o r e i g n
l i t e r a t u r e a v a i l a b l e t o us.

I n our s t u d i e s we determined t h e r a t e and accuracy of perception.of t h e

readings of d i g i t a l i n d i c a t o r s using phosphors o r vacuum tubes with t h e /102
i n d i c a t i n g portions illuminated by incandescent bulbs o r by VS f l u o r e s c e n t
bulbs. The i l l m i n a t i o n l e v e l s i n both cases were e s t a b l i s h e d a t 1, 20, 50,
100, 200, 300, 4.50, 550 and 600 lux. Our s t u d i e s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e readabil­
i t y of phosphor-coated and vacuum-tube d i g i t a l i n d i c a t o r s depends on t h e r a t i o
of t h e brightness of t h s f l u o r e s c e n t d i g i t s t o t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e i n d i ­
c a t i n g portion, and a l s o on t h e s p e c t r a l composition of t h e l i g h t r a d i a t e d by
t h e i n d i c a t o r d i g i t s and by e x t e r n a l l i g h t sources. I n perceiving t h e readings
of t h e tube i n d i c a t o r , with t h e d i g i t s glowing orange-yellow a t a b r i g h t n e s s of
about 85 n i t ( I N - 1 t u b e ) and of a f l u o r e s c e n t i n d i c a t o r (ZhVZ-012-005) with
blue-glowing d i g i t s and a maximum b r i g h t n e s s of about 11 n i t , v i s u a l discrimin­
a t i o n was possible a t i l l u m i n a t i o n l e v e l s t o 600 lux, on account of t h e c o l o r
c o n t r a s t between t h e illuminated f i g u r e s and t h e background ( t h e s u r f a c e of t h e
i n d i c a t i n g p o r t i o n ) . A t t h e same time, favorable conditions f o r v i s u a l percep­
t i o n of t h e readings were e s t a b l i s h e d a t il.luminations of t h e i n d i c a t i n g por­
t i o n s of t h e devices considerably lower than those a t which d i s c r i m i n a t i o n of
t h e d i g i t s was s t i l l possible. For example, t h e s u b j e c t s were a b l e t o perceive
t h e instrument readings w i t h maximum speed and accuracy and without e y e s t r a i n ,
a t a n i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e i n d i c a t i n g p o r t i o n of t h e f l u o r e s c e n t i n d i c a t o r not
higher t h a n 100 lux f o r incandescent bulbs, and not h i g h e r t h a n 50 l u x f o r t h e
case of BS f l u o r e s c e n t bulbs. For a vacuum-tube i n d i c a t o r , when illuminated by
incandescent bulbs, t h e perception o f t h e readings without e y e s t r a i n w a s pos­
s i b l e a t a n i l l u m i n a t i o n not higher t h a n 100 l u x f o r t h e i n d i c a t i n g p o r t i o n ,
and not higher t h a n 200 lux f o r t h e BS f l u o r e s c e n t bulbs. These d i f f e r e n c e s
a r e explained by t h e f a c t that t h e s p e c t r a l compmition of t h e r a d i a t i o n f r o m
t h e d i g i t s on t h e phosphor-coated i n d i c a t o r were c l o s e t o t h e s p e c t r a l composi­
t i o n o f t h e l i g h t from t h e f l u o r e s c e n t b u l b s , whereas t h e s p e c t r a l composition
of t h e r a d i a t i o n from t h e d i g i t s of t h e vacuum-tube i n d i c a t o r were c l o s e r t o
t h e s p e c t r a l c o m p s i t i o n of t h e r a d i a t i o n from t h e incandescent bulbs. For
t h i s reason, owing t o t h e higher c o l o r c o n t r a s t between t h e illuminated figures
and t h e background, perception of t h e readings of t h e fluorescent-screen i n d i ­
c a t o r without e y e s t r a i n was p o s s i b l e a t higher i l l u m i n a t i o n l e v e l s of t h e in­
d i c a t i n g portion when incandescent bulbs were used; f o r t h e tube i n d i c a t o r ,
t h i s was possible when t h e i n d i c a t i n g p o r t i o n was illuminated by BS f l u o r e s c e n t
bulbs. It should be noted t h a t , on reducing t h e b r i g h t n e s s of glow of t h e
f i g u r e s on t h e f l u o r e s c e n t i n d i c a t o r , t h e conditions f o r t h e v i s u a l perception
of t h e readings became relatively f a v o r a b l e a t i l l u m i n a t i o n l e v e l s considerably
lower t h a n those given above.

Consequently, e l e c t r o n i c d i g i t a l devices can be s u c c e s s f u l l y used on in­

strument panels i n combination with screens of cathode-ray tubes whose s i g n a l s
are b e t t e r perceived a t low i l l u m i n a t i o n l e v e l s and i n combination with p o i n t e r
instruments, provided t h a t t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e i n d i c a t i n g portions does /lo3
n c t exceed t h e above levels.

 111.111. ..

ENTROPY METHOD FdR ESTIMATING THE ACCURACY C U S S AND

S C A I X DIVISIONS OF CONTROL-MEASURING DEVICES

V. I.N i kolayev
(Leningrad)

The instrumentation used i n shipboard i n s t a l l a t i o n s d e v i a t e s considerably

i n s c a l e design and i n p r i n c i p a l accuracy c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s from t h e requirercents
t h a t should be maintained i n v i e w of t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e processes t a k i n g
place i n t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n and t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r i n c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s e
processes.

This paper formulates t h e general requirenents f o r instrumentation based

on t h e entropy method of analysis of t h e c o n t r o l c i r c u i t , including a n o p e r a t o r
and a real controlled o b j e c t .

The c i r c u i t s o f o p e r a t i v e c o n t r o l of t h e temperature of superheated steam

of a b o i l e r and t h e steam pressure i n f r o n t of t h e valves of t h e m i n engine
a r e considered.

Using experimental e s t h a t e s of t h e traits o f t h e o p e r a t o r , t h e a u t h o r de­

termines t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e device and shows methods of de­
c r e a s i n g t h e load on t h e o p e r a t o r and of improving t h e wiring diagrams of t h e
individual control c i r c u i t s .

86

 SENS0RI"OR PROCESSES RJ3ACTIONS

ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE STRUCTURES OF THE SENSORY

AND MOTOR REGIONS I N CONTROL OPEIWTORS

L.M.Vekker and Ye.N.Surkov

(Leningrad)

The s p e c i f i c q u a l i t y of c o n t r o l operations as a s p e c i a l case of work gen­

e r a l l y depends t o a considerable e x t e n t on t h e p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r of t h e re­
l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s t r u c t u r e s of t h e sensory and motor regions under t h e
conditions of t h e o p e r a t o r * s work. For t h i s reason, t h e question of t h e sen­
sorimotor s t r u c t u r e o f . t h e c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y i s of s u b s t a n t i a l importance both
f o r t h e general t h e o r y of t h e psychic r e g u l a t i o n of a c t i v i t y and f o r t h e prob­
l e m i n engineering psycholbgy of e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e optimum designs f o r c o n t r o l
systems .
Our study was conducted by t h e method o f a comparative a n a l y s i s of t h e
operations i n t h e preparation o f t r a i n r o u t e s under conditions of a c t i v i t y i n
systems w i t h d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e s t r u c t u r e s of t h e sensory and motor
regions.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of p e r f o m n c e q u a l i t y were t h e time i n d i c e s and t h e

c h a r a c t e r of t h e e r r o r s committed by t h e s u b j e c t .

Our study consisted of two s t a g e s . I n t h e f i r s t s t a g e , we performed a

comparative a n a l y s i s of t h e process of preparing a t r a i n r o u t e under conditions
of work a t t h e c o n t r o l panel of a route-control i n t e r l o c k i n g system (RCIS),
where t h e sensory and motor regions of t h e o p e r a t o r coincide both s p a t i a l l y and
s t r u c t u r a l l y , and under t h e conditions of work on a s e p a r a t e '?removableff con­
t r o l panel, where, on t h e contrary, t h e r e i s a s p t i a l and s t r u c t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e sensory and motor regions.

The f i r s t s t a g e consisted of two s e r i e s of experiments. I n t h e first

s e r i e s , problems of r o u t e preparation were solved by t h e same group of s u b j e c t s ,
f i r s t on a s e p a r a t e c o n t r o l panel and t h e n on a combined c o n t r o l panel of t h e
RCIS. The r e s u l t s of t h i s s e r i e s show a s h a r p and s t a t i s t i c a l l y f u l l y substan­
t i a t e d d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e time c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of operation when t h e s t r u c t u r e s
of t h e sensory and motor regions coincide ( i . e . , a t t h e RCIS c o n t r o l panel).
Operation under t h e s e conditions i s almost t h r e e times as r a p i d , and t h e number
of e r r o r s i s considerably smaller. To exclude t h e e f f e c t of t r a n s f e r and spe­
c i a l t r a i n i n g , t h e c o n t r o l panels, on which t h e given s e t of problems were 1106
solved, were changed i n random sequence i n t h e next series of e x p e r b e n t s . The
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of o p e r a t i o n , i n f a v o r of t h e systems with
coinciding s t r u c t u r e o f sensory and motor regions, was s t a t i s t i c a l l y even b e t t e r
substantiated.

Since, i n working on a s e p a r a t e p o r t a b l e c o n t r o l panel with a breadboard

arrangement of t h e c o n t r o l s , t h e sensory and motor regions are s p a t i a l l y sepa­
r a t e d and s t r u c t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t , t h e q u e s t i o n a r o s e whether t h e s t r u c t u r e o r
t h e l o c a l i z a t i o n was t h e d e c i s i v e f a c t o r t h a t slowed t h e operations by compari­
son with those a t RCIS c o n t r o l panel.

To answer t h i s question, we designed a t h i r d c o n t r o l panel s p a t i a l l y sep­

a r a t e d from t h e t r a c k diagram, but completely reproducing i t s s t r u c t u r e , ccm­
p a t i b l e i n scale with t h e volume of t h e motor region of t h e operator. The
second s t a g e of o u r i n v e s t i g a t i o n consisted i n a s t u d y of t h e operation i n pre­
paring t h e same r o u t e s as in t h e f i r s t s t a g e , but working t h i s time a t t h i s
t h i r d c o n t r o l desk.

The r e s u l t s of t h i s series showed a s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e operations on t h e two p o r t a b l e c o n t r o l panels (one with
t h e same s t r u c t u r e as t h e t r a c k diagram and t h e o t h e r with a d i f f e r e n t s t r u c ­
t u r e ) , whereas t h e speed of operation on t h e combined c o n t r o l panel and t h e
p o r t a b l e c o n t r o l panel which s t r u c t u r a l l y coincided with t h e t r a c k diagram
showed no s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s . Since, under t h e conditions of
t h i s c o n t m l panel, t h e r e i s a spatial s e p a r a t i o n although s t r u c t u r a l l y t h e
sensory and motor regions coincide, t h i s r e s u l t i n d i c a t e s t h e d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e
of t h e f a c t o r of s t r u c t u r a l correspondence of t h e sensory and motor regions o f
t h e operator. T h i s r e s u l t i s i n agreement with t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s of psy­
c h i c r e g u l a t i o n of a c t i v i t y and speaks i n f a v o r of t h e importance of t a k i n g
t h i s f a c t o r i n t o account i n t h e design f e a t u r e s o f i n d i c a t i n g devices and con­
t r o l panels.

EVALUATION OF CERTAIN SENSORIM(YI'0R COMPONENTS I N THE

WORK OF A PILOT

V.L .Marishchuk
(Leningrad)

Modern work i n t h e c o n t r o l of various mechanisms i n c r e a s i n g l y emphasizes

i n t e l l e c t u a l operations with r e l a t i v e l y low energy consumption and s i m p l i f i e d
motor components of occupational a c t i v i t i e s . This statement, however, i s /107
not a b s o l u t e l y v a l i d f o r a l l occupations. For example, t h e a c t i v i t y of a n a i r -
c r a f t p i l o t not only r e q u i r e s constant spreading and s h i f t i n g of a t t e n t i o n and
making r a p i d d e c i s i o n s on d i f f i c u l t problems, involving widely d i s p a r a t e s k i l l
and knowledge, but a l s o p r e c i s e and a c c u r a t e a p p l i c a t i o n of f o r c e t o t h e con­
t r o l s and proper manipulation of t h e l e v e r s a t c o r r e c t amplitude and d i r e c t i o n ,
s i n c e t o each value of t h e motion of t h e a i r c r a f t c o n t r o l s u r f a c e s t h e r e cor­
responds a d e f i n i t e aerodynamic e f f e c t . It i s w e l l known that even a small ex­
cess f o r c e in depressing t h e pedal, producing a millimeter's excess d e f l e c t i o n
of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k , may cause a m i s s i n aerial gunnery. I n i n i t i a l f l i g h t
t r a i n i n g noncoordination of t h e c o n t r o l s movements i n t h e landing wneuver i s
one of t h e most f r e q u e n t causes of f a i l u r e t o o b t a i n permission f o r s o l o f l i g h t .
It i s also important t h a t almost every mental response of t h e p i l o t , ccnnected
with t h e c o n t r o l of t h e a i r c r a f t , f i n d s i t s f i n a l expression i n a manifestation
of t h e motor f u n c t i o n s and o f t e n i n a coordinated motion of hands and f e e t .

For t h r e e years we studied highly complex sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s i n p i l o t

trainees and conducted various experiments with 637 s u b j e c t s , examining each
group f o u r times (once i n obtaining t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a and annually during t h e

88

3-year period of f l i g h t t r a i n i n g ) .

A f e a t u r e of t h e technique used was t h e d i s t i n c t complexity of t h e motor

component i n t h e t a s k s t o be performed. The s u b j e c t s were thoroughly t r a i n e d
i n t h e meaning of nine d i f f e r e n t signals and t h e n were exposed t o t h e i r combi­
n a t i o n s , i n response t o which t h e corresponding coordinated and compatible
movements of hands and f e e t were t o be performed. The results of such response
r e a c t i o n s were evaluated as t h e speed of a c t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t . The device
used i n t h e experiments w a s a r b i t r a r i l y named frAvdivlr, and c a r r i e d t h e a i r c r a f t
c o n t r o l s and s e v e r a l sources of v i s u a l and a c o u s t i c signals. We recorded t h e
r e a c t i o n o r response time, t h e c o m p a t i b i l i t y of t h e f o r c e s applied t o t h e ped­
als, and t h e e r r o r s i n motion coordination and i n d e c i s i o n s taken.

The r e s u l t a n t d a t a on t h e mean r e a c t i o n t h e were d i s t r i b u t e d over a wide

range from 865 m e c without errors t o 3117 msec with 50% of wrong r e a c t i o n s .

Not over 20% of t h e measurements, however, w e r e i n t h e extreme range (less

t h a n 1100 and more t h a n 2000 msec) and t h e t o t a l variance of t h e d a t a i s small
(0 = 278.4 f o r M = 1590) which a t t r a c t s p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e extreme re­
sults.

The f o r c e a p p l i e d ( i n s p i t e of preliminary t r a i n i n g ) , when t h e required

f o r c e was 3 kg, was as high as 50 kg i n occasional s u b j e c t s . The r e a c t i o n /lo8
time w a s determined by t h e sensory and mainly by t h e c e n t r a l moment of reac­
t i o n and by t h e accuracy of response t o t h e maximum v a r i a t i o n i n t h e motor com­
ponent.

The r e s u l t s of t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e q u a l i t y and speed of

a c t i o n s , l a r g e l y predetermined t h e l a t e r success of t h e s u b j e c t s i n i n i t i a l
f l i g h t t r a i n i n g . The longer t h e motor r e a c t i o n s took on t h e IrAvdivr*t e s t e r
and t h e more incompatible t h e y were, t h e more time and means w e r e required f o r
t h e p r a c t i c a l f l i g h t i n s t r u c t i o n and t h e more o f t e n did cases o f f a i l u r e i n
f l i g h t occur. The c o e f f i c i e n t of c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e r e a c t i o n time and t h e
number of t r a i n i n g f l i g h t s before t h e f i r s t s o l o f l i g h t , over various years of
t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , ranged from 0.3 t o 0.4.

The q u a l i t y of "speed i n a c t i o n r t s t u d i e d by us proved very dynamic. Thus,

a l r e a d y a f t e r completing i n i t i a l f l i g h t t r a i n i n g , t h e average r e s u l t s of o u r
experiments improved by l4.3% over t h e i n i t i a l values; a f t e r t h e period of
t h e o r e t i c a l i n s t r u c t i o n t h e r e was a s l i g h t d e c l i n e (by 2.5%) b u t , a f t e r mstery
of a new a i r c r a f t type, t h e i n d i c e s a g a i n improved, t h i s time by 5.5%. This
r i s e in t h e i n d i c e s , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e sensorimotor components of a c t i v i t y ,
i n d i c a t e s i n t h i s case a p o s i t i v e t r a n s f e r of s k i l l acquired i n f l y i n g p r a c t i c e
t o t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e s u b j e c t , as w e l l as a general improvement i n t h e motil­
i t y of t h e nervous processes of t h e p i l o t s i n t h e i r work. The i n d i c e s of t h e
study, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g speed i n a c t i o n , showed a c e r t a i n i n t e r r e l a t i o n with t h e
results of t h e hundred-yard dash, t h e hundred-yard s w i m , and t h e r e s u l t s of
s p e c i a l physical e x e r c i s e s i n motor coordination and were i n v e r s e l y proportional
t o t h e r e s u l t s of e x e r c i s e s t h a t involve s t a t i c endurance.

89

 ANALYSIS OF THE SENSORIMOTOR ACT I N PILOTING SHIPS

WITM HYDROFOILS
E.A.Belkina
(Nos cow)

The development of s h i p s with remote-controlled hydrofoils w i l l r e s u l t i n

a change i n t h e f u n c t i o n of thehelmsmen. The increased speed of t h e boat limits
t h e time t h a t can be spent o n . s e a r c h and perception of t h e n a v i g a t i o n a l situa­
t i o n (sensory process) and on t h e necessary motor r e a c t i o n .

P a r t i c u l a r l y g r e a t demands on speed and accuracy of s i g n a l perception and

on s t a b i l i t y of v i g i l a n c e of thehelmsmenare made a t n i g h t , when t h e warning
signals f o r channel d i r e c t i o n and channel width a r e s i g n a l l i g h t s t h a t a r e per­
ceived as points on t h e v i s u a l threshold.

To i n v e s t i g a t e t h e perception of I.ight s i g n a l s within a l i m i t e d observa­

t i o n t i m e , we designed a n experimental apparatus t o simulate navigation a t
night. On a recording device, we recorded t h e t i n e of search f o r and percep­
t i o n of a s i g n a l l i g h t , t h e l a t e n c y period of motor r e a c t i o n , and t h e accuracy
and speed of perforrrance of t h e motor a c t i o n i n changing t h e "course of t h e
ship".

The perception of white point sources of l i g h t were studied a g a i n s t a

background of b r i g h t n e s s 10-6nit or 6 x 10-2nit a t t h e limits of a search f i e l d
of 30°, a t various i n t e n s i t i e s of t h e s i g n a l l i g h t .

The t o t a l t i m e spent by thehelmsmen on s e a r c h and perception, t o g e t h e r

with t h e l a t e n c y period of t h e motor r e a c t i o n , w a s s h o r t e r a g a i n s t t h e dark
background t h a n a g a i n s t .the b r i g h t background. The number of erroneous re­
sponses and undetected s i g n a l s , as w e l l as t h e t i n e of perfomance of t h e n o t o r
a c t i o n , were g r e a t e r when t h e s i g n a l s appeared a g a i n s t a dark background.

I n t h e presence of extraneous point sources of l i g h t within t h e f i e l d of

v i s i o n , t h e t o t a l t i m e of search, perception, and l a t e n c y period of t h e motor
r e a c t i o n increased i n t h e case where t h e signal l i g h t s were near t h e threshold
l e v e l . With i n c r e a s i n g i n t e n s i t y of t h e l i g h t s i g n a l , t h e o v e r a l l time became
shorter.

I n t h e performance of work i n s t e e r i n g a s h i p with simultaneous observa­

t i o n of a l i g h t s i g n a l , t h e threshold o f l i g h t s e n s i t i v i t y increased.

On t h e s h i p 'rRaketatV, we i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e s t a t e of t h e v i s u a l functions of
t h e helmsmen i n night watches of varying d u r a t i o n . The visual a c u i t y , t h e vis­
u a l range, and t h e speed of t h e visuomotor r e a c t i o n decreased a f t e r only 3 - 4
hours on watch duty. After longer watches t h e r e were considerable changes i n
t h e functions examined.

For t h e purpose of improving t h e work of helrrsmen, we submitted a recom­

mendation t o t h e Ministry of River Transportation t o use a s a f e t y f a c t o r and
parameters f o r t h e t i m e of search, perception, and l a t e n c y period of n o t o r re-
a c t i o n , necessary f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e l i g h t - s i g n a l navigational environnent i n
p i l o t i n g h y d r o f o i l boats.

We suggested t h a t t h e changes noted i n t h e v i s u a l functions of hehsmen be

taken i n t o account i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e v i s i b i l i t y of n a v i g a t i o n a l markers.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUESTION OF THE MECHANISMS OF PSYCHIC /110

FU3GULATION OF THE ACTIVITY OF AN OPERATOR WORKING UNDER
CONDITIONS OF T U C K I N G

V.M.Vodlozerov and B.F.Lomov

(Leningrad )

The problem of psychic r e g u l a t i o n o f motor a c t i v i t y i n work, which w a s one

of t h e very f i r s t problems of i n d u s t r i a l psychology, has now become one of t h e
most important problems of engineering psychology. Knowl.edge of t h e l a w s and
mechanisms of r e g u l a t i o n of t h e behavior of a n o p e r a t o r working under various
conditions i s necessary t o s o l v e such problems as: o $ i " d i s t r i b u t i o n of
functions between man and machine i n c o n t r o l systems, development of t h e psycho­
l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s of designing i n d i c a t o r s and c o n t r o l s , optimum r e l a t i o n be­
tween sensory and motor regions e t c . ,
O f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t i n t h i s problem i s t h e study of a c t i v i t y d i r e c t e d
toward t h e s o l u t i o n of continuous perceptual-motor problems ( i n r c t a r y p u r s u i t
tests).

The conditions f o r an e f f e c t i v e performance of t h e o p e r a t i o n of t r a c k i n g

are :
continuous e v a l u a t i o n of t h e instantaneous s t a t e of t h e s i g n a l ;
continuous matching of t h e motion t o t h e varying s t a t e s of t h e signal;
p r e d i c t i o n of t h e f u t u r e v a r i a t i o n of t h e signal;
o p e r a t i v e readiness t o reorganize motor behavior.

The s e t of a l l t h e s e conditions d e f i n e s t h e dynamics of t h e operator's

a c t i o n s and of t h e mechanism of t h e i r control.

The a c t i v i t y o f a human s u b j e c t was experimentally studied while he was

performing t h e operations of t r a c k i n g a one-dimensional visual s i g n a l (a t a r g e t
being displaced along a s t r a i g h t l i n e a t constant speed). The t a s k bf t h e sub­
j e c t was t o move a p o i n t e r over a handle ( o r handwheel) i n such a manner as t o
keep it c o n t i n u a l l y t r a i n e d on t h e t a r g e t .

An a n a l y s i s of t h e experimental data showed t h a t , i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e of

t r a c k i n g , a series of d i s c r e t e r e a c t i o n s w a s performed i n response t o t h e v a r i ­
a t i o n i n t h e signal p o s i t i o n , f i r s t r e l a t i v e t o i t s i n i t i a l p s i t i o n and then
r e l a t i v e t o t h e pointer. The so-called e x t e r n a l c i r c u i t (eye - hand) plays t h e
leading r o l e i n t h e c o n t r o l cf motion i n t h i s s t a g e . The v i s u a l system performs
t h e f u n c t i o n of measuring t h e displacement of t h e s i g n a l , while t h e k i n e s t h e t i c
system measures t h e displacement of t h e hand. On t h e basis of commensurable
visual and k i n e s t h e t i c s i g n a l s , t h e r a t i o of t h e values of displacement of t h e
s i g n a l and hand ("the t r a n s f e r number") is found.
91

 I n t h e p u r s u i t t e s t , t h e c o n t r o l l i n g v i s u a l p a t t e r n i s reorganized. A s a
r e s u l t of accumulation and averaging of mismatched signals during a c e r t a i n
t i m e , it becomes possible t o e s t i m a t e t h e t a r g e t speed. From a c o n t r o l of /111
t h e hand motions according t o p o s i t i o n , t h e s u b j e c t passes t o t h e i r c o n t r o l a c ­
cording t o speed. This, i n t u r n , ensures i n c l u s i o n of t h e mechanism of v i s u a l
extrapolation i n t h e control c i r c u i t .

The r e o r g a n i z a t i o n of t h e v i s u a l p a t t e r n c r e a t e s t h e conditions f o r a c t i ­
v a t i o n of t h e so-called i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l c i r c u i t ( t h e k i n e s t h e t i c system hand/
hand mtorium). This causes t h e movements t o become continuous and sn-oother.
The number and d u r a t i o n of t h e pauses are s u b s t a n t i a l l y diminished; t h e magni­
tude of t h e e r r o r s decreases, and t h e ' * t h e lagrt i s overcome. The b a s i c func­
t i o n of t h e v i s u a l system from t h e n on becomes s u p e r v i s i o n only.

The motor component of t h e a c t i o n o f t r a c k i n g includes t h e g r e a t e r part of

a l l movements: o r i e n t i n g , measuring, executory, c c r r e c t i v e , and adaptive.

The i n t e r n a l c o n t r o l c i r c u i t ensures a n optimum combination, a t each given

moment, of t h e above forms of motion by various elements of t h e hand, and t h e i r
mutual t r a n s i t i o n s . During t r a c k i n g , t h e hands are i n a s t a t e o f "dynamic
equilibrium", permitting t h e created r e a c t i v e f o r c e s t o be compensated a t mx­
i "speed. This i s one of t h e most important conditions of o p e r a t i v e readi­
ness f o r reorganization of motor behavior.

