13.

ROME, FROM REPUBLIC TO EMPIRE

1. DID ROMULUS AND REMUS FOUNF THE CITY OF ROME?
A. THE BIRTH OF THE CITY: HISTORICAL EVIDENCE
Archeological remains found in Rome show thai in the 8th century BC, Latin tribes came
together on the Banks of the River Tiber, on top of the Palitine Hill near Tiber Island.
In the 7th century BC, the Latins occupied the seven hills around the River Tiber to protect
themselves from their enemies and also from flooding. The first settlements were formed and
eventuallu the came together to form the citu of Rome.
B. THE CITY DURING THE MONARCHY
Rome had seven kings. The first four were Latins and the last three were Etruscans (people
who occupied Latium).
The King administeres justice, led the army and was the high priest. He governed with the help
of a Senate, which was formed of people from aristocratic families.
The economy was based on agricultura and livestock farming, and there were numerous
artisans and merchants.
C. LEGENDS ABOUT THE ORIGINS OF ROME
AENEAS:
The Romans wanted to créate a myth to explain the origins of Rome. In the 1st century BC,
Virgil wrote an epic poem called the Aeneid. This poem said that Rome was founded because
of the wishes of the gods and héroes of Greek mythology.
The city´sorigins were linked to Ateneas, the hero of Troy and the son of Venus, who left Troy
and settled in Latium.
ROMULUS AND REMUS:
The legend says that, centuries later, twin brothers called Romulus and Remus were bron.
Their father was the Good Mars and their mother was a descendant of Ateneas, Rhea Silvia.
They were abandoned in the River Tiber after their birth, but they were saved and nursed by a
she-wolf, and raised by a shepherd.
In 753 BC, when they were grown men, they decided to found a city on the Palitine Hill, where
the self-wolf had saved them.
After an argument, Romulus killed Remus, and he become the first King.

2. REPUBLICAN ROME (6TH TO 1ST CENTURY BC)

In 509bc, people thought the monarchy had too much power. The aristocratic families of
Rome, with the help of the people, ended the reigh of the last Etruscan King, Lucius Tarquinius
Superbus, and Rome became a republic.

A. THE FIGHT FOR CITIZENSHIP

The patricians controlled the goverment. These were a minority of aristocratic families (genes).
They made laws, exercised justice and monopolised public positions.
The plebeians, who were more numerous, were peasants, artisans and traders who had settled
in the city. They had no political rights, paid taxes and had to join the army.
The plebeians fought fot he same rights as patricians,
- They obtained a representative, the plebeian tribune, which defended their interests.
- They obtained an inscroption of the laws of Rome, which were posted publicly: the
Law of the Twelve Tables.
- The won the right to marry patricians and to hold public positions.
From the 3rd century BC, the laws created equality between the patricians and the plebeians,
and the plebeians became Roman citixenes.

B. THE REPUBLICAN GOVERMENT

The were three fundamental institutions in the Republic:
- The Senate was the centre of political life. People had to consult the Senate on all matters.
It controlled the money.
- The magistrates were in charge of the goverment. They acted in the name of the Senate
and tje people of Rome.
- The assemblies were made up of citizens who voted for laws and elected the magistrates.
Women and foreigners did not have political rights, and por citizens had Little influence and no
opportunities to become magistrates or senators. The Roman Republic was more o fan
oligarchy tan a democracy.
Many people were slaves. They had no rights, were considered property and were used for
Works.