A FEW CHARACmRISTICS OF AN OPERATOR'S WORK I N TRACKING

AND PURSUIT OF A ONE-DINENSIONAL SIGNAL
V.M.Vodlozerov
(Leningrad )

The movements of t h e hand d u r i n g t h e process of t r a c k i n g and p u r s u i t of a

uniformly moving s i g n a l a r e d i s c r e t e and i r r e g u l a r . The d i s c r e t e n e s s of t h e
movements of t h e hand i s manifested w i t h p a r t i c u l a r d i s t i n c t i o n a t low t a r g e t
-
speeds (1 4 m / s e c ) : t h e s e break down i n t o s e v e r a l p a r t i a l movements, i n t e r ­
rupted by a considerable n m b e r of intermotion i n t e r v a l s . The i r r e g u l a r i t y of
t h e t r a c k i n g movements i s expressed i n t h e f a c t that t h e y d i f f e r i n speed and
d u r a t i o n i n d i c e s . If t h e i r speed i s r e l a t e d t o t h e t a r g e t speed, then a l l t h e s e
movements can be subdivided i n t o t h r e e forms: motion a t a speed 1) g r e a t e r t h a n
t h e t a r g e t speed (G-motion), 2) l e s s t h a n t h e t a r g e t speed (L-mution), 3 ) equal
t o t h e t a r g e t speed (E-mtion). With i n c r e a s i n g t a r g e t speed, t h e number of
i n t e r v a l s decreases s h a r p l y ; a t t h e h i g h e s t speeds used i n o u r experiments /112
-
(8 10 mm/sec), such i n t e r v a l s a r e g e n e r a l l y observed o n l y i n t h e f i r s t 2 t o
3 sec. The number of L-motions, on t h e o t h e r hand, i n c r e a s e s sharply. Thus,
with i n c r e a s i n g t a r g e t speed and i n c r e a s i n g t r a c k i n g time, t h e motion of t h e
hand becomes continuous but s t i l l remains i r r e g u l a r . It may be assumed t h a t
t h e change i n t h e c h a r a c t e r of motion i s due t o a reorganization of t h e mechan­
i s m of i t s psychic c o n t r o l .

Two types of o p e r a t i o n must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h e work of an o p e r a t o r i n

t h e p u r s u i t of a uniformly moving s i g n a l : t h e t r a n s i e n t (dynamic) and t h e steady
state.

92
 The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s of t h e t r a n s i e n t s t a t e are: a ) Existence of a
l a t e n c y period (a delay time bf t h e r e a c t i o n a t t h e beginning of t h e s i g n a l
displacement). Experiments have shown that , with i n c r e a s i n g s i g n a l speed. , t h e
d e l a y time decreases from 0.65 t o 0.25 - 0.26 s e c , i . e . , it approaches t h e t i m e
of simple sensorimotor r e a c t i o n . b ) Change i n t h e i n d i c e s (speed and d u r a t i o n )
of G- and L-mctions. The mean speed of G-motions, i n decreasing, a p p n a c h e s
t h e t a r g e t speed. T h i s decrease is p a r t i c u l a r l y pronounced by a f a c t o r of
2 - 2.5, a t l o w t a r g e t speeds (1 - 2 mm/sec), whi1.e a t higher t a r g e t speeds
(6 - 10 mm/sec) t h i s f a c t o r i s only 1.3 - 1.4. The mean speed of t h e L-motions
a t t a r g e t speeds of 1 - 4 mm/sec i s a p p r o x i m t e l y constant but i n c r e a s e s s l i g h t ­
l y a t higher t a r g e t speeds and approaches t h e t a r g e t speed. The mean d u r a t i o n
of t h e G-motion i n c r e a s e s . The mean d u r a t i o n o f t h e L-mation i s v a r i a b l e , es­
p e c i a l l y a t t h e beginning, but i n t h e course of t h e t r a c k i n g becomes somewhat
s t a b i l i z e d a t about 0.26 .- 0.28 s e c ; c) Decrease i n i n t e r v a l s . A t t a r g e t speeds
of 1 - 6 mm/sec t h e mean number of i n t e r v a l s decreases (by a f a c t o r of 2 - 3)
t o some a p p r o x i m t e l y constant l e v e l which, a t t a r g e t speeds of 1 nm/sec, i s
2 - 3 times as g r e a t as a t t a r g e t speeds of 4 - 6 mm/sec. The mean d u r a t i o n of
i n t e r v a l s a t t a r g e t speeds o f 1 - 2 mm/sec decreases f r o m 0.5 - 0.Lk s e c to
0.28 - 0.30 s e c , and a t t a r g e t speeds of 4 - 6 m / s e c from 0.36 - 0.40 t o
0.25 - 0.22 s e c ; d ) Decrease i n mean value of mismatch s i g n a l s . Values w i t h
t h e If-(' s i g n (undercontrol) and f ' + f t s i g n (overcontrol) decrease t o a c e r t a i n
approximately constant l e v e l . A t t a r g e t speeds of 1 - 2 mm/sec, t h e e r r o r o f
t h e l a g and lead time decreases from * 0.65 t o k 0.30 - 0.25 sec. A t t a r g e t
speeds of 6 - 10 mm/sec t h e e r r o r of t h e l a g time decreases f r o m 0.28 - 0.26
t o 0.13 - 0.10 s e c , and t h e e r r o r of t h e lead time f r o m 0.25 - 0.20 t o 0.05 ­
- 0.04 sec.
T h e d u r a t i o n of t h e t r a n s i e n t s t a t e of operation i s about 2 - 3 sec.

Two p r i n c i p a l forms of t r a n s i e n t s a r e distinguished: o s c i l l a t o r y w i t h

overshoots ( i v e r c o n t r o l ) and o s c i l l a t o r y without overshoots.

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a obtained i n o u r experiments shows that, a t l o w

-
t a r g e t speeds (1 2 m / s e c ) , t h e f o r m e r form predominates and a t higher /113
t a r g e t speeds (6 - 10 m / s e c ) , t h e l a t t e r .

The s t e a d y - s t a t e regime of o p e r a t i o n i s characterized by t h e r e l a t i v e sta­

b i l i t y of t h e i n d i c e s of both G and E-mbtions; a t t h e higher t a r g e t speeds
t h e y a r e more s t a b l e . The mean d u r a t i o n of G- and L-motions a t t a r g e t speeds
of 1 - 10 mm/sec i s approximately constant a t 0.30 - 0.32 s e c . With i n c r e a s i n g
VmotG + vmot
t a r g e t speed t h e mean speed of hand motion approaches t h e tar­
2
g e t speed and, a t t a r g e t speeds of 8 - 10 mm/sec, becomes approxirrately equal
t o t h e t a r g e t speed. The steady-state e r r o r of l a g t i m e decreases from 0.30 t o
0.09 - 0.10 s e c as t h e t a r g e t speed i n c r e a s e s from 1 t o 10 mm/sec, while t h e
l e a d e r r o r decreases from 0.30 t o 0.03 - 0.05 sec.

I n t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e regime, i n s p 5 t e of t h e l o w accuracy of t r a c k i n g , t h e
a c t i v i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r s i s characterized by high dynamic s t a b i l i t y and r e l i ­
a b i l i t y , obviously due t o t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of psychic c o n t r o l .

93
 Evidently, a t low t a r g e t speeds t h e c o r r e c t i n g and supervisomj f u n c t i o n
i s accomplished mainly during t h e i n t e r v a l s whereas, a t higher t a r g e t speeds,
t h i s i s done mainly d u r i n g t h e performance of t h e motion, connected with t h e
change i n t h e c o n t r o l methods. A t l o w t a r g e t speeds (1 - 2 mm/sec) t h e c o n t r o l
i s accomplished p r i m r i l y according t o t h e magnitude and s i g n o f t h e mismatch
s i g n a l , i.e., from t h e s i g h t p o s i t i o n relative t o t h e t a r g e t ( p o s i t i o n a l t r a c k ­
i n g ) . With i n c r e a s i n g rate of displacement of t h e s i g n a l and i n c r e a s i n g t r a c k ­
i n g time ( i n s t e a d y - s t a t e operation), c o n t r o l by v e l o c i t y and a c c e l e r a t i o n (ve­
l o c i t y t r a c k i n g ) becomes more and more i n p o r t a n t . Control by v e l o c i t y assumes
t h e averaging of t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e hand motions.

T r a n s i t i o n from one method of c o n t r o l t o t h e o t h e r causes a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n

o f t h e operation of t h e p r i n c i p a l elements o f t h e reflex a r c primarily of t h e
a s s i g n i n g and comparing. mechanisms.

MFTHOD OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF AN OPERATORtS ACTIVITY

Y e .A .Mileryan
(Kiev)

I n t h i s methodology we used a s p e c i a l l y designed s e t u p , c o n s i s t i n g of a

s u b j e c t desk and a n experimental desk. The s u b j e c t t s desk ccjnsists of a ver­
t i c a l and a n i n c l i n e d panel. The v e r t i c a l panel i s divided i n t o two parts,
with a t r a n s l u c e n t s c r e e n on t h e right-hand part over which sweeps a lwi- flue
nous white spot whose t r a j e c t o r y i s determined by t h e shape of a c u r v i l i n e a r
contour placed behind t h e screen. The Speed of t h i s s p o t i s determined by t h e
speed o f displacement of a s l o t t e d s t r i p which scans t h e image. A s p e c i a l de­
v i c e permits t h e experimenter t o vary t h e scanning speed smoothly within wide
limits. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e white spot moving along t h e assigned contour, t h e
s u b j e c t a l s o s e e s on t h e screen a red s p o t which he can d i s p l a c e over t h e s c r e e n
a t varying speed. The motion of t h i s s p o t i s remote-controlled by a c t u a t i n g a
l e v e r on t h e i n c l i n e d panel. By s h i f t i n g t h e left-hand l e v e r , t h e s u b j e c t can
d i s p l a c e h i s s p t upward o r downward, and by o p e r a t i n g t h e right-hand I.ever, h e
can d i s p l a c e it t o t h e r i g h t o r l e f t .

Thus, by s h u l t a n e o u s l y operating both l e v e r s , t h e s u b j e c t can f o r c e h i s

s p o t t o move i n any d i r e c t i o n on t h e screen.

Alongside t h e t r a n s l u c e n t screen on t h e v e r t i c a l . panel of t h e s u b j e c t ' s

desk a r e s i x irrages o f c u r v i l i n e a r contours. Under each of them i s a tumbler
switch. These tumblers a r e used t o determine t h e time required by t h e s u b j e c t
t o i d e n t i f y t h e shape of t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e spot on t h e screen.

I n a d d i t i o n , t h e i n c l i n e d panel o f t h e c o n t r o l d e s k c a r r i e s t w o rows o f
keys, t e n i n each row. The keys a r e numbered f r o m one t o t e n . The upper row
i s labeled lk?rtical" and t h e lower, "horizontaltr.

I n working a t t h e c o n t r o l desk t h e s u b j e c t must continuously f o l l o w t h e

d.isplacement of t h e luminous white s p o t and, by a c t u a t i n g t h e c o n t r o l l e v e r s ,
d i r e c t t h e motion of h i s own red spot s o as t o make it coincide with t h e white
spot.

94

IIII 11111I
 A s he performs t h e t a s k of t r a c k i n g p u r s u i t , t h e s u b j e c t must a l s o de­
termine t h e l a w o r s t r a t e g y of motion of t h e white s p o t on t h e screen. I n
guessing t h i s stratem he must o r i e n t himself by t h e s a n p l e t r a j e c t o r i e s placed
a l o n g s i d e t h e s c r e e n . The time a t which he recognizes t h e s t r a t e g y c o n t r o l l i n g
t h e motion of t h e s p o t i s o b j e c t i v e l y recorded by h i s c l o s i n g t h e tumbler switch
below t h e corresponding sample t r a j e c t o r y .

The t r a n s l u c e n t s c r e e n i s provided with a coordinate n e t . By means of

t h i s n e t , t h e s u b j e c t m u s t , a t given moments, determine t h e coordinates of t h e
moving s p o t and record h i s result by simultaneously d e p r e s s i n g t h e correspond­
i n g keys.

The apparatus records t h e number o f c o r r e c t and erroneous r e a c t i o n s of t h e

s u b j e c t i n determining t h e coordinates of t h e moving s p o t . The pulse counters
on t h e experimenter's desk record t h e following i n d i c e s of t h e subject's work:
1) d u r a t i o n of t h e programs; 2 ) t r a c k i n g time, i.e., t h e t i m e during which /115
t h e s u b j e c t superposes t h e motion of tphisrls p o t with t h e motion of t h e t e s t
s p o t , i . e . , t h e white s p o t ; 3) t o t a l number of readings of t h e d a t a coordinates
d u r i n g t h e experiment; 4) number of c o r r e c t readings o f t h e coordinates; 5) t i m e
required f o r c o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y shape o r t h e s t r a t e g y of
motion of t h e white s p o t on t h e s c r e e n .

An experimental check of t h i s method (a 23 s u b j e c t s ) permitted t h e follow­

i n g preliminary conclusions :

1) A t t h e beginning of t h e work, t h e s u b j e c t s commit e r r o r s i n recognizing

t h e shape of t h e s p o t t r a j e c t o r y , b u t with i n c r e a s i n g p r a c t i c e t h e i r perception
becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y adequate and t a k e s a s h o r t e r t i m e . A t t h e end of t h e
t r a i n i n g (from 20 t o 80 r e p e t i t i o n s ) t h e overwhelming m a j o r i t y of t h e s u b j e c t s
i d e n t i f i e d t h e form i n 25% of i t s development t i m e . I n f o u r s u b j e c t s , we ob­
served a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y r a p i d r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e t r a j e c t o r y shape under con­
d i t i o n s of inadequate information.

2. Recognition of t h e form depends on t h e r a t e of i t s development. There

a r e optimum t a r g e t speeds, a t which a n adequate i d e a of t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e
s p o t i s more r e a d i l y obtained. A slow motion of t h e s p o t and a n exceedingly
r a p i d motion both cause considerable d i f f i c u l t i e s i n recognizing t h e form. F c r
adequate perception and r e c o g n i t i o n of t h i s form t h e r e i s presumably some d e f i ­
n i t e optimum of information i n u n i t t i m e . The d e s c r i b e d technique permits
s o l v i n g t h e q u e s t i o n of t h a t optimum.

3. During t h e study, t h e r e g u l a t i n g r o l e of t h e form-qualities i n t h e ac­

complishment of t h e s u b j e c t s ' f u n c t i o n s of c o n t r o l and determination of t h e
s t r a t e g y of t h e i r a c t i o n s w a s d i s t i n c t l y m n i f e s t e d . Usually, a f t e r recogni­
t i o n of t h e form a r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y r e l a t i v e t o r e g u l a t i o n and con­
t r o l i s noted.

Guided by a d i s t i n c t concept on t h e t r a j e c t o r y of t h e white .spot, t h e sub­

j e c t u s u a l l y passes t o t h e s t r a t e g y of a n t i c i p a t i o n . The red s p o t begins t o
move ahead of t h e white s p o t . Because of such a p r e d i c t i o n of f u t u r e p o s i t i o n
t h e s u b j e c t o b t a i n s a d e f i n i t e t i m e advantage. I n t h i s case, t h e index char­
a c t e r i z i n g t h e t r a c k i n g time i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased. A t t h e end of t h e

95
I I I I I 111111. 111111111111 1111 1111.111111111111 1111 I1 I 111 I I I I .,I..1 1 1 1 ~ I I I I I I I I I . I I I I ~ .-
I-I . .I ,. .,,-.... ..... _._­
-.-..-._..... I

t r a i n i n Deriod, 27% of t h e s u b j e c t s were able t o p l a c e t h e i r s p o t with a l e a d

on 4- B of
-. its trajectory.

4. The s u b j e c t s had considerable d i f f i c u l t y i n g i v i n g i n f o m a t i o n on t h e

coordinates of motion of t h e s p o t a t t h e beginning of t h e t r a i n i n g period (60
t o 75% of e r r o r s ) . A t t h e end of t h e t r a i n i n g , however, t h e t o t a l number of
e r r o r s d i d not exceed 20 - 25%. Our s t u d i e s showed t h a t one of t h e causes of
t h e e r r o r s committed by t h e subjects w a s t h e i r r a t i o n a l arrangement of t h e keys.

The r e s u l t a n t experimental d a t a permit t h e assumption t h a t t h i s methodology

can be used i n occupational s e l e c t i o n t e s t s of o p e r a t o r s .

STUDY OF AN OPERATOR'S ACTIVITY I N TRACKING AN OBJECT /116

OF VARYING I U U K I N A T I O N

..
S N Leviyeva
(Leningrad)

Experiments on t h e a c t i v i t y of o p e r a t o r s are conducted by most USSR and

f o r e i g n i n v e s t i g a t o r s with tests on t r a c k i n g t h e change i n p o s i t i o n of a given
object.

The s t u d y of a n operator's a c t i v i t y i n t r a c k i n g t h e varying i l l u m i n a t i o n

o f a n o b j e c t i s a l s o of a c e r t a i n i n t e r e s t .

I n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e t a s k was t o t r a c k a d i s c r e t e change i n
s i g n a l s combined i n t o c e r t a i n s e r i e s , t h e o p e r a t o r being given unlimited t i m e .
The main p o r t i o n of t h e experimental s e t u p consisted of a system of two s c r e e n s ,
t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of one o f which was v a r i e d by t h e experimenter and t h a t of t h e
second, by t h e o p e r a t o r . The t e s t s u b j e c t was asked t o m t c h t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n
of t h e second s c r e e n with t h a t of t h e f i r s t The program and changes of i l l u m ­
i n a t i o n performed by t h e o p e r a t o r was recorded on t h e s t r i p c h a r t of a n o s c i l ­
l o g r aph .
The a c t i v i t y of e q u a l i z a t i o n was s t u d i e d as a f u n c t i o n o f :

a ) t h e a b s o l u t e s t r e n g t h of t h e s i g n a l s , i . e . , t h e a b s o l u t e i l l u m i n a t i o n
l e v e l of t h e screen. The s i g n a l s were given i n t h r e e series, from 20 t o 50 l u x ,
from 115 t o 225 lux, and from 185 t o 300 lux;

b ) t h e magnitude of t h e drop between two s u c c e s s i v e s i g n a l s (a drop of

+10 l u x between t h e s i g n a l s of 4.0 and 50 lux, and a d r o p of -40 lux between t h e
s i g n a l s of 300 and 260 lux).

The following c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t r a c k i n g a c t i v i t y were analyzed:

a ) KLatent r e a c t i o n periad", i . e . , t h e time from t h e beginning of t h e

change i n s i g n a l t o t h e beginning of motion of t h e o p e r a t o r ' s hand;

b ) "motor r e a c t i o n time", i . e . , t h e time required by t h e o p e r a t o r f o r

making t h e motions l e a d i n g t o e q u a l i z a t i o n of t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of h i s s c r e e n

96

with t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e r e f e r e n c e screen;

c) "evaluation time", i . e . , t h e time d u r i n g which t h e o p e r a t o r rates t h e

r e s u l t of h i s a c t i o n s (on s t a r t i n g t h e e v a l u a t i m , he must, according t o t h e
i n s t r u c t i o n s , s a y WeadylT) ;

d ) "equalization timett, i n c l u d i n g t h e "latency period", t h e "mc,tor reac­

t i o n tjme*t, and "the e v a l u a t i o n t i m e r ' ;

e ) "accuracy of equalizationf7, i.e. , t h e degree t o which t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n

of t h e o p e r a t o r r s s c r e e n corresponds t o t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e r e f e r e n c e
screen. The preliminary experimental d a t a permit t h e following conclusions :

The s h o r t e s t l a t e n c y period corresponds t o r e a c t i o n s t o a s c r e e n illumina­

t i o n of SO - 225 l u x , t h e l o n g e s t period t o a n i l l u m i n a t i o n of 185 - 300 lux.
The curves of t h e l e n g t h of t h e l a t e n c y period, p l o t t e d a g a i n s t d i r e c t i o n /117
(according t o t h e s i g n s tt+'t or l t - r l ) , a r e almost m i r r o r images of each o t h e r .

Consequently, t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e of t h e d i f f e r e n c e r a t h e r t h a n i t s d i r e c ­
t i o n i n f l u e n c e s t h e magnitude of t h e l a t e n t r e a c t i o n period.

The e q u a l i z a t i o n t i m e i n c r e a s e s s l i g h t l y with t h e a b s o l u t e value of t h e

s i g n a l . According t:, our d a t a , t h i s t i m e does n o t depend on t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e
of t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n of t h e s i g n a l s n o r on t h e "drop" between them b u t r a t h e r on
o t h e r conditions ( f w example, t r a i n i n g ) .

The accuracy of t h e t r a c k i n g depends l a r g e l y on t h e a b s o l u t e value of

s c r e e n i l l u m i n a t i o n . Thus, t h e t h r e s h o l d s of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n are r e l a t i v e l y low
f o r i l l u m i n a t i o n s from 20 t o 135 - 180 lux and i n c r e a s e considerably from 135
t o 185 lux up t o 300 lux.

The magnitude of t h e l a t e n c y period and t h e accuracy of t r a c k i n g a r e in­

fluenced not o n l y by t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e of t h e signal and t h e i l l u m i n a t i o n
decrement, b u t a l s o by t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e s i g n a l within t h e s e r i e s of o t h e r
signals.

THE EFFECT OF PAIN IMPULSES ON THE COURSE OF THE TRACE

PROCESSES I N THE HUMAN MCrrOR ANALYSOR
.
L P. Pavlova
(Leningrad)

The f a c t t h a t muscular working a b i l i t y i s enhanced by m o b i l i z a t i o n of t h e

w i l l and i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of motivation i s widely known i n l a b o r and a t h l e t i c
p r a c t i c e . However, t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanism of t h i s phenomenon remains
l a r g e l y unknown. Up t o now t h e r e has been t h e a s s e r t i o n that p a i n f u l impulses,
s o t o say, whip up t h e exhausted muscles and t h e r e f o r e o n l y temporarily enhance
t h e a b i l i t y t o work, while a t t h e same time t h e f a t i g u e i s becoming more i n ­
t e n s e . This c o n t r a d i c t s conventional knowledge according t o which t h e c e r e b r a l
c o r t e x plays a positive t r o p h i c r o l e and t h e c e n t e r s exert a d e p a r a b i o t i z i n g
i n f l u e n c e on t h e periphery (L.L.Vasil*yev, 1954).

97
 I n studying t h e t r a c e processes i n t h e k i n e s t h e t i c r e c e p t o r , we b e l i e v e t o
have discovered c e r t a i n mechanisms of a c t i o n of p i n impulses on t h e human kin­
e s o d i c system.

Our method of e v a l u a t i n g t r a c e r e a c t i o n s i n t h e motor a n a l y s o r w a s pub­

l i s h e d under t h e t i t l e !?Methodology of a Weak Focus of Excitation'? (Metodiki
slabogo ochaga vozbuzhdeniya, L.Pavlova, 1962). The s u b j e c t performs so-called
background movements, automatic weak f l e x i o n of t h e i n d e x f i n g e r s o f t h e r i g h t
and l e f t hand, performed without l o a d . The backgrvund movements do not t i r e /118
t h e s u b j e c t and have a t e s t i n g q u a l i t y s i n c e t h e y are able t o vary i n amplitude
and rate i n accordance with t h e c u r r e n t dynamics of t h e nervous processes i n
t h e b r a i n , under t h e i n f l u e n c e of s t r o n g e r stimuli a r r i v i n g a t t h e k i n e s t h e t i c
and o t h e r r e c e p t o r s . Thus, a f t e r work on a manual ergograph f o r a c e r t a i n
time, periods of enhanced and diminished background a c t i v i t y were observed. A
s p e c i a l check showed t h a t t h e s e periods correspond t o phases of enhanced and
diminished capacity f o r work ( e x a l t a t i o n and r e f r a c t o r i n e s s ) of t h e nerve ten­
ters.

By g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e work stimulus, by a p p l y i n g l a r g e r loads and a

g r e a t e r number of movements, we discovered f o u r known successive types of t r a c e
r e a c t i o n s (N.V.Golikbv, 1950) : e x a l t a t i o n a f t e r e f f e c t , i n h i b i t i o n following ex­
c i t a t i o n , e x a l t a t i o n following i n h i b i t i o n , and, f i n a l l y , i n h i b i t o r y a f t e r e f f e c t .

The last and f o u r t h type of t r a c e r e a c t i o n , as shown by o u r experiments,

i s observed only a f t e r work causing f a t i g u e (a d e c l i n e i n t h e magnitude of t h e
c o n t r a c t i o n s ) ; i n t h i s case, t h e period of e x a l t a t i o n m n i f e s t s i t s e l f f i r s t i n
t h e nerve c e n t e r t h a t had not worked, i . e . , i n t h e symmetric muscle, and o n l y
a f t e r t h e l a p s e of a c e r t a i n t i m e i n t h e c e n t e r t h a t had worked. This f a c t i s
novel and helps t o i n t e r p r e t t h e mechanisms of ''active rest" according t o Sech­
enov, with a l t e r n a t i o n of ' t h e working hands. Our experiments showed t h a t t h e
h i g h e r t h e f u n c t i o n a l l e v e l of t h e motor a p p a r a t u s , t h e slower w i l l be t h e
t r a n s i t i o n of t h e f i r s t t y p e of t r a c e r e a c t i o n t o t h e succeeding t y p e s , and t h e
l a t e r w i l l t h e f o u r t h t y p e appear on gradual ? 5 n c r e a s e i n stimulation".

We found t h a t under conditions of work with a p a i n f u l stress (involving

t h e highest c o r t i c a l l e v e l o r t h e "dominants of v i g i l a n c e * r ) , t h e observed t y p e s
of trace r e a c t i o n appear e a r l i e r t h a n i n t h e absence of p a i n f u l stress, a f t e r
t h e same number of f i n g e r f l e x i o n s .

Consequently, it seems that t h e h i g h e s t c o r t i c a l l e v e l o f r e g u l a t i o n in­

creases t h e f i t n e s s f o r work by e x e r t i n g a p o s i t i v e - t r o p h i c influence on t h e
motor apparatus. I n t h i s case, we found a s t r o n g e r i n f l u e n c e on t h e c e n t e r s of
t h e r i g h t hand t h a n on t h e c e n t e r s of t h e l e f t , which corresponded t o t h e r i g h t -
handedness of c u r s u b j e c t s .

A t g r e a t e r cumulative f a t i g u e , t h e p a i n f u l stress induced a more complex

manifestation, expressed i n a prolonged a l t e r n a t i o n of t h e t r a c e e x a l t a t i o n s ,
now on one s i d e and now on t h e o t h e r (fcir 10 -
20 min). The i n i t i a l o n s e t of
t r a c e e x a l t a t i o n , under t h e s e conditions, hcwever, w a s always observed on t h e
s i d e of t h e limb t h a t had done work, i.e., opposite t o t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n of ex­
a l t a t i o n i n t h e f o u r t h type of t r a c e r e a c t i o n , which usually appears a f t e r fa­
t i g u i n g work performed without i n v o l v i n g a p a i n f u l stress.

98
 The study of t r a c e r e a c t i o n s during t h e process of overcoming t h e /ll9
"dead point" i n work Gn t h e ergograph gives grounds f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h i s
process of a c t i v e overcoming of f a t i g u e t a k e s place by means o f a l t e r n a t e work,
now on a lower l e v e l of r e g u l a t i o n , ncw on t h e higher l e v e l connected with t h e
painful stress.

The p o s i t i v e r o l e of t h e highest level o f r e g u l a t i o n i n t h e i n t e g r a t i o n of

t h e working rhythm i s that, a f t e r t h e p a i n f u l s t r e s s , t h e onset of e x a l t a t i o n
follows on t h e same s i d e as t h e c e n t e r t h a t had been doing work, while t h e sub­
sequent working movements w i l l obviously occur during t h e period of enhanced
l a b i l i t y of t h e c e n t e r s .

ASYMMETRY I N THE YANIFESTATION OF MUSCTE SENSE

Ye.P.Il*in
(Leningrad)

Kinesthesis, o r proprioceptive s e n s i t i v i t y , is very important f o r a c o r r e c t

,
e v a l u a t i o n of m n y spatial, tenpclral and dynamic f a c t o r s . I n connection with
t h e e x i s t e n c e of r i g h t - o r left-handedness i n man, t h e q u e s t i o n a r i s e s whether
t h e proprioceptive s e n s i t i v i t y of both hands i s t h e same. This question has
not y e t been f i n a l l y decided. Some a u t h o r s believe t h a t when a right-handed
person estirrates t h e weight of a n o b j e c t and determines i t s dimensions, it i s
not t h e r i g h t hand but t h e l e f t that i s leading (Bauer, Anan'yev). Others hold
t h a t t h e r e i s a right-sided asymmetry i n estimating weights ( B i r f l i t ) and per­
ceiving space (Lceb, Lbmov, Bogdanova and o t h e r s ) . S t i l l o t h e r s r e f u t e both
types of conclusion ( C h a p n i s ) .

The c o n t r a d i c t o r y statements i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e l e d us t o make a particu­

l a r l y d e t a i l e d study of t h e asymmetry of muscular s e n s i t i v i t y . I n our exper­
iments we studied t h e a b i l i t y of both hands t o estimate t h e weight of o b j e c t s
and t o reproduce prescribed f o r c e s and amplitudes of motion. Accordingly, i n
each o f t h r e e s e r i e s of e x p e r i m e n t s , o b j e c t s o f various s i z e (small, medium, up­
timurr,, and l a r g e ) were shown t h e s u b j e c t s f o r estimation and reproduction.
Each o b j e c t was placed t e n t i m e s on each hand. About 40 s u b j e c t s took p a r t i n
t h e experiments.

The r e s u l t s of a l l t h r e e s e r i e s of experiments w e r e t h e same.

1) Fcr each hand t h e r e i s a n optimum s i z e of t h e o b j e c t t o be estimated,

a t which t h e estimate is most a c c u r a t e . The optimum a b s o l u t e s i z e of t h e ob­
j e c t i s g r e a t e r f o r t h e dominant hand. The d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s i z e of t h e op­
t i m u m o b j e c t corresponds t o t h e value of t h e constant asymmetry of t h e hands,
which i s a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e asymmetry i n t h e s t r e n g t h of e x c i t a t i o n of t h e
c e n t e r s of t h e r i g h t and l e f t hands.

2) For t h e s i z e of t h e o b j e c t t o be estimated, optimum f o r each hand,

t h e r e i s no asymmetry i n t h e r r a n i f e s t a t i o n of k i n e s t h e s i s s i n c e both hands /120
g i v e t h e same values of t h e e r r o r s on reproduction.

3) The asymmetry of muscle sense manifests itself most c l e a r l y whenever

99
cne of t h e hands i s s u b j e c t e d t o more f a v o r a b l e o r less f a v o r a b l e conditions
f o r reproduction of t h e estirrated o b j e c t . This happens each t i m e a n o b j e c t i s
placed i n both hands, t h a t has t h e same a b s o l u t e s i z e which, f o r one hand, i s
c l o s e r t o t h e optimum s i z e b u t , f c r t h e o t h e r hand, i s f u r t h e r away from i t .

I n t h i s case, t h e s i g n of t h e asymmetry ( r i g h t - or left-hand) depends on

t h e s i d e toward which t h e o b j e c t t o be estimated deviates from t h e optimum s i z e :
If t h e s i z e i s greater t h a n optimum, t h e asymmetry w i l l be right-handed ( t h e
e r r a r w i l l be less on t h e r i g h t hand) and i f t h e s i z e i s less t h a n optimum, t h e
asymmetry will be left-handed ( t h e e r r o r will be less on t h e l e f t hand).

The degree of asymmetry depends on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s i z e of t h e ex­

.
h i b i t e d o b j e c t d i f f e r s from optimum ( d i r e c t l y p r o p c r t i o n a l )

4) A t small s i z e of t h e o b j e c t s , we observed a n o v e r e s t i m t i o n and, a t

l a r g e s i z e s , a n underestimation. This can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e tendency of t h e
c e n t r a l nervous system t o maintain optimum o p e r a t i o n and t h e r e b y t o r e f l e c t ad­
equately, by means of k i n e s t h e s i a , t h e s p a t i a l and dynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
t h e applied stimuli.

THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ON HUMAN REACTION TIME

G.F.Plekhanov, V.V.Vedyushkina, L.P.Nagayev

and Ye.I.Osinskaya
(Novosibirsk)

During l i f e , and a l s o i n h i s work, man i s compelled t o react c o n s t a n t l y

and i n a d e f i n i t e manner t o stimuli 6f t h e e x t e r n a l world. I n many cases, t h i s
r e a c t i o n must be extremely rapid (work cf a p i l o t , a helmsman, a n o p e r a t o r , or
even t h a t of a n o r d i n a r y pedestrian, e t c . ) . The measurement and e s t i m a t i o n of
human r e a c t i o n time i n response t o some stimulus o r s i g n a l i s t h e r e f o r e not
only of t h e o r e t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e b u t a l s o of p r a c t i c a l impLrtance. The f a c t o r s
i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e a c t i o n time may be subdivided i n t o i n t e r n a l and external.
The former are connected w i t h t h e state of t h e organism, t h e l a t t e r with t h e
c h a r a c t e r of t h e stimulus and a l s o with e x t e r n a l conditions which have a d i r e c t
o r i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on t h e human organism and can be c l a s s i f i e d as follows:

1. H m n S u b j e c t .

a ) Individual traits.
b) S t a t e of h e a l t h .
c ) Age. /121

d ) Sex.
e) Training.
f ) Fatigue.
g ) Ccncentration.
h ) E f f e c t of drugs.

2. Stimulus

a ) Energy content of t h e signal.

100
 b ) F ~ r mof t h e s i g n a l .
c) Magnitude of t h e s i g n a l .

3 . Conditions.
a ) S p e c i f i c n o i s e (cf t h e same e n e r g e t i c n a t u r e ) .
b) Nonspecific n o i s e (environment, d i s t r a c t i n g s t i m u l i ) .
c ) M eteorological f a c t o r s (atmcspheric pressure, cloudiness wind, ,
etc.)
d ) C ~ s m i cf a c t o r s (solar a c t i v i t y , s t a t e of t h e ionosphere).

The r e a c t i o n time was experimentally measured under various conditions,

mainly under t h e a c t i o n of a c o u s t i c signals. Over 5000 measurements were made
i n a l l . The a u t h o r demonstrates t h e r e l a t i o n between most of t h e above f a c t o r s
and t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e . The material i s presented i n t h e form of summary tables
and graphs.

EFFECT OF ATTITUDE TOWARD A TASK ON THE SPEED OF A

SIPPIE SENSORIMOTOR REACTION

A .S.Y egorov and B .N .YakLvets

(Leningrad)

One of t h e measures f o r f i t n e s s f o r work b f a human s u b j e c t i s t h e speed

of h i s simple sensorimotor r e a c t i o n . However, I s i t i s impossib1.e t o judge t h e
f i t n e s s f o r work without t a k i n g account of t h e a c t i v i t y of a t t i t u d e and i t s
p o s i t i v e o r negative character" (V.N.Myasishchev). FrLm t h i s propLsition it
f o l l o w s that it i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e speed of a simple motor r e a c t i o n depends
on t h e s u b j e c t ' s a t t i t u d e toward t h e t a s k L r stimulus t o which he i s r e a c t i n g .

Factual d a t a by A.Ye.Oltshan,nikova confirm, t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t h e ex­

i s t e n c e of such a dependence. These d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n t o a weak
s t i m u l u s , i f it i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s i g n i f i c a n t (such as a n emergency s i g n a l ) , may
be s h o r t e r t h a n t o a s t r o n g but less s i g n i f i c a n t s t i m u l u s .

I n t h i s connection, it seemed u s e f u l t o make a more d e t a i l e d s t u d y of t h e

dependence of t h e speed of a simple r e a c t i o n on t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e sub- /122
j e c t s toward t h e t a s k .

Twenty s t u d e n t s 3f t h e P.F.Lesgaft GDOIFK ( I n s t i t u t e of Physical C u l t u r e )

w e r e t h e s u b j e c t s used f o r t h e study. These w e r e asked, by i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y re­
moving t h e i r f i n g e r from a t e l e g r a p h key, t o react t o t h e f l a s h of a n orange-
co l o red bulb.

The study was conducted i n f o u r s e r i e s : 1) t r a i n i n g ; 2 ) t e s t ; 3) t r a i n i n g ;

4) t e s t -
competitive. Each series c o n s i s t e d of 20 r e a c t i o n s .

The features of t h e series were as follows:

The f i r s t s e r i e s of r e a c t i o n s , as t h e subject was t o l d , had t h e o b j e c t o f

a t t a i n i n g t h e best and most s t a b l e r e a c t i o n speed p o s s i b l e , sc, as t o t r a i n hin;

101

 f o r t h e a c t u a l t e s t series. The s u b j e c t w a s informed of t h e time he took f u r

each r e a c t i o n .

The second series was run as t h e t e s t proper. From i t s r e s u l t s we made a n

o f f i c i a l estimate of t h e a b i l i t y of t h e s u b j e c t t o r e a c t r a p i d l y .

A t t h e end of t h e second s e r i e s , t h e s u b j e c t was t o l d that h i s mean reac­

t i o n t i m e was only s a t i s f a c t o r y by comparison with t h e r e s u l t s of c e r t a i n o t h e r
s u b j e c t s of t h e same a t h l e t i c q u a l i f i c a t i o n s as he, and t h a t he had t o be re­
t r a i n e d ( t h i r d series) s o as t o perform s t i l l b e t t e r i n t h e f o u r t h s e r i e s .

From t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e content and s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e t a s k s , we ob­

t a i n e d i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h e d i f f e r i n g a t t i t u d e of t h e s u b j e c t s toward t h e t a s k i n
t h e d i f f e r e n t s e r i e s of experiments.

The r e s u l t s are given i n t h e Table.

DEPENDEPJCE OF TEE ~ A C T I O M TINE ON THE ATTITUDE

OF TKE SUBJECTS TOWARD THE TASK

. .
Series

I I I 3.70 I 40 I
I1 45
I11 48

1
1 IV .. . ­
38- . .

The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e a r i t h m e t i c means of t h e s e r i e s are r e l i a b l e ,

with a confidence index of 0.05.

These d a t a i n d i c a t e t h e dependence of t h e r e a c t i o n time on t h e s u b j e c t t s

a t t i t u d e toward t h e t a s k which m y be explained f r o m t h e viewpoint of t h e a t t i ­
tude psychology (V.N.Myasishchev) and Pavlovian physiology ( t h e law of t h e
s t r e n g t h of t h e stimulus and t h e theorem on t h e charge of t h e nerve c e n t e r s ) .

The results of t h e study i n d i c a t e t h e n e c e s s i t y of evaluating t h e subjects’

a b i l i t y f o r r a p i d r e a c t i o n on t h e l e v e l of s i g n i f i c a n t a t t i t u d e s .

SPEED OF A SIMPLE SENSORIWl’OR REACTION UNDER UNEXPECTED /123

DELAYS AND ACCELEXATIONS I N THE TEI”0-RHYTHM

OF APPLICATION OF A STIMULUS

A.S .Yegorov and B.N.Yakuvets

This study w a s l i k e w i s e conducted on 20 s t u d e n t s of t h e P.F.Lesgaft GDOIFK.

The experiments were run i n two series of 30 r e a c t i o n s each.

102

 The program of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s t i m u l i i n t h e f i r s t series was as f o l ­

lows: The average i n t e r v a l between s t i m u l i w a s 4 sec. S t i m u l i Nos.11, 18, and
29 were applied with a 6-sec i n t e r v a l , fclllowed by Nos.12, 19, and 30 with a
2-sec i n t e r v a l . The second s e r i e s d i f f e r s from t h e f i r s t o n l y i n changing of
t h e sequence of t h e unexpected delays and a c c e l e r a t i o n s . The a c c e l e r a t i o n s
were f i r s t a p p l i e d , and t h e n t h e delays.

The Table shows t h e r e s u l t s .

SPEED OF REACTION WITH UNEXPECTED DEIAYS OR ACCEIXRATIONS

I N THE; TEMPO-RHYT-HM OF APPLICATION OF THE STIMULI

Reaction Time i n Signas

No. T i m e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
Application of Stimulus

1
Rhythmic 240 4-2
2 Delayed 2 90 98
-~
3 Accelerated 350 24 5

The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e a r i t h m e t i c means (x) of t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e s

with a rh7ythmi.c a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e stimulus and with d e l a y s and a c c e l e r a t i o n s
i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s t i m u l u s are s t a t i s t i c a l l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d , with a con­
f idence index of 0.05.

It w i l l be seen from t h e Table t h a t t h e r e a c t i o n t i m e t o unexpected delays

and a c c e l e r a t i o n s i s considerably g r e a t e r t h a n t h e r e a c t i o n time t o s t i m u l i ap­
p l i e d i n rhythmic o r d e r . I n t h i s case, t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e a c t i o n t i m e i s g r e a t e r
i n cases of a c c e l e r a t i o n and l e s s i n cases of delay i n a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e stim­
ulus.

T h i s f a c t can h a r d l y be explained by t h e i n f l u e n c e of o r i e n t i n g r e a c t i o n
t o a novel s i t u a t i o n ( f a c t o r of unexpectedness) i n view of t h e f a c t t h a t both
t h e d e l a y and t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s t i m u l i w e r e e q u a l l y un­
expected f o r t h e s u b j e c t and w e r e t h e r e f o r e of equal s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e o r i ­
e n t i n g ref lex.

On t h e basis of modern d a t a on electrophysiology of t h e adoption of a

rhythm (P.I.Gulyayev, F.K.Zhukuv, K.B.SGlogub, and o t h e r s ) it may be assumed
t h a t d u r i n g r e a c t i o n t o a rhythmic stimulus, t h e corresponding rhythm i s ela­
borated i n t h e dynamics of e x c i t a t i o n and i n h i b i t i o n , stress and relaxa- /124
t i o n , which may be imagined i n space i n t h e form of a s i n u s o i d a l wave having
i t s c r e s t a t t h e moment of a c t i o n of t h e stimulus and i t s trough somewhere i n
t h e middle of t h e i n t e r v a l between t h e a c t i o n s of t h e s t i m u l i . I n case of a
sharp a c c e l e r a t i o n i n t h e tempo-rhythm of a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e stimulus, t h e i n ­
s t a n t of a c t i o n of t h e stimulus may coincide e x a c t l y with t h e i n s t a n t o f d i p i n
t h e wave, i . e . , a t t h e i n s t a n t of l e a s t readiness of t h e system f o r r e a c t i o n .
Hence t h e maximum r e a c t i o n time.

103

 I n delays, however, t h e absence of t h e stimulus a t t h e expected i n s t a n t

causes a n a r b i t r a r y delay of t h e r e a c t i o n and simultaneously a c t s as a f a c t o r
of nonreinforcement of t h e given rhythm. This leads t o i t s damping i n t h e form
of a s l o w d e c l i n e of t h e wave of e x c i t a t i o n , s o t h a t t h e a c t i o n of t h e delayed
stimu1.u~s t i l l blocks t h e end of t h i s wave and t h e r e a c t i o n proceeds on a more
f a v o r a b l e physiol.ogica1 background t h a n on premature a c t i o n o f t h e stimulus.

Of course t h e above-expressed ideas r e q u i r e experimental. e1.ectrophysiol.og­

i c a l verification.

CWtNGE I N THE TIME COMPOhENTS OF A COMPLEX FZACTION

UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF UNEXP%CTED N O I S E

.
Yu .Ya Kiselev
(Leningrad )

Sensorimotor r e a c t i o n s are u s u a l l y s t u d i e d under conditions where no ex­

ternal. causes i n t e r f e r e with t h e s u b j e c t ' s perception of c e r t a i n s i g n a l s and
h i s r e a c t i o n t o t h e s e s i g n a l s according t o t h e experimenter's i n s t r u c t i o n s .
Under actual. conditions of work, however, t h e s i g n a l s that induce some l e v e l of
r e a c t i o n i n man are o f t e n accompanied i n time by extraneous unexpected s t i m u l i
which, t o some e x t e n t , a f f e c t t h e r e a c t i o n s t o t h e signal.

I n t h i s paper t h e a u t h o r discusses t h e r e s u l t s of a n experirrent staged

with t h e o b j e c t o f studying t h e e f f e c t of unexpected noise on t h e speed and ac­
curacy of a k i n e s t h e t i c r e a c t i o n .

The study was conducted with a device which perrritted, t o within a n accur­
acy of f i v e thousandths of a second, tc, deterrrLne t h e t o t a l r e a c t i o n time and
t h e time of i t s l a t e n t and n o t o r components.

The s u b j e c t was shown i n l'randomtt sequence f o u r s i g n a l s (two of them pos­

i t i v e and two i n h i b i t o r y ) . On r e c e i p t o f t h e p o s i t i v e s i g n a l t h e s u b j e c t made
a movement of t h e r i g h t hand, previously overtrained and following a 1125
s t r i c t l y determined t r a j e c t o r y . This motion was t r a n s m i t t e d t o a movable device
of t h e apparatus. On r e c e i p t of t h e i n h i b i t o r y signal, t h e s u b j e c t r e f r a i n e d
from motion.

After giving t h e f i r s t 25 signals t h e experimenter began t o accompany some

of t h e next 25 s i g n a l s by a d d i t i o n a l s t i m u l i , which t h e s u b j e c t did not expect.
I n t h e f i r s t series of experiments (38 s u b j e c t s ) t h e s e unexpected signa1.s were
a r e p o r t from a s t a r t e r p i s t o l and t h e n o i s e of a n automobile s i r e n , and i n t h e
second series (6 s u b j e c t s ) t h e y were l i g h t s t i m u l i , displayed on t h e same
screen and having t h e same i n t e n s i t y as t h e p o s i t i v e o r i n h i b i t o r y s i g n a l s
covered by t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s

A workup cf t h e r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e unexpected s t i m u l i o r noises, when

applied simultaneously w i t h t h e p o s i t i v e s i g n a l s , exerted an i n h i b i t o r y a c t i o n
on t h e n;otor r e a c t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y when they were given f o r t h e f i r s t time.

Under t h e a c t i o n of unexpected s t i m u l i t h e t o t a l r e a c t i o n time increased

by 35.2% on t h e average i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s of experiments ( f r c m 750 t o 1015
msec) and by 4�!.2% i n t h e second s e r i e s (from 745 t o 1105 msec); t h e l a t e n c y
period increased by ,!+ (from
l+ SO0
% t o 720 msec) i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s and by 65.6%
(from Iht30 t o 795 msec) i n t h e second seri e s; t h e motor period increased by 18%
(from 250 t o 295 msec) i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s and by 20.1% (from 265 t o 310 msec)
i n t h e second series.

On repeated a p p l i c a t i o n of unexpected s t i m u l i , t h e t o t a l r e a c t i o n t i m e in­

creased by 3.3% ( f i r s t series) and by 16.6% (second s e r i e s ) ; t h e l a t e n c y period
increased by 7% ( f i r s t s e r i e s ) and by 21.9% (second s e r i e s ) ; t h e motor period
decreased by 4% i n t h e f i r s t series b u t increased by 5.1% i n t h e second.

The considerable weakening of t h e i n h i b i t o r y i n f l u e n c e of extraneous n o i s e

i n cases where t h e s u b j e c t w a s r e p e a t e d l y exposed t o it can be explained by t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e slowing of t h e r e a c t i o n i s due not s o much t o t h e physical
s t r e n g t h of t h e extraneous s t i m u l u s as t o i t s unexpectedness. This i s con­
firmed by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l l i g h t stimulus a p p l i e d i n t h e second ex­
peri-mental s e r i e s exerted even a somewhat g r e a t e r i n h i b i t o r y i n f l u e n c e on t h e
motor r e a c t i o n as a whole and on i t s i n d i v i d u a l compcnents t h a n t h e extremely
s t r o n g a c o u s t i c stimulus applied i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s . This i s connected with
t h e c l o s e s i m i l a r i t y of t h e prameters of t h e a d d i t i o n a l stimulus i n t h e second
s e r i e s - i n t e n s i t y , c o l o r , p o s i t i o n - t o t h e prescribed signal.^, which makes it
a h i g h - i n t e n s i t y noise. For t h i s reason, a d a p t a t i o n t o such a stimulus i s slow­
e r t h a n t o a s t r o n g stimulus which s h a r p l y d i f f e r s from t h e s i g n i f i c a n t one.

A s l a t e as 25 s e c a f t e r i n i t i a l appl.ication o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l s t i m u l u s ,
i t s i n h i b i t o r y a c t i o n on t h e motor r e a c t i o n s t i l l p e r s i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y i n re-
l a t i o n t o t h e l a t e n c y period. Twenty-five seconds a f t e r t h e second a p p l i ­
c a t i o n of t h e a d d i t i o n a l stimulus, i t s i n h i b i t o r y a c t i o n i s s l i g h t .
=
An unexpected c o l l a t e r a l stimulus exerts a n i n f l u e n c e not o n l y on t h e speed
b u t a l s o on t h e accuracy of a comp1.e~r e a c t i o n . If such a s t i n u l u s coincides
with a n i n h i b i t o r y stimulus, t h e response t o t h i s i n h i b i t o r y s i g n a l was a pos­
i t i v e r e a c t i o n i n 58.5% of t h e cases. I n experiments i n which no a d d i t i o n a l
stj.mu1.i were a p p l i e d , a d i s t u r b a n c e of d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n w a s observed i n 19.2% of
t h e cases, i . e . , i n only one t h i r d as many.

ON CERTAIN PECULIARITIES OF HUMAN REACTION OF SEIECTION

UNDER CONDITIONS OF HYPOKINESIS
A.N.Kalinina and A.N.Kozlov
(Moscow)

The o p e r a t o r as a n e l e r e n t i n a s i n g l e %an - machine" system has v a r i o u s

levels of a b i l i t y . S i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e signals i n t h e process of perception,
age d i f f e r e n t i a l , dependence of perception on t h e r e l a t i v e i n t e n s i t y of t h e
s i g n a l s and on t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n rate, level of t r a i n i n g , and many o t h e r f a c t o r s
a1.l determine t h e s t a t e of t h e o p e r a t o r and s u b s t a n t i a l l y a f f e c t t h e speed of
h i s r e c e p t i o n of information. All t h e s e variables produce modifications of t h e
dependence, e s t a b l i s h e d by Hick, of t h e s e l e c t i o n r e a c t i o n t i m e on t h e amount
of information received by t h e s u b j e c t .
 The purpose of t h i s experimental s t u d y was t o o b t a i n c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s ­
t i c s of t h e i n f l u e n c e of f a t i g u e , prcduced by p r o t r a c t e d l i m i t a t i o n of t h e motor
a c t i v i t y of t h e s u b j e c t , on t h e speed of r e c e p t i o n of information.

We s t u d i e d t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e s e l e c t i o n r e a c t i o n t o l i g h t s i g n a l s , with
t h e s u b j e c t i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l p o s i t i o n (confined t o bed f o r 20 days). Ne a l s o
studied t h e sensorimotor component i n t h e operator's a c t i v i t y . With t h i s i n
mind., we recorded t h e r e a c t i o n time and t h e motor r e a c t i o n o f t h e s u b j e c t i n
t h e form of a mechanogram and a n electromyogram. The simultaneous recording of
both compc;nents of t h e motor r e a c t i o n (mechanical and e l e c t r i c a l ) permitted us
t o follow t h e complex neurodynamics of t h e c o r t i c a l processes of t h e s u b j e c t ,
and t o determine t h e degree o f f a t i g u e and f i t n e s s f o r work under conditions of
hypokinesis.

The s u b j e c t s were divided i n t o %lowertt and t'fasterTr,depending on t h e

speed of motor response r e a c t i o n p r i o r t o t h e s t a t e of hypokinesis. We found
t h a t , a f t e r t h e end of t h e period of confinement t o bed, t h e speed of t h e re­
sponse r e a c t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t s v a r i e d i n i n v e r s e d i r e c t i o n s ; i n s u b j e c t s w i t h
slower r e a c t i o n s , t h e speed of information perception increased, while it /127
decreased i n t h e s u b j e c t s w i t h f a s t e r r e a c t i o n s . This phenomenon e v i d e n t l y de­
pends on c e r t a i n i n d i v i h a l t r a i t s of t h e s u b j e c t s , more s p e c i f i c a l l y on t h e
degree of equilibrium of t h e i r nervous a c t i v i t y .

These d a t a confirm t h e i n v e r s e p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y derived by S t r o l l o , between

t h e speed of r e a c t i o n and t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o f a t i g u e (1956).

CHARACTEFUZATION OF THE MOTOR COMPOi'J3JT OF THZ SENSORI­

MOTOR IEACTIOM TO SIGNALS FOFNING A BINARY SEQUENCE

V.A.Bodrov
(Leningrad)

One of t h e parameters determining t h e q u a l i t y of an o p e r a t o r f s r e a c t i o n i n

work a t a c o n t r o l desk i s t h e coordination of t h e motor reaction. .

We s t u d i e d t h e coordination of t h e o p e r a t o r f s movements i n r e a c t i o n t o a
b i n a r y sequence of signals of a d e f i n i t e p r o b a b i l i t y s t r u c t u r e . The motor com­
ponents of the r e a c t i o n c o n s i s t e d i n throwing a tumbler switch t o one of i t s
extreme p o s i t i o n s and then r e t u r n i n g it t o t h e i n i t i a l point. Disturbances in
t h e coordination of motion c o n s i s t e d i n t h e o p e r a t o r ' s e i t h e r f a i l i n g t o r e t u r n
t h e switch t o i t s i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n or running p a s t it. The design of t h e tun­
b l e r switch made i t p o s s i b l e t o determine t h e e x t e n t of such disturbances.

I n t h e experiments w i t h r e a c t i o n t o a sequence of s i g n a l s of r e d and green

l i g h t we found t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e frequency of t h e uncoordinated responses in­
creased w i t h decreasing i n t e r s i g n a l i n t e r v a l s .

Thus, when t h e s i g n a l s were shown with a p r o b a b i l i t y of 112 a t 5-sec in­

t e r v a l s , t h i s f a c t o r w a s 0.031but increased t o 0.063 for an i n t e r v a l of 0.2
sec. We noted t h e dependence of t h i s index on t h e l a t e n c y period of t h e re­
a c t i o n and t h e time of i t s motor component. A s t h e s e time parameters increased,
106
t h e r e l a t i v e frequency of uncoordinated responses decreased. A d i r e c t r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p was a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d between t h e magnitude of t h i s index and t h e r e l a ­
t i v e frequency of e r r o r s .

The l e v e l of p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g of o p e r a t o r s f o r work a t c o n t r o l desks i s

c o r r e l a t e d with t h e index of r e l a t i v e frequency of uncoordinated responses ( t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t of c o r r e l a t i o n was 0.516).

A s s k i l l in work with t h e tumbler switch improved, t h e number of un- 1728

coordinated responses decreased. I n our s t u d i e s , a r e l a t i v e l y constant l e v e l
of t h i s index w a s reached a f t e r 3 -
5 t r a i n i n g periods.

SPEXD OF A SIMPLE SENSORDIOTOR REACTION TO NONSIMULTANEOUS

AND SIMULTANM)US ACTION OF STIMULI OF DIFFERENT MODALITIES

A.S.Yegorov and B.N.Yakovets

(Leningrad)

It i s w e l l known from t h e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t t h e speed of a simple sensori­

motor r e a c t i o n depends p a r t i c u l a r i l y on t h e modality of t h e stimulus. Thus,
t h e r e a c t i o n time i s s h o r t e s t on a p p l i c a t i o n of a t a c t u a l stimulus, followed i n
i n c r e a s i n g order by r e a c t i o n s t o sound, t o l i g h t , and t o o t h e r s t i m u l i . But
what w i l l be t h e r e a c t i o n time t o simultaneous a p p l i c a t i o n of a t a c t u a l , v i s u a l ,
and a c o u s t i c s t i m u l u s ? W i l l t h i s time correspond t o t h e average r e a c t i o n time
from any leading r e c e p t o r , o r w i l l it be t h e s h o r t e s t of t h e s e times? These
were questions t h a t a r o s e on an a n a l y s i s of t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

To obtain an answer, t h e following experimental study was performed on

20 s t u d e n t s of t h e P.F.Lesgaft GDOIFK, who were a t h l e t e s i n v a r i o u s f i e l d s and
of v a r i o u s s k i l l s .

I n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , we used a reflexometric apparatus designed by Yu.N.

Verkhalo;:-, permitting s e p a r a t e o r simultaneous a p p l i c a t i o n of a t a c t u a l stimu­
lus (electromagnetic v i b r a t i o n s of a p l a t e ) , an a c o u s t i c stimulus (sound gen­
e r a t o r ) and a v i s u a l stimulus ( t h e f l a s h of an orange-colored lamp). The ex­
periments were l a i d out a s follows:

After 20 t r i a l s we r a n a s e r i e s of r e a c t i o n s t o l i g h t , then t o sound, and

t o t h e t a c t u a l stimulus, w i t h 30 r e a c t i o n s each i n t h e s e r i e s . The i n t e r t r i a l
i n t e r v a l s were 3 - 5 min. Then, a 10-minute break, a f t e r t e n trials, was f o l ­
lowed by a s e r i e s of r e a c t i o n s t o t h e simultaneous a p p l i c a t i o n of t a c t u a l , v i s ­
u a l , and a u d i t o r y s t i m u l i .

The s u b j e c t was i n s t r u c t e d in a l l cases t o remove t h e f i n g e r from a key as

f a s t a s p o s s i b l e , in response t o t h e stimulus. I n t h e c a s e of simultaneous ap­
p l i c a t i o n of t h e s t i m u l i , t h e s u b j e c t s w e r e permitted t o choose t h e stimulus on
which they would c o n c e n t r a t e t h e i r a t t e n t i o n .

9
ikult':No.8 (1963) .
A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n of this apparatus i s given in "Teoriya i Prakt. Fiz­
 The r e s u l t s a r e compiled in t h e following Table.

REACTION TIME UNDER N0NSIMULTANEK)US AND SIMULTANEOUS

APPLICATION OF STIYLULI
- ____
1- Reaction Time i n Sigmas ----I

;-.-
--A
Stimulus
X

.____ __ .

Light 23 0 45
200 58
V i b r a t i o n of p l a t e 200 75
A l l t h r e e combined 180 50

These d a t a a r e r e l i a b l e , a t a confidence l e v e l of 0.05. They i n d i c a t e

t h a t t h e speed of r e a c t i o n t o a t a c t u a l stimulus does n o t d i f f e r s u b s t a n t i a l l y
from t h e speed of r e a c t i o n t o sound. T h i s may p o s s i b l y be explained by t h e
r e l a t i v e weakness of t h e t a c t u a l stimulus.

The longest r e a c t i o n time shown on simultaneous p r e s e n t a t i o n of a l l stim­

u l i m y be explained by t h e law of t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e e f f e c t of summation of
stimuli.

DEPFJJDEDCE OF THE ACCURACY OF REACTION TO A MOVING POINTER

ON THE SHAPE OF THE DIAL AND THE RATE OF FIOTIOM

.
S A. Pauzhayt e
(Leningrad)

The study of ' t h e r e a c t i o n t o moving o b j e c t s i s n o t only of t h e o r e t i c a l

importance i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of v i s u a l perception of speed and d i r e c t i o n ,
but i s a l s o of p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t .

O u r study of t h e r e a c t i o n s t o a moving o b j e c t w e r e made on a model of a

c o n t r o l desk equipped w i t h f o u r d i a l s of d i f f e r e n t shape: c i r c u l a r , semicircu­
lar, h o r i z o n t a l r e c t a n g u l a r , and v e r t i c a l rectangular. A l l dials were 300 mm
long. The p o i n t e r s on t h e d i a l s were a c t u a t e d by an e l e c t r i c motor. An elec­
tromagnetic brake w a s used t o start and s t o p t h e p o i n t e r s . The p o i n t e r speed
was v a r i e d : V, = 30 mm/sec; V
, = 60 mm/sec, and V. = 75 mm/sec. By depressing
a key, t h e s u b j e c t put t h e p o i n t e r i n motion and by removing h i s f i n g e r from
t h e key he l e f t t h e p o i n t e r a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e t o a s p e c i f i e d s c a l e d i v i s i o n .

The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e most e x a c t r e a c t i o n s t o t h e moving p o i n t e r /130

were obtained on t h e c i r c u l a r d i a l and t h e l e a s t exact, on t h e v e r t i c a l rec­
t a n g u l a r dial. The conditions f o r v i s u a l perception of t h e p o i n t e r movement on
t h e c i r c u l a r , s e m i c i r c u l a r , and h o r i z o n t a l d i a l s , which a r e more f a v o r a b l e than
on t h e v e r t i c a l d i a l , encourage high accuracy of t h e r e a c t i o n . This i s evi­
d e n t l y connected w i t h t h e n a t u r e of eye movements. A study of eye movements
(Yu,B.Gippenreyter and V. LUraaayeva) showed t h a t eye movements i n t h e hori­
z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n a r e smoother and more uniform than in t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n .
The number of a c c u r a t e r e a c t i o n s w i t h a c i r c u l a r d i a l w a s 1.5 -
2 times as
g r e a t as w i t h t h e o t h e r dials.

The average time error a t a speed of 30 mm/sec i s 50 msec for t h e c i r c u l a r

d i a l , 66 msec for t h e s e m i c i r c u l a r , 65 msec for t h e horizon'mi and 79 msec f o r
t h e v e r t i c a l . A t t h i s speed, 60 - '70% of t h e time e r r o r s a r e i n t h e range from
33 t o 66 msec.
The number of delayed r e a c t i o n s a t VI i s about 50% and t h e number of pre­
mature r e a c t i o n s , 20 -
30%. Most of t h e s u b j e c t s tend toward delayed r e a c t i o n s .
With i n c r e a s i n g p o i n t e r speed ( V . = 60 mm/sec) t h e time e r r o r s decrease.
For a round d i a l t h e i r average v a l u e w a s k l m s e c , f o r t h e semicircular, 56 msec,
and f o r t h e h o r i z o n t a l , 62 msec. The number of a c c u r a t e r e a c t i o n s was almost
t h e same a s f o r VI = 30 mn/sec. A p o i n t e r speed of 60 m / s e c was t h e most con­
v e n i e n t f o r most of t h e subjects. High-speed v i s u a l s t i m u l i a r e more accurate­
l y perceived than low-speed s t i m u l i , which i s e v i d e n t l y due t o t h e higher fre­
quency of eye movements,

With i n c r e a s i n g p o i n t e r speed t h e number of delayed r e a c t i o n s i n c r e a s e s

s l i g h t l y , and t h e number of premature r e a c t i o n s decreases correspondingly,

A t a p o i n t e r speed of '75 m / s e c , t h e number of a c c u r a t e r e a c t i o n s de­

c r e a s e s , and t h e time e r r o r s , on t h e average, i n c r e a s e s l i g h t l y f o r some sub­
j e c t s and decrease f o r others. A t a g r e a t i n c r e a s e in p o i n t e r speed t o about
1250 mm/sec, t h e time e r r o r s decrease for most of t h e subjects.
The p o i n t e r speed a t which t h e s u b j e c t s give t h e g r e a t e s t number of accu­
r a t e r e a c t i o n s and have t h e smallest time e r r o r s v a r i e s for d i f f e r e n t s u b j e c t s ,

I n almost a l l s u b j e c t s , t h e time e r r o r s decreased w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p o i n t e r

speed: There i s an a d a p t a t i o n of t h e v i s u a l analysor t o high p o i n t e r speeds.
Only i n some s u b j e c t s d i d we note a tendency for t h e time e r r o r s t o i n c r e a s e
w i t h i n c r e a s i n g p o i n t e r speed, but a t a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e in p o i n t e r speed
t h e time e r r o r s decreased even in t h e s e s u b j e c t s .

An a c c u r a t e r e a c t i o n can be obtained by advancing t h e d e f i n i t e i n s t a n t of

approach of t h e p o i n t e r t o t h e r e q u i r e d s c a l e d i v i s i o n , s i n c e a c e r t a i n time /131
i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e transmission of nervous e x c i t a t i o n from t h e v i s u a l r e c e p t o r
t o the effector. The e x a c t magnitude of t h e advance depends on t h e perception
of t h e speed of t h e p o i n t e r movement, connected w i t h t h e e s t i m a t e of space and
time, and t h e speed of r e a c t i o n of t h e subject.
An a n a l y s i s of t h e dynamics of t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e a c t i o n shows t h a t t h e sub­
j e c t s are o r i e n t e d t o d e f i n i t e t b e i n t e r v a l s , and t h a t they develop a "sense
of times1 b u t t h a t a l s o o t h e r modes of r e g u l a t i o n come i n t o play.

The accuracy of t h e r e a c t i o n t o a moving p o i n t e r when i t s path i s gradu­

a l l y lengthened depends on t h e speed and d i r e c t i o n of t h e movement of t h e v i s ­
u a l stimulus.
109

 TE3 SYSTENICITY OF THE PEPONSE RFACTIONS I N A

SITUATION OF CHOICE

M.S.Yeritspn and I?. S.Kocharyan

(Yerevan)

A t t h e c o n t r o l desks for i n d u s t r i a l processes, t h e o p e r a t o r s nust fre­

quently r e a c t t o systems of s i g n a l s by consecutive depressing of buttons. I n
such cases, t h e success of t h e operator's work depends n o t only on t h e f a c t o r
of r e a c t i o n time but a l s o on t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e s y s t e m i c i t y of both t h e but­
t o n s and t h e s i g n a l s corresponding t o them; inaccuracy of r e a c t i o n t o only a
s i n g l e one of t h e buttons i s equivalent t o inaccuracy of response t o t h e system
as a whole.

This f a c t may obviously be regarded as a manifestation of t h e r o l e of t h e

s y s t e m i c i t y of t h e response r e a c t i o n s i n a s i t u a t i o n of choice.

To study t h e r o l e of s y s t e m i c i t y of t h e s i g n a l s appearing on an i n f o r m ­
t i o n p a n e l and of t h e i r corresponding b u t t o m , t h e s t u d e n t s u b j e c t s before and
a f t e r t h e t e s t i n g , were given t h e following t a s k : On a v e r t i c a l panel (beyond
a ground g l a s s ) appeared six l i g h t s i g n a l s of v a r i o u s c o l o r s ( d u r a t i o n 0.4 sec,
i n t e r v a l 0.8 s e c ) ; in response t o t h e s e s i g n a l s t h e corresponding buttons were
t o be s e l e c t e d out of e i g h t of t h e same c o l o r on t h e h o r i z o n t a l panel, and they
were t o be pushed i n time. If t h e c o r r e c t button was pushed, a b r i e f f l a s h of
t h e same c o l o r (0.3 s e c ) appeared in t h e lower p o r t i o n of t h e corresponding
signal.

I n performing t a s k No.1 (20 - 30 min before t h e test), s i g n a l s 11, 111,

and V I corresponded t o b u t t o n s n o t only i n c o l o r and time but a l s o i n spatial
orientation. The button for s i g n a l I (on t h e r i g h t ) was in t h e e i g h t h p o s i t i o n
of t h e row, f o r s i g n a l IV in t h e f i f t h p o s i t i o n , and f o r s i g n a l V in t h e /13fL
f o u r t h p o s i t i o n ; buttons I and V I 1 remained connected, but t h e i r corresponding
signals did not flash.

Task No.2, given a f t e r t h e test (from 20 m i n t o 1hr), d i f f e r e d i n t h a t

t h e s i g n a l f o r button I1 d i d n o t appear; i n s t e a d , t h e s i g n a l f o r button I
appeared i n t h e e i g h t h p o s i t i o n of t h e v e r t i c a l panel.

Thus, i n t h e f i r s t t a s k t h e r e were t h r e e s i g n a l s , and in t h e second four,

whose buttons were on diagonally i n t e r s e c t i n g l i n e s .

Two experiments were made on each subject. The experiment was continued
u n t i l t h e s u b j e c t gave t h r e e cycles, L e . , lt3 c o r r e c t r e a c t i o n s in succession.
The appearance of t h e signals and t h e c o r r e c t r e a c t i o n s of t h e s u b j e c t s
were recorded on tape.

In analyzing t h e d a t a t h e following f a c t o r s were taken i n t o account:

a) t o t a l number of cycles of s i g n a l s required f o r each s u b j e c t t o perform t h e
t a s k ; b) number of r e a c t i o n s without r e s u l t ; c ) c o r r e l a t i o n between a) and b)
and marks received in t h e tests; d) type of button o r combination of buttons
pushed by t h e s u b j e c t s t o discover t h e systemicity.
110

 The o b j e c t of t h e last item w a s t o e s t a b l i s h which v a r i a n t s of response

r e a c t i o n s were used by t h e s u b j e c t s t o a t t a i n t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e problem i n a
s i t u a t i o n of choice.

The r e s u l t s of t h e analysis of t h e experimental d a t a were as follows:

Problem No.1 (before t h e t e s t ) was solved by 115 s u b j e c t s in t h e range of

7 t o 53 r e p e t i t i o n s of t h e cycles. The o p t i " was Ilk -
17 r e p e t i t i o n s in­
c l u s i v e (M = 18.9).

Problem No.2 ( a f t e r t h e t e s t ) was solved i n t h e range from 5 t o 30. The

opti" -
was ll 16 r e p e t i t i o n s i n c l u s i v e (M = 13).

The o v e r a l l r e s u l t s of t h e two problems were as follows: O f t h e ll5 sub­

jects :

a) A t o t a l of 42, or 36% of t h e s u b j e c t s , showed a decrease i n t h e number

of cycles a f t e r t h e t e s t by a f a c t o r of 3 t o 4 ;
b ) A t o t a l of 25, or 21.65, showed a decrease of 1/3;
c ) A t o t a l of 26, o r about 22$, showed t h e same number of r e p e t i t i o n s of
cycles before and after t h e t e s t ;
d) F i n a q y , 22, or about 20$, showed an i n c r e a s e (by 2 -
7 repetitions) i n
t h e number of cycles a f t e r t h e test.

I n s o l v i n g problem No.1, L e . , before t h e t e s t , 1U s u b j e c t s had r e a c t i o n s

without r e s u l t (an average of 5.2 per s u b j e c t ) . A f t e r t h e t e s t (problem No.2)
such r e a c t i o n s o r misses w e r e noted i n 97 s u b j e c t s (an average of 3.4 p e r sub­
ject).

A study of t h e unsuccessful r e a c t i o n s showed t h a t some s u b j e c t s produced

them d e l i b e r a t e l y ( a s search movements). Most of t h e s u b j e c t s solved t h e prob­
l e m by t h e method of t r i a l and e r r o r i n s t e a d of by preliminary observation.

I n 5O.l& of t h e s u b j e c t s [mostly from t h e subgroups ( a ) and (d) given

above], t h e r e s u l t s of s o l v i n g problem No.2 ( a f t e r t h e t e s t s ) agree with t h e
marks received by them in t h e t e s t s [those given a high grade w e r e i n sub- /133
group ( a ) , and those w i t h t h e l o w grade in subgroup ( d ) 1.

To check t h e s e d a t a we r a n supplementary experiments on 100 s t u d e n t s who

had no t e s t s during t h e experimental period. They required a much l a r g e r num­

.
b e r of r e p e t i t i o n s t o s o l v e t h e same problems ( t h a n t h e earlier group of 115
subjects)

I n o u r opinion, t h i s f a c t can be explained by t h e more a c t i v e f u n c t i o n a l

readiness (or adjustment) of t h e c e n t r a l nervous system i n t h e s u b j e c t s t h a t
had taken t h e t e s t than i n t h e s u b j e c t s who were under t h e u s u a l s c h o l a s t i c
regime.

Under t h e conditions of solving our problems, 63 v e r s i o n s of response re­

a c t i o n s were p o s s i b l e according t o mathematical s t a t i s t i c s , u n t i l t h e system
of signals and t h e i r buttons had been found. One of t h e s e variants (unsuccess­
f u l r e a c t i o n s on t h e c o n t r o l system as a whole) has already been discussed.
 The remaining 62 v e r s i o n s have t h e following f r w u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n
solving problem No.1 ( b e f o r e t h e t e s t ) :

A t o t a l of 36 v e r s i o n s had a frequency from 0 . 0 0 1 t o 0.005 i n c l u s i v e ( i n

u n i t s c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e frequency of t h e p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a n t by t h e
t o t a l number, Le., out of t h e 2040 response r e a c t i o n s obtained):

I2 v e r s i o n s had a frequency from 0.006 t o 0.010 i n c l u s i v e ;

4 versions, from 0 . 0 1 1 t o 0.015 i n c l u s i v e ;
10 versions, from 0.023 t o 0.039 i n c l u s i v e .

I n s o l v i n g problem No.2 ( a f t e r the t e s t ) :

35 v e r s i o n s had a frequency from 0 . 0 0 1 t o 0.005 i n c l u s i v e ;

8 versions, from 0.006 t o 0.010 inclusive;

7 v e r s i o n s , from 0 . 0 1 1 t o 0.015 inclusive;

6 versions, from 0.017 t o 0.020 inclusive;

6 versions, from 0.021 t o 0.038 inclusive.

It w i l l be c l e a r from t h e s e f i g u r e s t h a t most of t h e v a r i a n t s were very

l i t t l e used i n t h e process of solving t h e two problems. Converseb, I 2 ver­
sions, i.e., almost ZO%, were f r e q u e n t l y employed ( i t i s s u f f i c i e n t t o note
t h a t t h e s e I2 v e r s i o n s include 50: of a l l t h e r e a c t i o n s ) .

An a n a l y s i s shows t h a t t h e most f r e q u e n t b used v e r s i o n s of t h e response

r e a c t i o n s were those in which t h e buttons a r e l o c a t e d along t h e edges of t h e
h o r i z o n t a l row. The lowest frequency of response r e a c t i o n s w a s found in t h e
v e r s i o n s whose buttons are l o c a t e d m a i n l y a t t h e c e n t e r of t h e same row. Ve
note again t h a t t h e two c e n t e r buttons (N and V ) in t h e two problems have t h e
opposite p o s i t i o n with r e s p e c t t o the s i g n a l s .

Our d a t a on t h e frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e s e v e r a l v e r s i o n s confirm

t h e well-known psychological f a c t of t h e d i f f i c u l t y in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t h e cen­
t r a l elements ( e s p e c i a l l y in t h e v i s u a l f i e l d of perception) by comparison w i t h
t h e extreme elements. I n this connection, t h e question a r i s e s whether i t would
n o t be a d v i s a b l e t o l o c a t e t h e buttons of major importance in t h e c e n t r a l
zone of t h e system, as recommended by s e v e r a l s p e c i a l i s t s on engineering psy­
chology, and c l o s e together.

ON TIE, VEPBAL RXTRODUCTIOIJ OF A CHAIN OF SUCCESSIVE L I G H T

S I G N A L S AND THEIR ItEmCTIOPJ ON TKE F;LECTROEnTCEPI-W_,OGRAPK

A.K. Astaf t yev

(Leningrad)

Work a t c o n t r o l desks and in automatized systems l e a d s t o a d i s u s e of human

motor functions.

M.I.Vinogradov emphasizes t h a t "the d i s u s e of motor f u n c t i o n s W i l l un­

doubtedly progress f u r t h e r i n t h e f u t u r e , going even as far as such functions
being replaced by v e r b a l c o n t r o l of t h e equipment, w i t h a l i m i t e d number of
112
comands and w i t h semantic processing of t h e spoken signals*'.

This gives extreme importance t o i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on v e r b a l r e p o r t s in work

with recording automatic plants.

The o b j e c t of t h e p r e s e n t study was t o e l u c i d a t e t h e physiologicalmech­

anism of mastery of s i g n a l s s u c c e s s i v e l y given t o a program device of t h e t j j e
of a c o n t r o l desk, work on which c o n s i s t s in remembering t h e displayed s i g n a l s
and subsequently reproducing them verbally.

The prograrmning equipment used in this s t u d y permitted a simulation of

work involving prolonged and constant s t r e s s of v i s u a l a t t e n t i o n ,

The experimental s e t u p comprised t h e following s t a g e s :

a ) giving t h e s i g n a l s t o t h e s u b j e c t ;
b) recording h i s v e r b a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

The v e r b a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n was accompanied by recording of an e l e c t r o w o ­

gram (EMG) from t h e c i r c u l a r muscle of t h e mouth ( l e a d from t h e lower j a w ) and
of t h e electroencephalogram (EEG) from 10 leads.

The EMG permitted t o judge, with s u f f i c i e n t accuracy, t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s of

t h e s u b j e c t , from t h e pauses in t h e v e r b a l r e p o r t , while t h e E;EG yielded addi­
t i o n a l d a t a on t h e i n t e r c e n t r a l and interhemispheric r e l a t i o n s which appeared
during t h e experiments.

The programs contained an e q u a l number of red, yellow, and green s i g n a l s

displayed in various sequences.

The s u b j e c t s memorized t h e yellow-colored s i g n a l s most r a p i d l y and t h e r e d

s i g n a l s l e a s t r a p i d l y , although t h e r e d s i g n a l s , according t o t h e g e n e r a l l y
accepted view, e x e r t t h e s t r o n g e s t i n f l u e n c e on t h e v i s u a l a n a l y s o r , This pe­
c u l i a r i t y can be explained by t h e second-signal-system s i g n i f i c a n c e of l i g h t
s t i m u l i in connection w i t h t h e i r arrangement i n t h e assigned program, /135
which p r i m a r i l y a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t s . I n t h e o t h e r program,
where green l i g h t appeared under analogous conditions, t h e s m l l e s t number of
e r r o r s were made on p r e c i s e l y t h e yellow s i g n a l .

The following order of mastery of t h e s i g n a l complexes was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c :

a ) A f t e r t h e f i r s t d i s p l a y , t h e s u b j e c t s c o r r e c t l y reproduced only t h e
t h r e e first s i g n a l s ( f i r s t group), meaning t h a t t h e dominant of a t t e n t i o n was
connected w i t h t h e beginning of t h e complex.

b) F u r t h e r progress of l e a r n i n g d i d n o t proceed by successive i n c r e a s e of

t h e c o r r e c t responses b u t s e l e c t i v e l y : After t h e first group, t h e t h i r d o r
f o u r t h group was c o r r e c t l y reproduced, followed only then by c o r r e c t reproduc­
t i o n of t h e second. The second s i g n a l group w a s f r e q u e n t l y passed over e n t i r e ­
ly. This may be explained by t h e mechanism of conjugate i n h i b i t i o n in t h e
sphere of perception.
 c ) During t h e process of l e a r n i n g in t h e n e x t s t a g e , t h e s u b j e c t s begin t o
master t h e groups t h a t were a t first omitted (second), but in this c a s e they do

.
n o t reproduce, or make mistakes in, groups p r e v i o u s l y mastered ( f i r s t and
third)

Consequently, on t r a n s f e r of t h e dominant of a t t e n t i o n t o t h e s i g n a l s n o t
y e t mastered, we observe t h e conjugate i n h i b i t i o n of t h e previously mastered
signals

d) F u r t h e r attem-pts by t h e s u b j e c t s t o reproduce t h e signal complex cor­

r e c t l y l e a d t o a p o s i t i o n of c o n f l i c t : The s u b j e c t s suddenly ltforgettt t h e
whole program a t once, which can be understood a s a development of u l t r a l i m i n a l
i n h i b i t i o n of t h e t,vpe of trprimary" f a t i g u e described by I.I.I.Vinogradov, This
i s o f t e n preceded by t h e phenomenon of r a d i a t i o n of e x c i t a t i o n , by expressed
reproductions t h a t a r e superfluous by comparison with t h e program, and by a
l a r g e number of e r r o r s .

e ) During t h e t r a i n i n g process, t h e r e i s a s t a g e in which, i n s t e a d of t h e

n e x t group of s i g n a l s , t h e s u b j e c t reproduces t h e last group according t o a
ttpatterntt. T h i s i s a manifestation of t h e mechanism of inertia of t h e dominant,
stereotjrpe,

f ) Further attempts l e d t o s u c c e s s f u l performance of t h e program.

An a n a l y s i s of t h e 2EG showed t h a t during t h e period of mastepj of t h e
-
program t h e fast rhythm (20 80 cps) predominates in t h e l e a d s from t h e an­
t e r i o r a r e a s of t h e l e f t hemisphere. A t t h e i n s t a n t of g r e a t e s t d i f f i c u l t y t h e
'*focus" of t h e p a r t of t h e a c t i v i t y may, in time, s h i f t from one hemisphere t o
another and back again.

In a number of experiments t h e programwas mastered in t h e presence of a

focus of f a s t rhythms in t h e r i g h t hemisphere.

These f a c t s i n d i c a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e of i n t e r c e n t r a l reorganization during

t h e period of formation of t h e work of c o n s t e l B t i o n of t h e nerve centers.

CONTRIBUTIOK TO THE QIJ'ESTIOIS OF EVALUATION OF THE SPEED /136

OF INFOFJ4ATIOn' PROCESSING I N BII'JARY SERIAL REACTION

V.A.Bodrov, A.A.Genkin and G,I"i.Zarakovskiy

(Leningrad)

With a uniquely determined r e a c t i o n t o s i g n a l s of two kinds c o n s t i t u t i n g

a sequence, t h e frequency of e r r o r s and t h e r e a c t i o n time are f u n c t i o n s of t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s i g n a l s (Bodrov, Genkin and Zarakovskiy , 1961
to 1963; Leonttyev and Krinchik, 1961 - 1963).
With r e s p e c t t o t h e frequency of e r r o r s t h i s r e l a t i o n has been v e r i f i e d
f o r various modalities and degrees of complexity of t h e signals. I n t h e gen­
e r a l form, i f PI i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence of a s i g n a l of one kind, and
-
P2 = (1 PI ), t h a t of occurrence of t'ne second kind, then t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of
1%

e r r o r f o r a s i g n a l p"r = C 6 and t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r f o r two s i g n a l s

q.*= c 'rp, where C i s a c o n s t a n t c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e experimental condi­

tions.

These experiments w e r e performed a t r e l a t i v e l y long i n t e r s i g n a l intervals

(5 - 10 sec). However, t h e s e formulas cannot be used t o estimate t h e r a t e of
information processing by a human s u b j e c t , s i n c e they do n o t r e f l e c t t h e theo­
r e t i c a l l y expected dependence of t h e probability of e r r o r s on t h e i n t e r v a l s .

I n an experiment w i t h l i g h t s i g n a l s , we s t u d i e d t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of e r r o r s
and r e a c t i o n time w i t h t h e interval between t h e r e a c t i o n t o t h e preceding sig­
n a l and t h e beginning of t h e n e x t s i g n a l (D). The i n t e r v a l s used w e r e 0.2,
1.0, and 5.0 sec.
!de found t h a t f o r t h e p r e s c r i b e d s t a t i s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s i g n a l se­
quence, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r i s

R;l,,=Pi" +-, Kf B ( i=1.2),

where g r i s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of e r r o r in such an i n t e r v a l when p9' depends only
on t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e sequence, and K i s a constant character­
i a i n g t h e experimental conditions.

Thus, we g e t

where D i s l e s s than 2 - 3 sec, and C and K a r e constants.

Within t h e i n t e r v a l s i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e t h e ( T ) was found t o depend on D

by t h e l a w

where K = f(Pi ).

T h i s l a w may, c o n j e c t u r a l l y , be explained by t h e i n c r e a s e in excita- /137

b i l i t y of t h e c e n t r a l nervous systemwhen t h e tempo of r e a c t i o n i s increased.

A knowledge of t h e s e r e l a t i o n s permits us t o e s t i m a t e t h e r a t e of informa­

t i o n processing by a human being as a function of t h e b i n a r y s t a t i s t i c a l s t r u c ­
t u r e of t h e s i g n a l sequence and of t h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e r e a c t i o n and t h e
n e x t signal.

It i s expedient t o d i s t i n g u i s h two forms of t h e rate of information pro­

cessing i n serial reaction:
 The s i n g l e - s t e p r a t e :

where i= f ( F r ) i s t h e mean q u a n t i t y of information t r a n s f e r r e d p e r s i g n a l ,

and T i s t h e mean r e a c t i o n time per s i g n a l ;

The s e r i a l r a t e :
-

' IJE2~ITS OF TKE PROCESS

OB TKE Tl3.E CHAFL4CTELUSTIC OF T!I% COIQO
OF INFOE4i4TIOI\J PROCESSING BY AI'J OPEITOR

.
V A. Y e gorov
( Leningrad)

The process of information processing by a person i s complex. I n con­

t r o m g a u n i t , t h e operator must i d e n t i f y a s i g n a l by determining i t s s i g n i f ­
icance (perform a sensory s e l e c t i o n ) and choose an adequate motor reaction.

For t h e p o s s i b l e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e s e elements, we performed two s e r i e s of

experiments on 1 6 s u b j e c t s , u s i n g s p e c i a l l y designed equipment simulating air­
c r a f t controls.

I n t h e first s e r i e s , t h e s u b j e c t s were i n s t r u c t e d t o choose between two

a c o u s t i c s i g n a l s (sensory s e l e c t i o n ) t o one of which they were t o respond by a
simple almost c o n s t a n t movement of t h e c o n t r o l s t i c k ( t h e r e w a s no motor selec­
tion).

I n t h e second s e r i e s , t h e a c o u s t i c signal- was always constant ( t h e r e w a s

no sensory s e l e c t i o n ) . To t h i s s i g n a l , t h e s u b j e c t responded by movements of
varying complexity on t h e c o n t r o l l e v e r s (with one hand, with two hands, with
one hand and one f o o t , w i t h two hands and one f o o t , i n v a r i o u s d i r e c t i o n s ) .

We found t h a t , on sensory s e l e c t i o n from two signals, t h e average time /138

f o r processing one b i t of information, determined by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e l a t e n c y
period of t h e simple r e a c t i o n from t h e l a t e n c y period of t h e r e a c t i o n with t h e
s e l e c t i o n , was O.l.45 sec.

The time r e q u i r e d t o execute t h e movements, which was determined by sub­

t r a c t i n g , from t h e time of t h e l a t e n c y periods of t h e more complex movements,
t h e time of t h e l a t e n c y period of t h e l e s s complex movements, was 0.035 sec.

The t o t a l time i n sensory s e l e c t i o n and in buildup of t h e movements was

0.180 sec, which i s very c l o s e t o t h e f i g u r e obtained previously by us, when
t h e s u b j e c t s were t o e f f e c t simultaneously a sensory and a motor choice with
complex movements ( t h e average was 0.185 sec).
 These d a t a suggest t h a t , i n t h e complex process of information processing
by an operator, it i s p o s s i b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h a sensory and a niotor component,
most of t h e time (about �3@) being spent on t h e sensory component.

ON THE APPLICATION OF TH?3 PCEI'HODS OF IIXFORI~.ilATIONTHEORY M

STUDY OF THE ITOTOR A C T I V I T Y OF AIRCRAFT PICLOTS UNDER
LABORATORY CONDITIONS

.
V. A Yegorov
(Leningrad)
I n f l y i n g a modern a i r c r a f t , t h e p i l o t r e c e i v e s a l a r g e amount of informa­
t i o n from various s o u r c e s and must r e a c t t o it by complex motor r e a c t i o n s de­
signed t o change t h e f l i g h t parameters.

The o b j e c t of t h i s s t u d y was t o determine t h e a b i l i t y of f l i g h t personnel

t o perform movements, a p p r o p r i a t e l y gaged i n amplitude and d i r e c t i o n , on an ap­
p a r a t u s simulating t h e c o n t r o l s of an a i r c r a f t . Displacement of t h e l e v e r s
produced a synchronous d e f l e c t i o n of t h e p o i n t e r s of v o l t m e t e r s mounted i n t h e
form of an instrument board. The s i g n a l stimulus used was an e l e c t r i c bulb,
a l s o placed on t h e instrument board. The movements were recorded on photograph­
i c paper by t h e a i d of an oscillograph.

I n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e records showed t h e l e n g t h of t h e l a t e n c y period of

t h e motor r e a c t i o n , t h e time of s h i f t i n g t h e c o n t r o l s , and t h e accuracy ( e r r o r s
committed) of t h e amplitude and d i r e c t i o n of t h e movements.

The task of t h e s u b j e c t s was t o move t h e p o i n t e r s from one prescribed po­

s i t i o n t o another by one l e v e r , or by s e v e r a l l e v e r s simultaneously i n v a r i o u s
combinations, under v i s u a l supervision and without it ( w i t h covered i n s t r u ­
ments).

The r e s u l t a n t d a t a were worked up by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e information pro- /139

cessed (by t h e B r i l l o u i n formula) and by computing t h e handling c a p a c i t y of t h e
s u b j e c t s in t h i s a c t i v i t y .

The experiments were made on two groups of subjects. The main group con­
s i s t e d of 60 a v i a t o r s i n v a r i o u s types of a v i a t i o n ; t h e c o n t r o l group had 31
persons unconnected w i t h flying.

W e found t h a t t h e f l i g h t personnel had a higher handling c a p a c i t y than t h e

c o n t r o l group e s e c i a l l y in performing complex movements w i t h two and t h r e e
levers. We a l s o Found a c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e l e v e l of f l i g h t t r a i n i n g and
t h e handling capacity. I n t h e absence of v i s u a l supervision, t h e degree of er­
r o r increased and, in s p i t e of a somewhat g r e a t e r speed in s h i f t i n g t h e l e v e r s ,
t h e handling c a p a c i t y decreased w i t h i n t h e range of one b i t .

I n complex movements, when t h e s u b j e c t mst simultaneously follow t h e

readings of two o r t h r e e instruments, t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s of t h e v i s u a l r e c e p t o r
a r e l i m i t e d , and t h e c o n t r o l of t h e accuracy of t h e movements i s accomplished
with a g r e a t e r p a r t i c i p a t i o n of proprioceptive s e n s i t i v i t y . This i s expressed
in a decrease in t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e handling capacity w i t h and without
v i s u a l c o n t r o l i n executing complex movements, by comparison with t h e simple
movements, i n which only a s i n g l e l e v e r i s s h i f t e d and t h e operator observes
only a s i n g l e instrument.

CONTRIBUTION TO THE QUESTION OF THE FGUCTIONS OF

CHOICE I N FIuMAnJ SUBJECTS

V. T.Prodan
(Leningrad)

The information-theory approach t o t h e analysis of human a c t i v i t y has an

extremely s h o r t h i s t o r y . T h i s approach i s adequate f o r studying s i g n a l se­
quences and t h e i r processing by t h e human c e n t r a l nervous system. The most
convenient method of making t h e information-theory approach p o s s i b l e i s t h e
study of choice reactions.

I n most experiments devoted t o t h e choice r e a c t i o n s , t h e s u b j e c t s were

given a s m a l l number of a l t e r n a t i v e s from which t o choose, and t h e t e s t s were
commenced a f t e r a c e r t a i n preliminary t r a i n i n g . T h i s i s explained by t h e prob­
l e m posed by t h e experimenters. They determined t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e time
of r e a c t i o n t o a s i g n a l and i t s information content. During the course of
t h e s e s t u d i e s i t was found t h a t a more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e development of
t h e choice r e a c t i o n i t s e l f was necessary, s i n c e t h e r e a c t i o n time depends on a
l a r g e number of conditions. When t h e number of a l t e r n a t i v e s i s small, t h e /uco
performance proceeds s o r a p i d l y t h a t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o analyze.

The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n touches on t h e l i t t l e - s t u d i e d question of t h e

formation of t h e choice r e a c t i o n during t h e t r a i n i n g process i t s e l f , and a l s o
of i t s f e a t u r e s when t h e choice i s t o be made from a l a r g e number of a l t e r n a ­
tives.

The s u b j e c t worked a t an e s p e c i a l l y designed model of a c o n t r o l desk. Its

keyboard s e c t i o n had 30 keys, arranged in t h r e e rows of 10 each. On t h e moving
s t r i p c h a r t of an ink-writing Ediswan o s c i l l o g r a p h , t h e l a t e n c y periods of t h e
choice r e a c t i o n s w e r e recorded. The s i g n a l s given were w e l l known t o t h e sub­
j e c t s , s i n c e they were t h e l e t t e r s of t h e Russian alphabet. After t h e experi­
menter pronounced a l e t t e r , t h e s u b j e c t was r e q u i r e d , without e r r o r and as rap­
i d l y a s p o s s i b l e , t o p r e s s one of t h e 30 keys corresponding t o t h a t l e t t e r .
Thus t h e "alphabet" of t h e s i g n a l s a p p l i e d was w e l l known t o t h e subjects. The
i n d i v i d u a l l e t t e r s were d i c t a t e d from a text s t a r t i n g from t h e end s o t h a t t h e
s u b j e c t s could n o t c a t c h i t s meaning which, of course, would have had a s t r o n g
e f f e c t on t h e l e n g t h of t h e l a t e n c y periods. During each experiment n o t l e s s
than l e t t e r s i g n a l s were d i c t a t e d t o t h e s u b j e c t . This number was used
since, i n t h i s case, t h e s t a t i s t i c a l r e g u l a r i t y of t h e varying frequency of t h e
l e t t e r s in t e x t s i s a l r e a d y established. Knowing t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of occurrence
of each l e t t e r i n t h e text, we t h u s a l s o knew t h e i n d i v i d u a l information con­
t a i n e d i n each s i g n a l . In all, 15 experiments were performed on two subjects.

During t h e test, t h e l e n g t h of t h e l a t e n c y p e r i o d of r e a c t i o n shortened

by a f a c t o r of 2 t o 3 f o r each letter. Thus t h e l a t e n c y period p e r signal
v a r i e d s t r o n g l y , although i t s information content remained t h e same.

Two s t a g e s could be noted during t h e course of t h e t e s t . During t h e f i r s t

s t a g e , t h e l a t e n c y period of r e a c t i o n t o t h e l e t t e r s i g n a l s , corresponding t o
t h e extreme keys of each of t h e t h r e e rows, s h a r p l y decreased and were approxi­
mately equal f o r a l l s i g n a l s , r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r information content. The
l e n g t h of t h e l a t e n t r e a c t i o n periods to s i g n a l s corresponding t o keys i n t h e
c e n t e r of t h e rows remain considerably higher than f o r t h e keys a t t h e extreme
ends. Here, likewise, we were unable t o f i n d a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e laten­
cy period of r e a c t i o n t o a s i g n a l and i t s information content. Thus, t h e sub­
j e c t s divided t h e e n t i r e alphabet i n t o t h r e e e q u a l parts corresponding t o t h e
p o s i t i o n of t h e keys i n t h e motor region. During t h e second s t a g e of t h e t e s t
(beginning with t h e s i x t h t o seventh experiment) t h e l e n g t h of t h e l a t e n c y
periods t o s i g n a l s corresponding t o t h e c e n t e r keys began t o approach t h e re­
a c t i o n time f o r t h e end keys. By t h e t h i r t e e n t h experiment t h e r e was already
a d i s t i n c t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e time of r e a c t i o n t o a signal and i t s in­
formation content f o r t h e c e n t r a l elements in each row. A s f o r t h e r e a c t i o n
times f o r t h e end keys, it remained, a s before, independent of t h e i n f o r ­ &4J.

mation content of t h e signal.

Thus, i n t h e f i r s t s t a g e of t h e t e s t , t h e s u b j e c t s made use of t h e widely

known p r i n c i p l e of d i v i s i o n of a whole i n t o parts, considerably f a c i l i t a t i n g
search. A t t h i s s t a g e , t h e search was transformed from l o c a l t o nonlocal.

A s f o r t h e content of t h e s i g n a l s , it was perceived by t h e s u b j e c t already

.
i n t h e second s t a g e of t h e t e s t and, obviously, t h e l a t e r , t h e longer t h e "al­
phabet"

Mere we must a l s o note t h a t t h e r a t e of p r e s e n t i n g t h e s i g n a l has a s t r o n g

influence on t h e r a t e o f i t s processing. I n our experiments, w i t h an i n t e r v a l
of 0.5 - 1 sec between p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e next s i g n a l a f t e r response t o t h e
preceding one, t h e choice r e a c t i o n time was hardly more than h a l f t h a t f o r t h e
-
4 8 sec i n t e r v a l . The p o s i t i o n of t h e pressed key i s r e t a i n e d i n t h e memory
f o r a c e r t a i n time, t h u s a f f e c t i n g t h e l a t e n c y period of t h e next choice re­
action. Consequently, i f p r e s s i n g t h e key t h a t corresponds t o t h e l e t t e r
i s followed by t h e l e t t e r s i g n a l trPrcwithin 0.5 - 1 sec, then i t s l a t e n c y period
was only h a l f a s long as u s u a l ; but i f t h e i n t e r v a l was increased, t h i s e f f e c t
disappeared. This i s obviously due t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e t r a c e processes in
t h e c e n t r a l nervous system.

EFFECT OF CONDITIONAL P R O B A B I L I T I E S OF A SE&UZNCE OF SIGNALS

ON THE TWO-CHOICE UNIQUELY DETERMINED REACTION

1 . N . K r y l o v and K.A.Smirnov
(Leningrad)

In works devoted t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e parameters of uniquely de­

termined r e a c t i o n s as they depend on t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e s i g n a l
sequences, t h e r e l a t i o n s connected w i t h t h e u n c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of occur­
rence of stimuli was i n v e s t i g a t e d (Bodrov, Gernkin and Zarakovskiy; Leontt yev
and Krinchik). The o b j e c t of our experiments was t o study t h e e f f e c t on t h e

119
r e a c t i o n time and e r r o r frequency of t h e c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s ( p r o b a b i l i ­
t i e s of t h e second o r d e r ) of t h e succession of two s i g n a l s .

The signals used w e r e r e d (R) and green (G) l i g h t . I n a s e r i e s of exper­

iments with " b i l a t e r a l " r e a c t i o n on appearance of each type of s i g n a l , t h e sub­
j e c t was t o t u r n a key t o t h e corresponding s i d e (following i n s t r u c t i o n s ) . I n
s e r i e s with 'funilateralrt r e a c t i o n , t h e s i g n a l '*CI* appeared as i n h i b i t o r y .
We used f o u r programs w i t h t h e following s t a t i s t i c a l s t r u c t u r e :

-2 .
The u n c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s were 1

Each of t h e f i v e s u b j e c t s was given 720 s i g n a l s f o r each program and form

of reaction. I n one experiment, 240 s i g n a l s were given.

We found t h a t i n t h e case of '?bilateral'? r e a c t i o n , t h e e r r o r frequency f o r

a given s i g n a l increased w i t h decreasing c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e succes­
s i o n of a given s i g n a l a f t e r t h e preceding signal, in accordance w i t h a d e f i ­
n i t e law.

The r e a c t i o n time Likewise i n c r e a s e s , b u t a t a slower r a t e .

The mean l o s s e s of information stayed a t a c o n s t a n t l e v e l (about 0.25 b i t

per side).

I n t h e case of " u n i l a t e r a l reaction", a l l t h e e r r o r s fell on t h e i n h i b i t o r y

s i g n a l . With decreasing c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y of this s i g n a l , t h e e r r o r f r e ­
quency increased, The r e a c t i o n time t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i g n a l increased w i t h a
decrease i n i t s c o n d i t i o n a l p r o b a b i l i t y .

The e r r o r frequency t o an i n h i b i t o r y s i g n a l following a p o s i t i v e s i g n a l

w a s found t o be higher than when it followed another i n h i b i t o r y s i g n a l . This
f a c t permits c e r t a i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanisms of t k e reg­
u l a r i t i e s observed.

I20

 OPERATIVE Ti-IINKING. l~lEl40IIY.

COKTRIBUTION TO THE COKPABITIVE MJALYSIS OF THE PElOCESS OF

SOLVING PROBWG ON ELECTRONIC COKF'UTERS AND HUI'4A.N

I N T L U C T U A L ACTIVITY

0 .K ,Tikhomirov
(Moscow)

The g e n e r a l problematics of engineering psychology include t h e s p e c i a l

problem of t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e functions of man and computer, and in par­
t i c u l a r of t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l functions, I n this s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d , t h e man@-
chine problem i s concretized in t h e study of t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e pro­
gram according t o which problems are solved on a computer and t h e *tprogranEt ac­
cording t o which t h e process of s o l v i n g problems by a human s u b j e c t i s con­
s t r u c ted,

The study of t h e "program" used in c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e process of solving

problems by human s u b j e c t s can be of d u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e : a ) It can s e r v e as a
source of t h e information r e q u i r e d f o r f u r t h e r improvement of t h e machine pro­
grams; and b) it can encourage t h e optimum d i v i s i o n of functions between man
and machine.

Many of t h e problems t h a t a r i s e i n an o p e r a t o r f s work have t h e following

f e a t u r e s : They are %onarithmetic", Le., t h e s o l u t i o n c o n s i s t s in t h e selec­
t i o n of one of a s e t of p o s s i b l e methods of a c t i o n ; among t h e s e methods t h e r e
i s no s t r i c t d i v i s i o n i n t o c o r r e c t and i n c o r r e c t b u t a gradual gradation from
t h e b e s t t o t h e worst s o l u t i o n ; t h e problem i s t o f i n d a method t h a t i s both
good enough and simple enough; t h e conditions of t h e a c t i v i t y are of a "con­
f l i c t " c h a r a c t e r ( i n t h e sense used in t h e mathematical theory of games), A l l
t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e possessed by those problems in t h e s e l e c t i o n of good
moves, whose sequence of s o l u t i o n c o n s t i t u t e s t h e game of chess. For t h i s
reason, it was found u s e f u l t o s e l e c t t h e game of chess as a model f o r studying
t h e q u e s t i o n s formulated, which may prove u s e f u l i n t h e s o l u t i o n of more im­
p o r t a n t problems,

One of t h e important methods of comparative a n a l y s i s of t h e f u n c t i o n s of

man and computer are games between a man and a machine, and in p a r t i c u l a r t h e
game of chess, in which t h e r e t a k e s place a so-called p r a c t i c a l comparison of
t h e a b i l i t i e s of man with t h o s e of t h e computer.

The a u t h o r f s a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s method of i n v e s t i g a t i o n has shown /1wc

t h a t one of t h e most important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s o l u t i o n of game problems
by man c o n s i s t s i n t h e h i g h e s t s e l e c t i v i t y of t h e o b j e c t i v e u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e
given c o n d i t i o n s of a problem. It i s e x a c t l y in this s t a g e t h a t t h e "advantage"
of t h e human s u b j e c t i s d i s c l o s e d , and a n analysis of t h i s s t a g e i s mandatory
f o r f u r t h e r improvement of t h e p r o g r a m i n g of problem s o l u t i o n s on computers.
 DEYEL0PN.I" OF THB CONCEPT OF MACHINE THINKING

A.M.Parach$v
(Leningrad)

The engineering development of "thinkinf r o b o t s i s made d i f f i c u l t by t h e

lack, i n contemporary psychology, of any u n i t a r y and d i s t i n c t conception of
what c o n s t i t u t e s human thought. Engineers a r e t h e r e f o r e independently com­
p e l l e d t o formulate t h e concepts of thFnking and t o d e p a r t from them only i f
they a r e u n s u i t a b l e f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of automatic machines, or t o limit t h e
f i e l d of a p p l i c a t i o n of some concept and work o u t a new one. Up t o now, sever­
a l w o r k i n g concepts of t h i n k i n g may be distinguished.

The algorithmic viewpoint c o n s i s t s in t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t t h e process of

thought i s amenable t o d e s c r i p t i o n by t h e a i d of c e r t a i n algorithms. The im­
provement of t h e process w i l l c o n s i s t in a random recombination of some s e t of
operations and t h e s e l e c t i o n of those t h a t s a t i s f y a d e f i n i t e preassigned c r i ­

.
t e r i o n of q u a l i t y . This d i r e c t i o n of r e s e a r c h i s c a l l e d " a r t i f i c i a l i n t e l l i ­
gence"

The h e u r i s t i c approach t o thought starts from t h e p o s t u l a t e t h a t beneath

t h e ordinary l o g i c a l operations l i e s a system of h e u r i s t i c s , L e . , r u l e s f o r
f i n d i n g a s o l u t i o n , which l e a d t o success in most cases but n o t always. The
working hypothesis adopted i s t h a t t h e r e exists a f i n i t e c o l l e c t i o n of heuris­
t i c s d e s c r i b i n g any process of s o l u t i o n of a problem, and t h e o b j e c t of deter­
mining t h e s e h e u r i s t i c s i s posed. The s t u d i e s are performed both on d i g i t a l
computers and in t h e psychological laboratory. For work on d i g i t a l computers,
a s p e c i a l system of coding (trinformation-processinglanguage") has been devel­
oped. T h i s line of r e s e a r c h i s c a l l e d " h e u r i s t i c programing".

The above concepts relate t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l a s p e c t of i n t e l l e c t u a l a c ­

t i v i t y , and ignore t h e s a p i d a s p e c t of thinking. Recently, a tendency has been
noted t o go beyond this l i m i t a t i o n and t o i n c l u d e in t h e a n a l y s i s of i n t e l l i ­
gence a l s o so-called " i n t e r n a l models of t h e e x t e r n a l worldt!. Two s t a g e s of
development of this concept can be distinguished.

The i n t e r n a l model of t h e e x t e r n a l world i s t h e foundation f o r t h e A45

formation of both algorithms and h e u r i s t i c s . On t h e b a s i s of t h e model, t h e
construction of t h e plan of a c t i v i t y and i t s c o n t r o l a r e accomplished. Here
t h e r e a r i s e s t h e problem of i n t e a t i n g t h e information on t h e l a w s of t h e ex­
T
t e r n a l w o r l d i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r e aJgorithm, h e u r i s t i c , plan) of a c t i v i t y in it.
T h i s problem has n o t y e t found an engineering s o l u t i o n .

F i n a l l y t h e r e a r i s e s a problem of t h e analysis of complex information sys­

tems capable of independently developing i n t e r n a l models of t h e e x t e r n a l world,
of planning its a c t i v i t y on t h e basis of this model, of transforming t h e model
on t h e basis of experience, and again planning i t s a c t i v i t y . T h i s e v i d e n t l y
i s a r a t h e r remote prospect f o r t h e development of t h e concept of machine
thinking, and we are only approaching it.

The concepts of machine t h i n k i n g here considered are s t a g e s in t h e suc­

c e s s i v e approximation t o t h e understanding of n a t u r e by human i n t e l l i g e n c e and,
322
 .
a t t h e same time, s t a g e s of ever-increasing improvement of automatic c o n t r o l
sgstema

ON THE SDulULATION OF A CLASS OF INTLWCTUAL OPERATIONS

.
G. W K hovanov
(140s cow)

Computer technology today i s used f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of problems from t h e

most v a r i e d f i e l d s of knowledge. However, t h e machine i s far from being a b l e
t o make a l l of t h e d e c i s i o n s t h a t can be made by man, s i n c e by no means, a l l
knowledge can be formalized and expressed in equations. In many f i e l d s such
a s , f o r example, i n forward economic planning or chemical engineering, t h e r e
exist only s i m p l i f i e d mathematical models of t h e processes, which a r e a b l e t o
describe and p r e d i c t t h e processes considerably l e s s e f f i c i e n t l y than an ex­
perienced s p e c i a l i s t who r e l i e s on nonformalized p a s t experience and on '*in­
tuition" *

Nevertheless, t h e lack of an e x a c t mathematical theory of a given process

does n o t exclude t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h e use of a conputer, which i s obvious
f r o m t h e example of s e l f - t e a c h i n g programs f o r t h e recognition of forms which,
i n t h e absence of a prescribed m a t h e m t i c a l theory, i n d i c a t e which of t h e out-
cones of a random event i s t h e most probable,

The most g e n e r a l problem i s t h a t of t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e estimate of t h e prob­

a b i l i t i e s of outcomes of a random event, on t h e b a s i s of wide and v a r i e d past
experience, when t h e use of s t a t i s t i c a l methods cannot cover a l l t h e d a t a on
t h e s t r u c t u r e of this experience, Nan i s unable t o solve such a problem /uc6
a s an i s o l a t e d case (i.e., he cannot state t h e numerical values of t h e s e prob­
a b i l i t i e s ) , but experienced s p e c i a l i s t s r e a d i l y s o l v e problems of this type a s
soon as they become concrete ( L e . , t h e s p e c i a l i s t t a k e s a d e c i s i o n t h a t i s
c l o s e t o optimum).

Conversations w i t h s p e c i a l i s t s have shown t h a t experience i s e v i d e n t l y

manifested in t h e c o r r e c t o r g a n i z a t i o n of past experience, in knowing how t o
choose c o r r e c t l y s i t u a t i o n s f o r drawing analogies t o a given s i t u a t i o n . The
attempt t o simulate such a u t i l i z a t i o n of p a s t experience could be s i g n i f i c a n t
both for q u e s t i o n s of t h e use of machines i n science, i n d u s t r y , and pLanning
and f o r t h e s t u d y of t h e c o g n i t i v e a c t i v i t y of man.

L e t a random event be observed under d i f f e r e n t conditions, d i f f e r i n g by

two (or more) q u a l i t a t i v e a t t r i b u t e s . Required : t o estimate t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
of t h e kth outcome of this random event, i f t h e f i r s t a t t r i b u t e has t h e
PIOfOk
value i = io and t h e second a t t r i b u t e t h e v a l u e j = j To e v a l u a t e PrpjoR ,
l e t us make use of t h e v a l u e of t h e r e l a t i v e frequenc3es viojok , of thls same
outcome a t o t h e r values of t h e f i r s t a t t r i b u t e , but a t t h e same v a l u e of t h e
second. If we imagine t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of vi over K a r e l o c a t e d in t h e
c e l l s of a matrix for which i denotes t h e number o f l i h e row and j t h e number of
t h e column, then we s h a l l be a b l e t o say t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n Piojok i s s e t up
,
according t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s of v i o j o k L e . , from d i f f e r e n t c e l l s of t h e
same column, t a k i n g account of c e r t a i n c o e f f i c i e n t s of s i m i l a r i t y w i o i between
123
\
 t h e given row io and t h e rows of i.

piojok'
I
xwioi +1
I'
(K=1,2,. . . , n)
It i s an operation of higher rank t o f i n d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s of s i m i l a r i t y
between t h e rows, with r e s p e c t t o t h e remaining columns, on t h e b a s i s of t h e
r e l a t i v e frequency d i s t r i b u t i o n Wi1 = If( { d J k ) , , {ui,jR)). I f t h e pre-
I+ja
ceding operation i s analogous t o t h e evaluation of p r o b a b i l i t y by a human sub­
j e c t , then t h i s operation i s analogous t o t h e formation of "an association".

It i s an operation of s t i l l higher rank t o f i n d t h e form of a f u n c t i o n f ,

Y q / < log- Y @z ­
s o s e l e c t e d as t o minimize t h e sum of t h e expressions pGk for a l l
k
c e l l s of t h e matrix, i.e., t o minimize t h e mean q u a n t i t y of information f o r t h e
e n t i r e m a t r i x which can be derived by s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e p r e d i c t e d p r o b a b i l i t i e s
f o r t h e e m p i r i c a l frequencies. To f i n d t h e f u n c t i o n f i s t h e analog of t h e
formation ( i n phylogenesis) of t h e s i o l o g i c a l mechanisms of thought
t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e formation (in of t h e g e n e r a l methods, t h e "stylett
of thinking.

The o p e r a t i o n of s e l e c t i n g t h e a t t r i b u t e s from which t h e natrjx i s

constructed must a l s o depend on t h e above c r i t e r i a of information tneory and
s e r v e as an analog f o r t h e s t r u c t u r i n g of past experience by members of t h e
human society. In many p r a c t i c a l c o n t r o l problems ( f o r i n s t a n c e in processes
of chemical engineering) i t i s by no means always necessary t o t u r n t h i s prob­
lem over t o a computer, although in some cases ( f o r example, an automatic na­
chine landed on t h e s u r f a c e of an unexplored p l a n e t ) such a n e c e s s i t y i s ob­
vious.

ON THE UTILIZATION OF CHZSS AS A ?IODI!L OF OPERATIVE THIFJKING

V. N. Pushkin
(MOSC ow)

The game of chess was c r e a t e d from t h e v e r y beginning as a model of t h e

a c t i v i t y of m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s , which i s a t y p i c a l v a r i e t y of o p e r a t i v e thinking.
The fundamental propositions of t h e psychology of p r a c t i c a l t h i n k i n g as a spe­
c i f i c v a r i e t y of human i n t e l l e c t were a c t u a l l y f o m l a t e d on t h e b a s i s of a
psychological a n a l y s i s of a General (Teplov). There have been few psgchologi­
c a l s t u d i e s of t h e game of chess i t s e l f (Binet, Cleveland, Severniy, Blumen­
f e l d , Rudik); and occasional psychological q u e s t i o n s have been r a i s e d in t h e
s p e c i a l i z e d l i t e r a t u r e of chess as w e l l (Lasker). These s t u d i e s give only a
macro-analysis of t h e game of chess. The immense p o s s i b i l i t i e s of chess a s an
experimental model f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g such major problems of t h e psychology of
operative thinking a s t h e mechanisms of problem s o l u t i o n , t h e formation of
thought processes, of o p e r a t i v e t a l e n t and t h e l i k e , have long remained unuti­
lized.
 Studies on t h e psychology of t h e game of chess have r e c e n t l y become q u i t e
important i n connection w i t h t h e development of cybernetic machines. Chess
has become a touchstone f o r e l u c i d a t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of automation of hu­
man i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , I n s p i t e of occasional successes i n h e u r i s t i c pro­
gramming (Reitman, Samuel, FJewell, and o t h e r s ) , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of chess ma­
chines are s t i l l very small, and i n t h i s connection t h e comparison of man and
machine on t h e chess board a c q u i r e s fundanental s i g n i f i c a n c e (Botvinnik) .
The process of s o l u t i o n of chess problems was s e l e c t e d as t h e o b j e c t of
t h e p r e s e n t study. The experimental problem was a study i n which t h e s u b j e c t
was i n s t r u c t e d t o p l a y f o r a draw, t a k i n g t h e white side. During t h e s o l u t i o n
of this problem, t h e chess player would f i r s t have t o pose and f o m l a t e
t h i s problem f o r himself, and only afterward s o l v e it. The experimental prob­
m
lem s i t u a t i o n can be q u a l i f i e d as open. The l e a d i n g r o l e i n i t s s o l u t i o n i s
played by v i s u a l a n a l y s i s of t h e elements, t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s , and t h e i r mutual
p o s i t i o n s . The s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e v i s u a l r e c e p t o r f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of chess
problems permitted us t o use a motion p i c t u r e of t h e eyes i n order t o o b t a i n an
o b j e c t i v e record of t h e process of s o l u t i o n , followed by a frame-by-frame work-
up of t h e material. ( T h i s method of r e g i s t r a t i o n f o r analyzing t h e processes
of o p e r a t i v e thinking was f i r s t used by D.N.Zavalishina.) The r e s u l t s of pho­
tography of t h e eyes i n a survey of t h e experimental p o s i t i o n agreed with t h e
r e p o r t of t h e s u b j e c t s on t h e v e r s i o n s of t h e solution.

The r e s u l t s showed g r e a t i n t e n s i t y of work of t h e eyes during t h e s o l u t i o n

of t h e chess problem. The mean f i x a t i o n time of t h e eye on t h e v a r i o u s p o i n t s
i s 0.24 sec. A l l t h e p o i n t s of f i x a t i o n of t h e eye may be divided i n t o two
groups. The f i r s t group i n c l u d e s stopping of t h e eye on those squares of t h e
board occupied by chess p i e c e s ; t h e second ,poup, f i x a t i o n on t h e empty squares.
There a r e grounds f o r b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e second group of f i x a t i o n s i s connected
w i t h an imaginary move of a piece onto an empty square, L e . , w i t h t h e f u t u r e
move. The f i x a t i o n s of t h e first group may have an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t func­
t i o n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ; t h e drawing of t h e eye on a piece might, c o n j e c t u r a l l y ,
mean: r e c o g n i t i o n of a piece, repeated examination of a piece w i t h t h e o b j e c t
of e x t r a c t i o n from it information t h a t i s s t i l l lacking, a glance a t a piece in
order t o r e l a t e i t t o another piece.

The f r e q u e n t r e p e t i t i v e r e t u r n s t o a piece alread.y mamined might mean

t h a t t h e oculomotor apparatus i s connected w i t h t h e "stamping-in" system of t h e
b r a i n : The eyes r e t u r n t o a n element of t h e problem s i t u a t i o n u n t i l informa­
t i o n s u f f i c i e n t t o s o l v e t h e problem has been e x t r a c t e d ,

We e s t a b l i s h e d t h e following phases of s o l u t i o n of t h e problem, charac­

t e r i z e d by t h e s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s of t h e path taken by t h e eyes: reading t h e
s i t u a t i o n , e l u c i d a t i n g t h e problem, c o r r e l a t i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e elements
from t h e viewpoint of t h e problem, e s t a b l i s h i n g a v e r s i o n of t h e s o l u t i o n , and
its verification.

I n s t u d i e s , which l i k e w i s e recorded t h e movements of t h e r e c e p t o r organ

(V.P.Zinchenko, B.F.Lomov) t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e process of
p e r c e p t i o n was shown. I n connection w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t , i n our experiments, we
recorded movements of t h e eyes t h a t were c l o s e t o o r i e n t i n g movements, it i s
necessary t o determine t h e r o l e of o r i e n t a t i o n in t h e s o l u t i o n of problems of
t h e chess type. Based on an jnitialanalysis of t h e raterial, it can be postu­
l a t e d t h a t o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e s t r i c t sense of t h e term begins w i t h t h e reading
of t h e s i t u a t i o n and ends w i t h t h e e l u c i d a t i o n and formulation of t h e problem.
O r i e n t a t i o n i s t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e problem. After t h e problem has been formu­
l a t e d , o r i e n t a t i o n i s replaced by purposeful a n a l y t i c - s y n t h e t i c a c t i v i t y , On
f u r t h e r s o l u t i o n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o have a v e r s i o n in which it i s found t h a t
t h e problem had been i n c o r r e c t l y posed and t h a t t h e conditions should be /lk9
r e v i s e d ; i n this case t h e o r i e n t i n g a c t i v i t y i s again developed in f u l l measure.

Our s t u d y has shown t h a t t h e r e a l process of solving t h e problems does n o t

correspond t o t h e concept of f ' s o r t i n g out of variants", which i s based on t h e
b e h a v i o r i s t i c theory of " t r i a l and error" and which i t s e l f forms t h e b a s i s f o r
t h e programing of many chess-playing machines. An a n a l y s i s of t h e s o l u t i o n of
chess pyoblems by a human s u b j e c t m y y i e l d m a t e r i a l f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
h e u r i s t i c chess programs or f o r pinpointing t h e question of t h e boundaries of
automation of t h e human i n t e l l e c t ,

AJIALYSIS OF TI33 PiloCESS OF SOLVING SPATIAL-CONBINATORIAL

PROBLEMSOF DISCRETX c m c " i BY m AID OF KOTIOIIJ
PICTIJFLES OF EYE MOVBENTS
D.N. Z a v a l i s b h a
(140s cow)

In r e c e n t y e a r s t h e r e has been a t r e n d in cybernetics (Newell, Shaw, Simon,

R e i t m a n ) toward development of t h e problem of f t h e u r i s t i c programming", which
a t t a c h e s g r e a t importance t o t h e study of t h e r e a l process of human problem-
s o l v i n g behavior, as t h e b a s i s f o r c r e a t i n g programs f o r cybernetic machines in
s o l v i n g complex problem,. A t t h e same time, t h e s t u d y of t h e real process of
s o l u t i o n by man of c e r t a i n types of problems i s n o t only t h e o r e t i c a l l y important
but a l s o c o n s t i t u t e s a p r a c t i c a l problem in connection w i t h t h e automation of
those forms of d i s p a t c h e r and operator work whose major component c o n s i s t s of
intellectual activity,

However, i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on t h e process of s o l v i n g problems encounter g r e a t

methodological d i f f i c u l t i e s , in view of t h e f a c t t h a t many elements of t h e in­
t e l l e c t u a l process d i r e c t e d toward s o l u t i o n of a problem, u s u a l l y elude t h e
conscious i n s p e c t i o n of man. I n order t o o b j e c t i v i z e t h e process of s o l u t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y of t h e above subconscious elements, t h e method of motion p i c t u r e s of
eye movements (V.P. Zinchenko) in solving problems was employed.

As t h e o b j e c t of study we used t h e process of s o l u t i o n of a problemwhich

i s a v a r i a n t of t h e m a t h e ~ t i c a l " 1 5 - g a m e " . This problem i s a model of t h e ac­
t i v i t y of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d i s p a t c h e r work. It r e q u i r e s t h e p l a y e r t o pass, by
t h e a i d of "simple rook moves" from a p r e s c r i b e d s i t u a t i o n t o t h e n o m 1 s i t u a -
E3
tion -
4.5 '
leaving squares rfdfff r e e i n both t h e f i n a l and i n i t i a l moves. In

c o n t r a s t t o t h e e a r l i e r work by this technique, t h e transformation of t h e /1To

prescribed s i t u a t i o n i n t o t h e end s i t u a t i o n was accomplished in t h e p r e s e n t ex­

126
periment on t h e basis of a v i s u a l a n a l y s i s of t h e s i t u a t i o n without a c t u a l l y
moving t h e pieces. The problem was considered solved if t h e s u b j e c t was a b l e
t o name a set of moves l e a d i n g t o i t s solution. The problem discussed here be­
longs t o t h e l a r g e c l a s s of problems of d i s c r e t e c h a r a c t e r ( t o which chess a l s o
belongs). These problems are c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e opposing ele­
ments a r e given as o b j e c t s s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t from each o t h e r and t h a t t h e
s o l v e r discovers t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s and t h e r e l a t i o n s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e s o l u t i o n
of t h e problem i n t h e course of t h e s o l u t i o n .

The experiment involves f i v e s i t u a t i o n s i n all. F r o m t h e p o i n t of view of

t h e demands made by v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s on t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y of man, t h e
experiment w a s divided i n t o t h r e e s e r i e s . The problems presented in each s e r i e s
d i f f e r e d i n t h e c h a r a c t e r of connection between t h e i r component elements. The
first s e r i e s included problems whose elements had a c y c l i c s t r u c t u r e , i.e.,
were r e g u l a r l y disposed r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r f r o m t h e p o i n t of view of t h e

demands of t h e end s i t u a t i o n ( s i t u a t i o n s 412

7 7
and 32
541 ). The s o l u t i o n of such

problems c o n s i s t s i n a c y c l i c permutation of a l l i t s elements. For t h e solu­

t i o n of problems of t h e second s e r i e s it was necessary a t f i r s t t o combine t h e
s e p a r a t e elements or groups, i.e., t o c o n s t r u c t t h e system ( f o r example, t o

solve t h e problem t h e p i e c e 3 had t o be combined with t h e group l2, while

J2

t o s o l v e t h e problem - the substructures -

315
24.
31 and -5 had t o be developed
2 4
r e l a t i v e t o each o t h e r ) . The s o l u t i o n of a problem of t h e t h i r d s e r i e s f o r
construction of a system r e q u i r e s t h e preliminary d i s s o l u t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g
mutual p o s i t i o n of t h e elements.

An a n a l y s i s of t h e r e s u l t a n t d a t a shows t h a t t h e movement of t h e eyes i s

of d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r in s o l v i n g p r o b l e m of d i f f e r e n t types. This i n d i c a t e s
t h a t we have here what might be c a l l e d an o b j e c t i v i z e d process of i n t e l l e c t u a l
a c t i v i t y . The process of p e r c e p t i o n i n t h i s case plays an a n c i l l a r y r o l e . A
sketch of t h e eye movement and i t s time parameters permitted us t o give a d e f i ­
n i t e q u a l i t a t i v e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e process of solution. Thus, s o l u t i o n
of problems of t h e first s e r i e s was r a p i d and p r a c t i c a a v coincided w i t h t h e
reading of t h e s i t u a t i o n . The s o l u t i o n of t h e problems of t h e second s e r i e s
was considerably slower. Thus, t h e mean number of f i x a t i o n s p e r s o l u t i o n of a
problem i n t h e f i r s t series w a s 20.8, but i n t h e second it was 39. I n a d d i t i o n ,
i f i n solving t h e problems of t h e f i r s t s e r i e s , t h e p i e c e s are arranged by t h e
s u b j e c t s u c c e s s i v e l y and without any p a r t i c u l a r preference, t h e r e w i l l be a re­
peated p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e several groups of elements i n t h e second s e r i e s . A s
shown by t h e d a t a , t h e problemwith t h e g r e a t e s t complexity f o r a l l s u b j e c t s

w a s t h a t of t h e t h i r d series 451 .
- The s o l u t i o n of t h i s problem demanded /Irl
23
i n t e n s e i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y of t h e subjects. T h i s a c t i v i t y was considerably
more complex in s t r u c t u r e than t h a t i n solving problems of t h e first two s e r i e s .
The mean number of f i x a t i o n s f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of a problem of t h e t h i r d s e r i e s
w a s 123. I n a d d i t i o n t h e stepwise c h a r a c t e r of s o l u t i o n was r a t h e r d i s t i n c t l y
 I 1111111 I1 I I1111II 1111 I I I 1111111111 11111 111111 111,111.1.111.1.1 ­-----1-1.1.

--I

manifested. The following s t a g e s can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d : i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s of t h e

s i t u a t i o n , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e subproblems ( u s u a l l y t h e p a i r 45 which had t o
be broken up), formation of a plan of s o l u t i o n and i t s implementation.

The d a t a obtained i n d i c a t e t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s of t h e method of motion-

p i c t u r e photography of eye movements for t h e s t u d y of t h e problem-solving be­
havior f o r problems of this c l a s s .

I .M. Geodakgan
(Yerevan)

Understanding or comprehension i s an e s s e n t i a l component of human a c t i v i t y .

It embraces psychic s t a t e s of varying complexity, beginning with i n t e l l i g e n t
d i s t i n c t l y conscious perception and ranging t o complex i n t e l l e c t u a l operations.
The n a t u r e of human understanding d e f i n e s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l process, t h e t'share"
of thought a t v a r i o u s levels of cognition. For t h i s reason, when we speak of
understanding, we should envisage an e n t i r e h i e r a r c h y of l e v e l s of thought, in­
cluding t h e s o l u t i o n of problems which are both e i t h e r purely v e r b a l or have a
v i s u a l i z e d character. I n t h e l a t t e r case, understanding i s manifested as o r i ­
e n t a t i o n i n t h e s i t u a t i o n , as adequate r e a c t i o n t o a system of simultaneous or
consecutive s t i m u l i .

The question a r i s e s : What i s t h e "technique" of understanding, i t s fea­

t u r e s on t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s of t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l process, which give it i t s
g r e a t e r or lesser comple-xity?

Our study w a s d i r e c t e d toward an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e psgchologicalmech­

anism of simple understanding in a v i s u a l i z e d s i t u a t i o n . The experiment was
t h e gradual guessing of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of an a r t i f i c i a l s t i m l u s . This con­
sists of s e v e r a l s e t s of cards divided by r u l i n g s i n t o i n d i v i d u a l c e l l s . Each
c e l l had two p r o p e r t i e s , c o l o r and number. The l a t t e r e i t h e r belong t o a cer­
t a i n r i g i d system or a r e determined by f r e e (random) choice. I n each system we
used two o r f o u r c o l o r s and 1 6 f i g u r e s . The s u b j e c t w a s shown t h e f i r s t card,
i n which only t h e f i r s t c e l l had t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s . Wis t a s k w a s t o guess t h e
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e second c e l l . After his answer he was shown t h e second card.
Then t h e same procedure was repeated with t h e t h i r d card, etc. I n o t h e r /152
words, a f t e r each answer t h e s u b j e c t w a s shown t h e corresponding p a r t of t h e
coded system. With each s t e p t h e information obtained by t h e s u b j e c t w a s in­
creased and refined. F i n a l l y , a t some point, e r r o r - f r e e answers began t o ap­
pear, i.e., t h e s u b j e c t acquired cognizance of t h e system governing t h e posi­
t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s or, on t h e o t h e r hand, he understood t h a t a cer­
tain one of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d i d n o t f i t i n t o any system, i.e., had been
taken on t h e basis of a random s e l e c t i o n ,

The experiments yielded t h e following f i n d i n g s :

1. On t h e level of understanding i n v e s t i g a t e d here, a l l s u b j e c t s showed

uniformity in t h e i r problem-solving behavior; no i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s were
 noted. T h i s uniformity c o n s i s t e d in f i n d i n g t h e most r a t i o n a l and economical
s o l u t i o n process, d i c t a t e d by t h e e x h i b i t e d system.

2. Xost of t h e s u b j e c t s executed t h e same number of s t e p s in f i n d i n g t h e

p r o p e r t i e s combined i n t o a c e r t a i n system.

3 . Greater e f f o r t w a s r e q u i r e d t o understand t h e random c h a r a c t e r of one

of t h e a t t r i b u t e s ; t h e d e v i a t i o n s from t h e mean values a l s o were g r e a t e r . The
s e a r c h f o r a s o l u t i o n was q u i t e d i f f i c u l t in this case.

4. The experimental d a t a permit s e v e r a l ways f o r t h i s systematization.

A l l s u b j e c t s , however, grouped t h e a t t r i b u t e s i n t h e same way. The grouping
w a s determined by t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e c e l l s , by t h e i r
number, and mutual position. Thus, in t h e system of sequences of four c o l o r s ,
t h e s e a r e n o t apprehended i n time b u t only i n space. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
apprehension of two c o l o r s w i t h a s t a b l e s p a t i a l p o s i t i o n (in checkerboard form)
does r e l y on a system of time sequences.

5. After s e v e r a l c o r r e c t answers, e r r o r s sometimes occurred. I n such cases

t h e s u b j e c t s s h i f t e d t o a d i f f e r e n t mode of guessing; a s it were, they put i n t o
operation a system of p a s t experience t h a t was more s u i t a b l e f o r t h e given sit­
uation. I f , on t h e v i s u a l l e v e l alone, it was impossible t o f u l l y grasp t h e
operative system, t h e s u b j e c t s began t o u t i l i z e simple concepts ( f o r exainple,
even and odd numbers, e t c . ) which served a s keys t o t h e s i t u a t i o n .

6. The u t i l i z a t i o n of c e r t a i n concepts i n systematizing t h e p r o p e r t i e s im­

p l i e s a more p e r f e c t form of i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , and i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
t h e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d and more i n t e l l e c t u a l a t t i t u d e of individuals.

7. During t h e process of apprehending a v i s u a l s i t u a t i o n , d e f i n i t e systems,

formed as a r e s u l t of t h e i r experience i n l i f e , become a c t u a l i z e d i n t h e sub­
j e c t s . On r e l a t i v e l y low l e v e l s of understanding, t h e s e are t h e same in a l l
s u b j e c t s and are conditioned by t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e stimulus. It i s t h e s e
systems t h a t we consider t o be t h e mechanisms or" understanding.

Thus, under t h e conditions of our experiments, t h e r e w a s f o r t h e most /153

part simple understanding, l i m i t e d by t h e frame of t h e v i s u a l s i t u a t i o n . I n
apprehending t h e p r o p e r t i e s of a s i g n a l , s p e c i a l mechanisms ensuring compre­
hension of t h e e n t i r e system were actualized. They were r e a l i z e d by ordering
t h e p r o p e r t i e s i n temporal or spatial sequence. I n spatial o r i e n t a t i o n , more­
over, t h e base was t h e arrangement of t h e same c o l o r s ( i n our experiments t h e
diagonal d i r e c t i o n dominated t h e v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n s ) . I n t h e
case of a c a u s a l connection between t h e c o l o r s and f i g u r e s , t h e r e l a t i o n s be­
tween t h e c o l o r s were apprehended e a r l i e r . A l l t h e answers of t h e s u b j e c t s in­
d i c a t e a s t r o n g tendency t o s t a r t from t h e a l r e a d y l a o m connective p r o p e r t i e s
of t h e s i g n a l i n guessing those s t i l l unknown. P r o p e r t i e s l o c a t e d a c e r t a i n
d i s t a n c e apart were n o t combined on a purely v i s u a l i z e d plane.

I n case of n e c e s s i t y , where it i s impossible t o apprehend a s i t u a t i o n as

a whole by t h e a i d of v i s u a l , temporal, or spatial systems, t h e s u b j e c t s have
recourse t o i d e a t i o n . T h i s i s a l r e a d y a t r a n s i t i o n to a more complex l e v e l of
understanding. The i d e a t i o n s e r v e s f o r t h e c o r r e c t i o n of answers and elimina­

129

I -
 t i o r , of e r r o r s .

FEATUizES OF INV~TIGATIONSOF TXOUGFIT I N ~JGIIJEBUNGPSKHOLOGY

Questions of t h e psychology of t h i n k k g have n o t y e t assumed t h e i r r i g h t ­

f u l place in s t u d i e s on engineering psychology. This has been due n o t so much
t o a l a c k of need f o r r e s e a r c h of this kind as t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e thought
processes have n o t been worked o u t and a r e r a t h e r complex. There a r e a l s o a
number of s p e c i f i c causes responsible f o r t h e l i m i t e d e x t e n t t o which t h e known
psychological laws of thought have been used in s o l v i n g problems of engineering
psychology.

1. The t r a d i t i o n a l psychological s t u d i e s of t h i n k i n g have in most cases

been concerned w i t h t h e thinking of a h " s u b j e c t as manifested in his every­
day behavior, when confronted by c e r t a i n p r a c t i c a l or t h e o r e t i c a l problems.
The l a w s discovered in experimental r e s e a r c h explain numerous f a c t s of human
behavior and a r e a l s o used by many branches of s c i e n c e r e l a t e d t o psychology
(pedagogy, physiology, etc.) and t h e a p p l i e d f i e l d s of knowledge. I n a l l t h e s e
cases the d a t a of psychological i n v e s t i g a t i o n s could be d i r e c t l y u t i l i z e d ,
without any conplex i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . I n r e s e a r c h in engineering psychology, /154.
however, in considering t h e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s of t h e man/machine problem, psychol­
ogy was p r i m a r i l y confronted w i t h s e v e r a l unsolved problems of perception and,
secondly, with q u e s t i o n s of t h e accuracy of t h e sensorimotor a c t performed by
an operator. These two main f i e l d s of r e s e a r c h were d i r e c t l y determined by t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s encountered by d e s i g n e r s of complex c o n t r o l systems. It appeared
here t h a t a l l t h e complex f u n c t i o n s t h a t must be performed by a human s u b j e c t
under ordinary c o n d i t i o n s (first of a l l , t h e n e c e s s i t y of "thinkingtt) could be
simulated by t h e a i d of a more or l e s s complex e l e c t r o n i c computer. Thus t h e
operator became an *'elementtt i n a system of r e c e i v i n g and t r a n s m i t t i n g informa­
tion.

2. Under t h e s e conditions, t h e r o l e and p o s i t i o n of psychologists was nat­

u r a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e study of t h i s r a t h e r narrow '*elementtt. Even w i t h such a
l i m i t e d f i e l d of s t u d y and of psychology, however, t h e designers soon became
convinced t h a t optimum operation of a complex c o n t r o l system required t h e solu­
t i o n of a considerable number of problems o u t s i d e t h e limits of s t u d i e s of per­
ception and sensorimotor functions. T h i s l e d t o t h e problems of t r a i n i n g and
s e l e c t i o n of operators, t h e problems of ''information coding', and even of "op­
e r a t i v e " thinking or reasoning.

The primary d i f f i c u l t y produced by t h e l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s for t h e u t i l ­

i z a t i o n of t h e psychological laws of thought were t h e considerable s p e c i f i c i t y
of complex c o n t r o l systems. T h i s p e c u l i a r i t y can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two prin­
c i p a l features :

a) The main f u n c t i o n of t h e system i s performed only by t h e system as a

whole. The i n d i v i d u a l operators i n a complex system perform only i n d i v i d u a l
elements of t h e common problems t h a t t h e system i s designed t o solve.
 b) The s p e c i f i c i t y of t h e operator's work i n a complex c o n t r o l system con­
sists i n the f a c t t h a t he must t a k e d e c i s i o n s w i t h r e s p e c t t o r e a l o b j e c t s on
t h e b a s i s of a complex system of s i g n a l images, which r e s o l v e t h e c o n t r o l l e d
o b j e c t i n t o i t s i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t i e s , r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and functions.

Thus, psychology was compelled from t h e very beginning t o i n v e s t i g a t e only

t h a t partial a c t i v i t y of t h e o p e r a t o r which in most cases w a s lirnited t o prob­
lems of perception and sensorimotor action. Even i n cases where t h e r e a l de­
mands of system design expanded t h e s e narrow linits, when a whole succession of
new problems arose, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l approach t o t h e operator's a c t i v i t y s t i l l
remained dominant.

It must be noted t h a t , in v e r y m n y cases, t h e f u n c t i o n s of t h e o p e r a t o r

a c t u a l l y comprise only perception and t h e performance of sensorimotor actions.
But even in t h e s e cases, in c o n t r a s t t o a machine, t h e operator does perform
t h e s e a c t s d e l i b e r a t e l y . The human s u b j e c t i s aware of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e d i s ­
plays on t h e screen of t h e i n d i c a t o r r e p r e s e n t c e r t a i n r e a l o b j e c t s pos- /155
sessing certain properties. Thus, thinking a c t u a l l y i s a process t h a t i s neces­
s a r i l y included in t h e process of perception. The human operator performs a l l
those elements of a c t i v i t y which were n o t provided f o r by t h e d e s i m e r , and
searches f o r a l l t h e information t h a t he r e q u i r e s f o r s o l u t i o n of t h e problems
f a c i n g him.

Thinking of a complex c o n t r o l system a s a whole, it becomes obvious t h a t

i n most systems t h e i r function reduces primarily t o t h e s o l u t i o n of a consid­
e r a b l e number of i n t e l l e c t u a l problems. The e n t i r e automated part of t h e sys­
tem serves only a s a means f o r f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e s e p r o b l e m by
t h e human operator. Further than t h a t , t h e most completely and most adequatelg
automated f u n c t i o n s and modes of human thinking are t h o s e t h a t i n essence a r e
s k i l l s , L e . , t h e automated components of a complex human a c t i v i t y . This means
t h a t , without t h e f a i n t e s t doubt, it i s p o s s i b l e t o have t h e computer t a k e over
t h e e n t i r e system of computing o p e r a t i o n s and c e r t a i n methods of s o l v i n g many
complex problems. I n a number of cases, t h e s e methods permit only a p a r t i a l
s o l u t i o n of complex problems (or s o l u t i o n under s t r i c t l y prescribed c o n d i t i o n s ) ,
making them, a s before, merely a means t o f a c i l i t a t e mants s e a r c h f o r t h e cor­
r e c t s o l u t i o n f o r t h e problems irivolved. I n many cases, when t h e computerts
work i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y r e l i a b l e , t h e operator himself must check and evaluate
t h e c o r r e c t n e s s of t h e s o l u t i o n s found by t h e machine. A l l t h e s e f a c t s show
t h a t in considering a complex c o n t r o l system t h e a c t i v i t y of t h e human element
i n t h e system can never be reduced t o merely perception and sensorimotor a c t i o n .
The primary f'unction and t h e u l t i m a t e r e s u l t of t h e work of t h e system i s t o
make d e c i s i o n s about t h e c o n t r o l l e d o b j e c t s , and t h i s fundamental problem, a s
before, must be solved by t h e hunan link in t h e system. To f i n d t h e optimum
c o n d i t i o n s t h a t w i l l f a c i l i t a t e t h e t a k i n g of r a p i d and a c c u r a t e decisions by
t h e human s u b j e c t i s a highly important problem of engineering psycholow, but
one which s t i l l has been l i t t l e i n v e s t i g a t e d . This problem can be solved on3y
on t h e b a s i s of an a n a l y s i s of t h e combined a c t i v i t y performed by man in t h e
v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n a l elements of t h e system.
I I I

P.i.Zinchenko and G.V.2epkina

(Kharkov)

The important laws discovered during t h e last few years in research on t h e

dependence of t h e mechanisms of memory and t h e conditions of i t s p r o d u c t i v i t y
on t h e content and s t r u c t u r e of t h e a c t i v i t y (P.I.Zinchenko, A.A.Smirnov and
o t h e r s ) as w e l l as t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y deep p e n e t r a t i o n of psychology i n t o LE6
p r a c t i c e (pedagogic a c t i v i t y , a c t i v i t y of t h e operator of automatic systems,
etc.) have r e g u l a r l y l e d t o t h e problem as t o t h e r o l e of memory i n s p e c i f i c
forms of a c t i v i t y and as t o t h e r e l a t i o n of i t s r e s u l t s t o various c h a r a c t e r i s ­
t i c s of t h e memory processes included i n this a c t i v i t y and o p e r a t i v e l y s e r v i n g
it. This has been t h e o r i g i n of t h e problem of o p e r a t i v e memory.
?.le are now i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h i s problem, f o r which we have developed an ex­
perimental methodology and performed preliminary experiments.

Since o p e r a t i v e memoriT has not been thoroughly i n v e s t i g a t e d , d a t a of t h e

s t u d y of d i r e c t memory are o f t e n used for i t s c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n . Operative mem­
ory and d i r e c t memory do resemble each o t h e r in t h e i r b r e v i t y , but in s t r u c t u r e
( o b j e c t s , aims, problems, methods) they a r e d i f f e r e n t forms of mnemic a c t i v i t y
and have t h e i r own l a w s and p e c u l i a r i t i e s . This i s a l s o confirmed by t h e re­
s u l t s of prelirninarg experiments. An i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of o p e r a t i v e and d i r e c t
memory i s t h e r e f o r e impermissible d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t &I i n t i m a t e i n t e r r e l a ­
t i o n exists betiqeen them.

The concept of o p e r a t i v e memory (OM) embraces t h e processes of r e c e n t m-em­

ory included in some s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t y , s e r v i n g i t s requirements and consti­
t u t i n g a condition of i t s success. The p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of 014 a r e
volume, l a b i l i t y , accuracy, and noise r e s i s t a n c e . The o p e r a t i v e units of mem­
o r y (OUX) are t h e f a c t o r s t h a t a r e dorninant in t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e
f u n c t i o n i n g of t h e OX and of i t s capacity.

These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e OX a r e derived from t h e content and features

of t h e problem under t h e conditions of which it functions. Thus, our experi­
ments have shown t h a t v a r i o u s formulations of t h e problem i n work w i t h t h e same
m a t e r i a l , performed by s e v e r a l s u b j e c t s , l e a d s t o a v a r i a t i o n of t h e volume of
Oi’B over a wide range (from 3 - 4 d i g i t s t o l2 d i g i t s in work w i t h d i g i t s ) ; t h e
accuracy of s o l u t i o n f l u c t u a t e s considerably (from 2 t o &!+$ of erroneous an­
swers); n o i s e has a d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t ( i n sone problems, t h i s e f f e c t i s s l i g h t ,
while in o t h e r s i t i s responsible f o r as much as 50;;of a l l t h e e r r o r s ) ; t h e
l a b i l i t y of t h e ON a l s o v a r i e s s u b s t a n t i a l l y and i s i n d i r e c t l y r e f l e c t e d both
in t h e speed of problem-solving and in t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e e r r o r s .

I n studying t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of v a r i o u s methods of coding, we a l s o found

t h a t a c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of codes, even those of equally high value f o r percep­
t i o n , can be given only i f t h e s p e c i f i c p r o b l e m t o be solved by t h e operator
are taken i n t o account. I n s o l v i n g problems involving t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
o b j e c t s , a l l codes were found t o be practical& equal in effectiveness. The
performance of t a s k s r e q u i r i n g t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e 014 s h a r p l y disturbed i t s
equilibrium; t h i s d i s t u r b a n c e was more pronounced, t h e g r e a t e r t h e load on t h e
OM. &en w i t h i n t h e limits of a s i n g l e method of coding, t h e r e s u l t s showed
s i g n i f i c a n t f l u c t u a t i o n , depending on t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e problem. /157
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e 031 a r e c l o s e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d . Their q u a l i t a t i v e
f e a t u r e s depend s u b s t a n t i a l l y on t h e OUf, which means t h a t t h e r e s u l t s of an
a c t i v i t y are t o a l a r g e e x t e n t determined by t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e Om4 used.

Thus, t h e codes f o r which t h e s u b j e c t s have devised methods of processing

developed by formation of v a r i o u s O m , a r e t h e most e f f e c t i v e ; in us&g such
codes, even an i n c r e a s e in t h e load on t h e ON has l e s s e f f e c t on t h e r e s u l t s of
t h e a c t i v i t y . In o t h e r experiments we found t h a t , in performing t h e same t a s k s
on a given m a t e r i a l , t h e use of l a r g e r u n i t s leads t o a sharp c u t in t h e time
of problem-solving, a t equal or sometimes even a t g r e a t e r accuracy.

Experiments on t h e formation of OU1 on s c h o o l m a t e r i a l confirmed t h e de­

c i s i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e q u a l i t y of OUT4 and of t h e degree of t h e i r formation
and automation f o r t h e o v e r a l l results of t h e a c t i v i t y .

The major problem in t h e study of o p e r a t i v e memory i s t h e discovery of t h e

l a w s of formation of i t s o p e r a t i v e u n i t s , d i r e c t l y connected w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l ­
i t y of c o n t r o l by t h e OH. A t t h e same t i n e , t h e study of t h e e n t i r e complex of
i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and of t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s in v a r i o u s a c t i v i t i e s i s of ex­
treme importance.

IENORY CAPACITY, QUANTITY OF INFOPJ'4ATION, AND

NmbE3m OF SYmOLS

.. .
P I Zinchenko and P B. Nevel? skiy
(Kharkov)

The authors made a comparative s t u d y of t h e i n f l u e n c e e x e r t e d on t h e memory

c a p a c i t y by t h e q u a n t i t y of information contained in t h e sVmbolst o be remem­
bered and by t h e number of such symbols. With this o b j e c t i v e in mind, t h r e e
experiments were made. %ch c o n s i s t e d of f o u r s e r i e s . The symbols t o be re­
membered were three-digit numbers. These symbols were picked w i t h equal prob­
a b i l i t y i n t h e v a r i o u s s e r i e s by t h e a i d of Tables of random numbers out of
f o u r l i s t s c o n s i s t i n g of 2, 8, &, and 5 2 t h r e e - d i g i t numbers r e s p e c t i v e l y .
A s e r i e s of symbols s e l e c t e d from one l i s t w a s t o be remembered in t h e sequence
in which they were presented. The p r e s e n t a t i o n w a s o r a l .

a) I n t h e first experiment t h e number of symbols was n o t v a r i e d , and was

kept a t eight. The q u a n t i t y of information in t h e v a r i o u s s e r i e s was 1, 3, 6,
and 9 b i t s per symbol or 8 , 24, 48, and 72 b i t s f o r t h e e n t i r e sequence of
e i g h t symbols.

b) In t h e second experiment t h e q u a n t i t y of information per symbol i n /158

t h e v a r i o u s s e r i e s was l i k e w i s e 1, 3 , 6, and 9 b i t s , but t h e q u a n t i t y of i n f o r ­
mation i n t h e entire sequence of symbols remain constant a t 36 b i t s , while t h e
number of symbols was 36, 12, 6, and 4 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
 c ) I n t h e t h i r d experiment t h e q u a n t i t y of information per symbol was kept
c o n s t a n t a t 6 b i t s . The number of symbols presented in t h e r e s p e c t i v e s e r i e s
was 4$ 6 , 8, and E, while t h e q u a n t i t y of a l l information presented was re­
s p e c t i v e l y 24, 36, 48, and @ b i t s . .

The f i r s t experiments showed t h a t , w i t h i n c r e a s i n g q u a n t i t y of information

per symbol (1, 3 , 6, and 9 b i t s ) and in t h e e n t i r e sequence of symbols, t h e r e
was a l s o an i n c r e a s e in t h e number of r e p e t i t i o n s necessary f o r t h e first e r r o r -
f r e e reproduction of t h e e n t i r e sequence (1.05; 2.7; 3.8; 4.6), and a . d e c r e a s e
i n t h e mean memory c a p a c i t y per r e p e t i t i o n , which w a s evaluated by t h e percent­
age of c o r r e c t b reproduced symbols r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l nunber of symbols pre­
sented or, what amounts t o t h e same, by t h e percentage of information t r a n s ­
m i t t e d without n o i s e in one reproduction r e l a t e d t o t h e e n t i r e q u a n t i t y of in­
formation presented (95, 37, 26, 21). The experimental curve p l o t t e d from t h e s e
d a t a does n o t d i f f e r m a r k e d b from t h e t h e o r e t i c a l curve of a h y p o t h e t i c a l re­

l a t i o n excressing t h e f u n c t i o n y = 1
X
. Thus, t h e s e experiments e s t a b l i s h e d

t h a t t h e memory c a p a c i t y i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e q u a n t i t y of informa­
tion.

The second experiments showed t h a t an i n c r e a s e in t h e number'of symbols t o

be remembered, a t c o n s t a n t q u a n t i t y of a l l information presented, leads t o a
decrease in t h e memory c a p a c i t y d e s p i t e t h e decrease in information per symbol,
as soon as t h e information per syinbol exceeds l b i t . A t 1 b i t p e r symbol, t h e
memory c a p a c i t y begins t o i n c r e a s e , and t h e r e a r e grounds f o r supposing t h a t ,
a t a f u r t h e r decrease in information per symbol, t h e memory c a p a c i t y w i l l l i k e ­
wise i n c r e a s e and approach lo(% d e s p i t e an i n c r e a s e in t k e number of symbols.
I n t'nis case, however, w i t h i n c r e a s i n g number of symbols, t h e number of b i t s of
information i n t o which t h e s e symbols car, be recoded during t h e process of r e c a l l ,
w i l l a l s o decrease.

The t h i r d experiment showed an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e memory

c a p a c i t y and t h e number of symbols remembered.

A comparative a n a l y s i s of t h e t h r e e experiments showed t h a t t h e r e i s a

d i r e c t dependence of t h e number of r e p e t i t i o n s , t h e decrement in information
and t h e reduction in symbols, and an i n v e r s e dependence of t h e memory capacity,
on t h e q u a n t i t y of a l l information presented and on t h e number of symbols being
remembered. I n t h i s case, t h e number of symbols e x e r t s i t s influence i f t h e
symbols a r e n o t recoded during t h e process of remembering; otherwise t h i s in­
f l u e n c e i s n o t exerted by t h e number of symbols but r a t h e r by t h e number of b i t s
by which t h e information i s recoded, The q u a n t i t y of information t r a n s - /159
m i t t e d is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e information per symbol and t h e number of
symbols reproduced in one r e p e t i t i o n i s i n d i r e c t b proFortiona1 t o it. YJith
i n c r e a s i n g information per symbol, t h e number of symbols reproduced decreases
but nore information is t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e s m a l l e r number of symbols.

The number of symbols being remembered e x e r t s a g r e a t e r influence on t h e

memory c a p a c i t y than does t h e anaunt of information contained in t h e s e symbols.
The dependence of t h e memory capacity on t h e q u a n t i t y of information i s c l e a r l y
manifested when t h e number of symbols t o be remembered i s i n v a r i a n t . T h i s is
one of t h e reasons why t h e dependence of t h e memory c a p a c i t y on t h e amount of
information tvas n o t discovered e a r l i e r and w a s denied by a number of i n v e s t i ­
gators.

The d u a l dependence of t h e memory c a p a c i t y on t h e q u a n t i t y of information

and on t h e number of symbols permits p o s t u l a t i n g two p o s s i b l e modes by which
information i s processed during t h e a c t of remembering: 1) decrease i n t h e in­
formation contained in t h e symbols being remembered by m e a n s of r e s t r i c t i n g t h e
l i s t of symbols without changing t h e symbols themselves; 2) decrease i n t h e
number of symbols by means of t r a n s i t i o n t o a new and longer l i s t and replace­
ment of t h e symbols presented by a smaller number of new symbols.

Both of t h e s e types of dependence of t h e memory on t h e q u a n t i t y of i n f o r ­

mation and on t h e number of symbols a r e of t h e same c h a r a c t e r and a r e expressed
by curves t h a t a r e almost hyperbolic. The same c h a r a c t e r i s a l s o i n h e r e n t i n
t h e dependence of t h e memory c a p a c i t y on t h e time elapsed s i n c e t h e i n s t a n t of
r e c a l l (Ebbinghaus e f f e c t ) . Hence we may p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e memory capacity
s i m i l a r l y depends on t h e time elapsed s i n c e r e c a l l , on t h e e x t e n t of t h e ma­
t e r i a l being remembered, and on t h e information contained in t h a t material.

I~lEKOIOIZY PROCESSU AJYD THE CODIIJG OF IPJFOI?&lATIOPI

.
N. I llyzllkova
(Kharkov)

According t o experimental d a t a obtained by a number of i n v e s t i g a t o r s , t h e

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of information coding in t h e man - machine system i s determined
by v a r i o u s f a c t o r s : choice of t h e l i s t of symbols, c h a r a c t e r of t h e problem t o
be solved by t h e operator, c o m p a t i b i l i t y of stimulus and r e a c t i o n , and others.
The e f f e c t i v e n e s s of coding, as a f u n c t i o n of t h e s e f a c t o r s , g e n e r a l l y was
s t u d i e d in connection w i t h t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e perception processes. Memory,
i n such s t u d i e s , has been represented almost e x c l u s i v e l y by i t s process of cog­
n i t i o n , Yet t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e s e and o t h e r f a c t o r s on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of
information coding, in connection w i t h t h e f e a t u r e s of t h e functioning of such
complex memory processes as r e c a l l and reproduction, has r e c e i v e d but s c a n t
a t t e n t i o n from i n v e s t i g a t o r s . The s u b j e c t of t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n was /160
t h e s t u d y of t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r processes.

I n t h i s p r o j e c t , we i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e r e c a l l and reproduction of inforrna­

t i o n coded by v a r i o u s lists of symbols, both l i t e r a l and geometrical. These
codes were s t u d i e d in two v e r s i o n s : codes n o t connected w i t h t h e information
content, or a b s t r a c t codes; and codes connected t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t w i t h t h e
s u b j e c t of t h e c o m i c a t i o n , o r concrete codes, I n t h e experiments we found
d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e r e c o l l e c t i o n and decoding of t h e symbols, and we found a l s o
t h a t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s depended on t h e m a t e r i a l expression of t h e code as w e l l
a s on t h e c h a r a c t e r of thk r e l a t i o n of t h e symbols-to t h e c o n t e n t of t h e coded
communication. I n this case, t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e concrete and a b s t r a c t
v a r i a n t s of t h e code were more s u b s t a n t i a l than those between l i t e r a l and geo-
m e t r i c a l coding.
 I n another v e r s i o n of t h e experiments (performed by G.V.Repkina) it was
found t h a t i n t h e s o l u t i o n of operative problems r e q u i r i n g a considerable load
on t h e memory, t h e most e f f e c t i v e codes are those for which l a r g e r o p e r a t i v e
u n i t s of memory are easily formed.

Even t h e s e few laws suggest t h a t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of coding may be g r e a t l y

improved by t a k i n g account of' t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s of memory in t h e operator's
work. Further than t h a t , it can be assumed t h a t t h e b a s i c l a w s of memory may
a l s o e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e on t h e methods of coding i t s e l f . We w i l 1 u s e . t h i . s as­
sumption as b a s i s in formulating t h e f u t u r e problems f o r our i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

I n many s t u d i e s by Soviet psychologists t h e proposition has been developed

t h a t t h e success of r e c o l l e c t i o n i s determined p r i m a r i l y by various m t h o d s of
l o g i c a l processing of t h e m a t e r i a l , i t s grouping in t h e mind, and so on. Such
methods enhance t h e p r o d u c t i v i t y of memory because t h e number of d e f i n i t e u n i t s
of t h e m a t e r i a l being r e c a l l e d i s considerably decreased by t h e formation of
l a r g e r generalized u n i t s , o r "piecestt in it. I n t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , what was
mainly s t u d i e d were t h e v a r i o u s ways and means of coding m a t e r i a l f o r i t s sub­
sequent r e c a l l , although t h i s term i t s e l f w a s n o t employed.

These d a t a of Soviet mnemonic psychology have r e c e n t l y been confirmed in

r e s e a r c h by J.lCi-ller who establlislied t h a t t h e memoq c a p a c i t y can be consider­
a b l y increased by combining a l a r g e r nmber of symbols with a s m a l l e r q u a n t i t y
of information. The d e c i s i v e r o l e i n t h e memory processes i s assigned t o the
coding and recoding of information.

The problem of our p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s t o study t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

of coding under conditions of a d e f i n i t e grouping of codes, and t h e i r generali­
z a t i o n without diminishing t h e volume of information. To solve t h i s problem
we developed a technique of t w o experiments. The o b j e c t of t h e first ex- ,Q&l
perimentwas t h e comparative s t u d y of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of u n i t a r y , binary, and
t e r n a r y methods of coding. We assumed t h a t in t h e b i n a r y and t e r n a r y code the
decrease i n a number of b a s i c synhols of t h e code and t h e i r replacement by new
parameters would enhance t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s e codes by comparison with
t h e u n i t a r y codes. In a second experiment, t h e decrease of t h e number of spi­
bols i n t h e code was accomplished by g e n e r a l i z i n g some symbols -
generic -
and
subordinating o t h e r s - special -
t o them. This method of coding i s compared
w i t h t h e code i n which t h e symbols a r e n o t generalized. I n a later comunica­
t i o n we s h a l l p r e s e n t t h e preliminary r e s u l t s of t h e s e experiments.

ON TEE COI4F'OSITION AND DDJANICS OF TEE OPERATIONS

OF MNENIC ACTIVITY

..
V Pa Lyaudis
(Xharkov)

A s t u d y of t h e s t r u c t u r e of r e c a l l by a f u n c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s of t h e l e a r n i n g
process has shown t h a t mnemic a c t i v i t y c o n s i s t s of t h r e e operations: The first
is o r i e n t a t i o n in t h e material being r e c a l l e d , i t s c a t e g o r i z a t i o n , and t h e es­
tablishment of i t s composition and s t r u c t u r e . The second operation i s connected
with t h e s e a r c h f o r , and i s o l a t i o n o f , t h e corresponding m t e r i a l of t h e method

136

of grouping. These two operations form t h e o r i e n t i n g part of mnemic a c t i v i t y .

.
The performame of t h e s e o p e r a t i o n s a s s u r e s t h e optimum course of t h e process
of r et e n t i o n

Each operation performs h e r e a d e f i n i t e function. I n t h e f i r s t operation,

t h e composition of t h e r n a t e r i a l b e i n g r e c a l l e d i s e s t a b l i s h e d , i t s categoriza­
t i o n i s accomplished, and t h e f i n d i n g of some grouping met'nod i s prepared. In
t h e second operation, those links between t h e elements being r e c a l l e d , which
are of uniform s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e e n t i r e series, are d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . This
operation prepares d i r e c t l y f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e groups and determines t h e es­
tablishment of t h e i n t r a g r o u p links. The n e t r e s u l t i s i s o l a t i o n of t r a n s f o r ­
mation methods corresponding t o some o b j e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e material
t o be r e c a l l e d , The t h i r d o p e r a t i o n i s t h e grouping of elements, t h e reorgan­
i z a t i o n of t h e m a t e r i a l on t h e b a s i s of intra- and intergroup r e l a t i o n s , which
were e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e preceding operations. T h i s operation e s t a b l i s h e s t h e
i n t e g r a l s t r u c t u r e of t h e m a t e r i a l r e f l e c t i n g t o sop-e e x t e n t t h e prescribed
structure.

Each of t h e s e operations a l s o performs a c e r t a i n function i n reproduction,

ensuring t h e r e l i a b i l i t y of t h i s process and decreasing i t s indetei-minacy.

The operations of rmemic a c t i v i t y can be regarded as s t a g e s i n t h e decrease

of t h e indeterminacy of t h e m a t e r i a l being r e c a l l e d and of i t s subsequent re­
production. These operations y i e l d t h e most g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of
t h e s t r u c t u r e of mnemic a c t i v i t y .
m
A s shown by our experiments, t h e s u b j e c t i v e methods of grouping may be
extremely v a r i e d , ranging from l o g i c a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o t h e combination of
elements based on emotional, p i c t o r i a l , and o t h e r associations.

.
According t o t h e r e s u l t s of our i n v e s t i g a t i o n and a l s o t o those of a study
,
of t h e memory capacity (P 3. i;levelTs k i y ) t h e v a r i o u s methods of grouping may be
c l a s s i f i e d according t o t h e a t t r i b u t e : r e l a t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t i v e method of
grouping t o t h e o b j e c t i v e s t r u c t u r e of t h e assigned material. According t o
t h i s a t t r i b u t e , a l l methods of grouping may be assigned t o two p r i n c i p a l methods
of transformation of t h e m a t e r i a l f o r t h e purpose of i t s r e c o l l e c t i o n .

The first method of transformation i s connected w i t h a decrease i n t h e in­

determinacy of t h e material on account of t h e discovery of organization (re­
dundancy) in t h e assigned material.

The second method leads t o a decrease in indeterminacy of t h e material by

i n t r o d u c t i o n of organization (redundancy) by methods corresponding only t o some
s i n g l e parameter of t h e material.

The transformation of t h e n a t e r i a l t o be r e c a l l e d by both methods proceeds

on t h e b a s i s of t h e performance of t h e above t h r e e operations of mnemic a c t i v ­
ity. The composition, sequence, and f u n c t i o n s of t h e operations i n both cases

.
of transformation of material remain i d e n t i c a l , but t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r im­
plementation d i f f e r s

The degree of completeness and development of t h e s e operations, t h e i r

137

 dynamics during t h e process of r e c a l l , v a r i e s considerably, which i s expressed

in t h e g r e a t v a r i a b i l i t y in t h e number of r e p e t i t i o n s and i n t h e memory capac­
ity.

The dynamics of operations, as shown by t h e d a t a of our experiments, i s

determined by two f a c t o r s :

1. The r e l a t i o n of t h e methods of a c t i o n o b j e c t i v i z e d in t h e m a t e r i a l t o
t h e s u b j e c t i v e methods of action.

2. The degree of mastery and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n of t h e operations of mnemic

action.

It may possibly. s e r v e as a more r e l i a b l e c r i t e r i o n of t h e optimum n a t u r e

of t h e process of r e c a l l t o take t h e s e f a c t o r s a s a whole i n t o consideration.

COPPARISON OF VARIOUS ITE'IIHODS OF ;AEXOGNITION

. . S. Shekhter
11
(:*;os cow)

The a t t e n t i o n of i n v e s t i g a t o r s today i s being concentrated more and more

on t h e problem of recognition of "variative1' o b j e c t s . (Examples of v a r i a t i v e
o b j e c t s a r e : t h e t r i a n g l e , which may be acute, obtuse, or r i g h t ; or a l e t - /163
t e r of t h e alphabet, which may be w r i t t e n in v a r i o u s ways.)

Each v a r i a t i v e o b j e c t has i t s own d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e s , i t s !'character­

i s t i c s * ' . A d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e may e i t h e r be a s i n g l e elementary property,
or s e v e r a l such p r o p e r t i e s taken together. Regardless of t h i s d i f f e r e n c e , each
a t t r i b u t e t h a t i s d i s t i n c t i v e f o r a given o b j e c t possesses t h e p e c u l i a r i t y t h a t
it is found only i n t h a t o b j e c t , and for t h i s reason may serve a s a b a s i s f o r
t h e r e c o m i t i o n of t h a t object.

The question of t h e methods of recognition of a v a r i a t i v e o b j e c t i s p r i ­

marily a question of t h e various d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e s , by which t h e o b j e c t of
i n t e r e s t can be recognized. I n t h e p r e s e n t experimental study we attempted t o
compare v a r i o u s d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e s and t o e v a l u a t e t h e i r comparative ad­
vantages and disadvantages.

One of t h e methods of r e c o g n i t i o n has long been known in psychology, ped­

agogy, and logic. T h i s i s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of a v a r i a t i v e object by a d i s t i n c ­
t i v e a t t r i b u t e which may be c a l l e d l o g i c a l . A d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e of t h i s
kind has a t l e a s t t h e following f o u r f e a t u r e s . We s h a l l explain them on an ex­
ample, i n which a c e r t a i n v a r i a t i v e o b j e c t A and i t s l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i ­
bute Q., a r e given:

1. The a t t r i b u t e of i n t e r e s t in a given case i s s u f f i c i e n t and necessary:

The presence of t h e a t t r i b u t e t7, i n t h e presented o b j e c t means t h a t t h i s o b j e c t
i s an o b j e c t A, while t h e absence of t h e a t t r i b u t e !, means t h a t t h i s o b j e c t i s
n o t an o b j e c t A.

138

 2. The a t t r i b u t e P, i s common t o a l l p o s s i b l e v a r i a n t s of t h e o b j e c t A.

3 . This a t t r i b u t e i s a l s o t h e most d e t a i l e d i n subdivision.

4. I n cases where t h e o b j e c t A i s n o t too simple, i n view of t h e presence
of t h e above three f e a t u r e s , t h e a t t r i b u t e .e o f t e n has s t i l l another f e a t u r e :

gether, and may be denoted i n symbols as t h e a t t r i b u t e a

being t h e component p r o p e r t i e s of t h e complex).
b . .
It c o n s i s t s of a complex (or set) of s e v e r a l elementary p r o p e r t i e s taken to­
c (a, b and c,
The recognition of an o b j e c t by a l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e has a n m ­
b e r of advantages: Probably such a method, more than o t h e r s , i s s u i t a b l e f o r
t h e organization of t h e i n i t i a l c o g n i t i v e a c t i o n of t h e s u b j e c t s , it ensures a
c o r r e c t evaluation of any new, previously n o t observed v a r i a n t s of t h e assigned
o b j e c t , etc. However, i t i s a q u e s t i o n whether t h e method i s optimum i n a l l
r e s p e c t s and i n p a r t i c u l a r w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e speed of recognition+.

The present s t u d y answers t h i s question in t h e negative. The a t t r i b u t e i n

question does have a disadvantage: I n order t o accomplish t h e recognition /164
based on t h i s a t t r i b u t e , i t i s necessary t o discover i n t h e presented o b j e c t
s e v e r a l r a t h e r than a s i n g l e property (i.e., t o f i n d t h e p r o p e r t i e s a, b, and
c). This slows t h e process of recognition, and t h e delay takes place regard­
l e s s of whether t h e s e p r o p e r t i e s are noted s u b j e c t i v e l y o r whether they a r e
revealed without cognition, L e . , automatically.

Our experiments show t h a t , even where t h e s u b j e c t knows how t o recognize

t h e o b j e c t by a l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e , he o f t e n p r e f e r s t o use o t h e r d i s t i n c t i v e
a t t r i b u t e s which are free from t h e above disadvantage. I n t h e psychology of
recognition, workers c l e a r l y underestimate t h e r o l e of such d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i ­
b u t e s which, although they are not necessary a t t r i b u t e s of t h e given v a r i a t i v e
o b j e c t s (in our example, of an o b j e c t A ) , a r e s t i l l e n t i r e l y s u f f i c i e n t f o r i t s
recognition. This means t h a t t h e presence of a d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e of t h i s
kind in t h e o b j e c t presented permits t h a t o b j e c t t o be evaluated as an o b j e c t A,
although t h e absence of such an a t t r i b u t e s t i l l says nothing whatever about it.
A t t r i b u t e s of t h i s kind a r e sometimes very advantageous. Many of them are in­
t e g r a l a t t r i b u t e s , i.e., a t t r i b u t e s t h a t are elementary and cannot be broken
down - a t l e a s t i n t h e course of t h e process of r e c o g n i t i o n - i n t o s e v e r a l prop­
e r t i e s . Consequently, t h e use of such i n t e g r a l a t t r i b u t e s frees t h e recogni­
t i o n process of t h e unwieldiness involved i n r e l i a n c e on a l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i v e
attribute. The process of f i n d i n g s e v e r a l p r o p e r t i e s i s replaced by t h e pro­
c e s s of f i n d i n g only a s i n g l e property.

It i s true t h a t t h e use of a t t r i b u t e s of t h i s kind a l s o s u f f e r from cer­

tain disadvantages, b u t t h e s e do n o t completely outweigh t h e advantages of such
attributes.

3? Here and h e r e a f t e r we have i n mind t h e r e c o g n i t i o n process w i t h p o s i t i v e re­

s u l t : The o b j e c t presented i s evaluated as an o b j e c t A. I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e
opposite case i s a l s o p o s s i b l e : The o b j e c t presented i s evaluated negatively,
Le., as an o b j e c t "not AI'.

139

 S p e c i f i c a l l y , what a t t r i b u t e s can be u t i l i z e d as i n t e g r a l p r o p e r t i e s , and

will a l s o be s u f f i c i e n t for t h e r e c o p i t i o n of a v a r i a t i v e o b j e c t ?
EScperiments performed on geometrical f i g u r e s show t h a t a d i s t i n c t i v e at­
t r i b u t e of t h e f i g u r e , such as I1t37pe1*, tll"ormlt, o r ltshapeft, tlcontourl* etc,,
plays a s u b s t a n t i a l r o l e i n t h e recognition of a given geometrical figure. A s
a rule, t h e v a r i a t i v e figure has several such a t t r i b u t e s which are p a r t i a l ( b u t
n o t common) a t t r i b u t e s of i t s v a r i a n t s .

It i s only n a t u r a l t h a t any one of t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s should be s u f f i c i e n t ,

s i n c e i t belongs only t o t h e given o b j e c t (a f i g u r e A ) and i s absent from a l l
o t h e r o b j e c t s (from f i g u r e s "not A"). Each time t h e assigned f i g u r e i s recog­
nized by only one s u f f i c i e n t a t t r i b u t e which, however, does vary from time t o
time depending on t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e v a r i a n t s presented, Thus, for t h e re­
cognition o� a given filgure in i t s v a r i o u s concrete forms, s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t
and s u f f i c i e n t a t t r i b u t e s are used. /165
I f many concrete v a r i a n t s of t h e o b j e c t A are used i n an experiment, t h i s
does n o t mean t h a t t h e number of d i s t i n c t i v e a t t r i b u t e s considered must corre­
spond t o t h e number of variants and thus a l s o be v e r y great. The p o i n t i s t h a t ,
i n c e r t a i n s p e c i a l cases, t h e o b j e c t A may be of about t h e same ''kind" s o t h a t
t h e number of i n t e g r a l a t t r i b u t e s employed would be many t i m e s smaller than t h e
number of a l l s p e c i a l v a r i a n t s of A employed i n t h e e q e r i m e n t .

COGNITION IN THZ PROCESS 0% SOLUTION OF OPERA'YIVS PFOBLINS

D,N.Zavalishina and V.K.Pushkin

(Moscow)

I n modern cybermeti'cs t h e work on t h e d u p l i c a t i o n of human psychic a c t i v i t y

by t h e machine proceeds mainly i n two d i r e c t i o n s , t h a t of cognition and t h a t of
problem-solving. Work by M.14.Bongard and E.M.Braverman w a s , i n p a r t i c u l a r , de­
voted t o an a n a l y s i s of t h e various forms of cognition. The trend of h e u r i s t i c
programming (Newell, Shaw, Simon) now i n c l u d e s t h e development of t h e problem
of modelling t h e human method of problem-solving.

U n t i l recentl;. t h e work on t h e s e two problems ( c o g n i t i o n and problem-solv­

i n g ) was done s e p a r a t e l y , Newer research (Minskiy, Samuel), however, show t h e
promise, for cybernetics, of a combination of t h e s e two problems,

I n work on t h e psychology of thinking t h e r e are materials which d i s t i n c t l y

show t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of cognition as a component of problem-solving. Thus,
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of Gestalt psychology (Wertheimer) have emphasized t h a t t o s o l v e
a problem means t o recognize a llgood s t r u c t u r e t t and a "badtt. The r o l e of cog­
n i t i o n has been d i s t i n c t i n s t u d i e s devoted t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n a c t i v i t y in v a r i ­

,
Yu ,B. Gippenreyter A. Ya. Ponomarev, K A. Slavskaya) . .
ous s t a g e s of t h e s o l u t i o n of a c r e a t i v e problem (A.N.Leonttyev, S.L.Rubinshteyn,

The process of cognition as a component of problem-solving possesses a

considerable number of s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e s as compared w i t h cognition as a COK­
ponent of perception. The fundamental d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e processes l i e s

l40

i n t h e f a c t t h a t , i n perception, t h e o b j e c t t h a t i s recognized has elements

which a r e c l e a r l y and v i s i b l y i n t e r r e l a t e d , whereas m y i n t e l l e c t u a l problems,
i n c l u d i n g operative problems, a r e presented t o man i n t h e form of a d i s c r e t e
s e t of elements. Finding t h e r e l a t i o n s between t h e elements of t h i s s e t i s a
s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t y and i s sometimes highly developed and complex.

This s p e c i f i c form of cognition was i n v e s t i g a t e d on t h e m a t e r i a l s of /166

t h e ''5'' game. A s t h e method f o r o b j e c t i v e l y recording t h e t h i n k i n g process,
we used, in p a r t i c u l a r , motion-picture photography of t h e eye movements in
s o l v i n g problems. As found by experiment, cognition i s merely one of t h e mech­
anisms of problem-solving. The forms of i t s inanifestation and t h e very f a c t of
i t s occurrence are due t o t h e p a s t experience of t h e s u b j e c t and t o t h e char­
a c t e r of t h e o b j e c t i v e l i n k between t h e elements of t h e problem.

The following forms of cognition i n t h e process of problem-solving were

d i f f e r e n t i a t e d in an a n a l y s i s of t h e d a t a :

a ) Cognition of the subproblems. T h i s form of cognition i s r e l a t e d t o t h e

development by t h e s u b j e c t , during t h e course of successive s o l u t i o n of a num­
ber of problems, of c e r t a i n s p e c i a l algorithms f o r t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e sub­
problems. I n t h i s case, t h e s u b j e c t , s t r i v i n g t o s i m p l i f y t h e s o l u t i o n f o r
himself, analyzes each new problem from t h e viewpoint of t h e methods known t o
him. Thus, i n a new problem, he recognizes subproblems which give him no
trouble.

b ) Cognition of s i t u a t i o n s encountered e a r l i e r .

c ) Cognition, in t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , of t h e f i n a l s i t u a t i o n i n terms

of i t s transformation. Thus, t h e s i t u a t i o n -
235
I4
i s perceived a s t h e already

solved problem, a s t h e s i t u a t i o n -
123
45
This form of cognition i s t h e most
productive. It i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e dynamic cognition of d i s c r e t e s e t s .

It i s likewise c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t t h e adjustment t o t h e cognition of sub­

problems fixes t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e a n a l y s i s and impedes dynamic cognition. I n
this case, t h e s u b j e c t o f t e n bypasses t h e "ready s t r u c t u r e s " , and the s o l u t i o n
of t h e problems w i l l become nonopti".

Dynamic cognition, s i n c e it i s manifested in t h e course of t h e s o l u t i o n of

an o p e r a t i v e problem, s u b s t a n t i a l l y optimizes i t s s o l u t i o n by completely ex­
cluding a d i f f e r e n t type of t e s t and s e l e c t i o n of v a r i a n t s . A s shown by an
a n a l y s i s of t h e d a t a , c o g n i t i o n a r i s e s a t a c e r t a i n s t a g e of problem-solving.
The i n t e r n a l content of dynamic cognition a s a process c o n s i s t s i n : attempt a t
d i r e c t superposition of t h e i n i t i a l s i t u a t i o n on a r e f e r e n c e s t a n d a r d ; evalua­
t i o n of t h e a t t r i b u t e s of t h e elements of t h e problem s i t u a t i o n as a d i s c r e t e
s e t of i n t e r r e l a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s elements; procurement of a r e f e r e n c e standard
by transforming t h e s i t u a t i o n .

Thus, cognition - as a component of problen-solving -

i s a t r a n s i t i o n from
8 d i s c r e t e s e t t o an ordered set through simulation of t h e p o s s i b l e dynamics of
 t h e elements of t h e s i t u a t i o n .
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e f e a t u r e s of dynamic cognition w i l l encourage t h e
combination of t h e problem of cognition with t h e problem of problem-solving,
2nd my be u s e f u l i n working out a number of t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l problems
of cybernetics.

E. T. Golavan( and V. S. S t a r i n e t s
(Kiev)

The man -
machine problem i s connected w i t h t h e formulation of t h e problem
of d i r e c t communing of man w i t h t h e machine.

'The machine must l e a r n t o c o n s t r u c t phrases t h a t are thought o u t w i t h i n

t h e limits of t h e problem under study and must possess an lremotionallr f u n c t i o n
similar t o t h a t of man (IJ.M.Rmosov, ILBernard).
$1 necessary s t e p in t h e c r e a t i o n of such an automatic machine i s t h e v e r i ­
f i c a t i o n of c e r t a i n algorithms on t h e organization and transformation of i t s
a s s o c i a t i v e memory.

FIemory is represented in t h e form of a s e t of Tables of rank. The Tables

' 2 9 , 'K&, TC& of rank zero a r e s e t up on t h e b a s i s of a Limited d i c t i o n a r y and
t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n Table of emotions Tz (E.T.Golovanf e t a l ) . The rows and
columns of t h e Table TQ and TQ a r e f i l l e d w i t h elements of t h e a c t i v e dic­
tionary.

The a s s o c i a t i v e l i n k of t h e word a, w i t h t h e word in i s marked by

B
u n i t y (1)a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e i-row w i t h t h e j-co umn, while t h e Link
ai -+ aj (aJ -, ;4 ) i n TO2 i s marked by t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of c o r r e l a t i o n for t h e
i-row and t h e 3-column.

The rows of the Table TQ are elements of t h e s e t {& 3

of t h e Table T ,
and t h e columns are elements of t h e dictionary. If t h e word q f i s connecsed
with 3 through 2J., then a t t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e 2, -row with t h e a-column is
placed 1. %ach tune we t u r n t o t h e Table Tq
it i s i n t h e form of t h e assign­
ment of an i n i t i a l a s s o c i a t i v e game. Such a pair i s an element of t h e l e a r n i n g
sequence.

On'i'q are a s s i w e d two b a s i c algorit'nms, of t h e " s t r e t c h i n g " of an asso­

c i a t i v e chain and of m-combinatory. The a s s o c i a t i v e chains a r e represented i n

ing t o t h e d a t a of TO,mnd TO3 .

t h e form of graphs. The graphs a r e minirnieed by weighting t h e i r s i d e s accord­
From t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e nodes of t h e graph
and t h e s t a t i s t i c a l c r i t e r i a , we form new a s s o c i a t i o n s and d e s t r o y t h e old ones,

and T Q .
which i s noted by e n t e r i n g t h e d i g i t 1, and by c r o s s i n g out t h e units i n Tq
The elements of Table TC2 are converted.

The s e t of elements of t h e Table Tq w i t h t h e mutual c o e f f i c i e n t s of cor-

Ul2
r e l a t i o n $ 2 k- form a "concept'' of f i r s t rank and a r e elements of t h e
Table T 4 (& Table of f i r s t rank). The Tables T 4 TL, , ,
a r e constructed by
,
analogy t o T q 'Q, 'Q , The algorithms f o r obtaining t h e a s s o c i a t i v e links
i n t h e Tables of rank 1 a r e n o t changed, etc.

An a s s o c i a t i v e p a i r of Tables of any rank may serve as an i n p u t t o t h i s

system.

The c o n t r o l and supervision of t h e process of " s t r e t c h i n g " t h e chain", al­

ready suspended w i t h i n t h e s e t of Tables, i s ensured by a c o n t a c t of t h e type
man - nachine and a l s o by t h e functioning of t h e answering u n i t and of t h e /168
a n a l y s i s u n i t (N.M.Amosov and V.K.GLu~hkov).

Considerations c l o s e t o t h o s e given above can be used f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n

of a machine f o r programmed l e a r n i n g (Ye,L.Yushchenko and o t h e r s ) ,

I n t h e paper t h e author gives d a t a on t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of c e r t a i n of t h e

algorithms worked out,
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conducted so as f o contribute . . . to the expansion of human Knowl­
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