3. WHY DID BRUTUS KILL JULIUS CAESAR?

A. TERRITORIAL EXPANSION
The roman Republic expanded enormously. This took place in several stages:
- From 500 to 250BC, it conquered the Italian Peninsula
- From 264 to 146 BC, it took control of the western Mediterranean
- From 2nd century BC to 1st century AD, it conquered Greece, the Eastern
Mediterranean, Gallia, Britannia and large áreas of central Europe.
B. THE POWER OF THE ARMY
This vast expain was mainly the resulto f its powerful and effective army, which was composed
of all citizens between the ages of 17 and 60.
Those who refused to join the army were considered deserters. They lost their citizenship and
could become slaves. Fedending and expanding the Republic was considered a sacred duty.
C. THE CRISIS OF THE REPUBLIC
The conquests made some people in Rome very rich, but also created enormous social
inequalities. Some people became rich from the profits of war, taxes, the selling of prisioners
of war and the exploitation of large estates (latifundia).
Many peasants lost everything when they abandoned their land to serve in the army. This
created social conflicts, such as the revolt led by the Gracchi brothers (2th century BC), who
wanted a fairer distribution of wealth.
To stop the protest and control such a large territory, the Senate and magistrates gave power
to military commanders (dictators), who began fighting each other, causing civil wars.
D.JULIUS CAESAR: THE ROAD TOWARDS THE EMPIRE
Julius Caesar was elected cónsul in 59 BC. The following year, he was elected governor and
militaru commander of several provinces.
He had huge military success and was supported by the plebeians. In 44 BC, he was given the
title “dictator in perpetuity”.
Some senators thought he was dangerous because he became more and more powerful they
were worried that the plebeians would support him, and that he would call himself King and
remove all republican institutions.
A group of senators conspired and had Caesar assassinated at the doors of the Roman Senate
on the Ides (15) of March, 44 BC.
 4. THE ROMAN EMPIRE (1ST CENTURY BC TO 5TH CENTURY AD)
A. A NEW FORM OF GOVERMENT
After Caesar`s death, his adopted son Octavius won a civil war. In 27 BC, the Senate named
him Augustus (“chosen by the gods”)
Under Augustus`rule, a new form of goverment appeared in the rome Empire. He convened
the Senate and assemblies, named the magistrates and imposed laws (edicts). He was named
head of the army, given the titles of emperor and Pontifex Maximus and became the most
serior religious authority.
The republican institutions (the Senate, magistrates and assemblies) continued to exist, but
Augustus removed their duties from them.

B.THE IMPERIAL CULT

When Augustus died, he was deified, marking the beginning of the Imperial Cult. From then
on, the emperors were seen as gods. Romans were allowed to practise various religions, but
the Imperial Cult obligatory. It showed that people were loyal to Rome and thay they obeyed
its authorities.
C. A PERIOD OF PROSPERITY (1ST TO 2SN CENTURY AD)
The 1st and 2nd centuries AD were Golden Age of the Empire known as the Pax Romana. There
were few wars and the conquered territory was Romanised. Economic prosperity prevented
serious social conflicts.
Peace, economic prosperity and an extensive road network helped the spread of the roman
lifestyle and language (Latin).
In 212 AD, everyone livinng in the Empire was given Roman citizenship.
D. WHAT WAS THE PAX ROMANA?
For 200 years, the Roman Empire controlled a vast and relatively peaceful territory.
A powerful army protected the borders (limites) from attacks by barbarian tribes (foreigners)
using walls and fortifications.
Cities were established, trade was protected and communities were integrated into Roman
culture.
CONTROL OF THE TERRITORY
The territories, of the Empire were organised into provinces, which were ruled by a governor
assisted by officials. The collected taxes to maintain the Roman state.
To rule such a vast territory, it was essential to have an administration that could execute the
emperor`s orders, collect taxes, prevent revolts,…
The governors of provinces could be elected by the Senate or the emperor.
COMMERCIAL PROSPERITY
The romans created and impressive road network that covered the whole Empire and made
communication easier.
This encouraged the growth of cities and agricultural and craft pruduction. It also made trade
easier.

5. THE LEGIONARY CAIUS VISITS ROME

Caius is 30 years old. He is a legionary in the Roma army. he was recrutied into the Legio
septima Gemina in Hispania and travelled around the whole Empire. His legion has been taken to
Rome to rest.
He wants to get to know the city and go the games and festivities paid for by Emperor Hadrian
to celebrate his victory.
 He has never seen such a large city with so many people. It gas almost one million inhabitants
living in numerous neighbourhoods and apartment buildings.
The most beautiful área is the city centre, which is built around seven hills. Since the reign of
Augustus, the city has been embellished. Each emperor commissions monuments and buildings to
demonstrate his power. Caius plans to visit the temples and the Forum, admire the triumphal
arches, have fun at the circus and amphitheatre, and relax at the Roman baths.
INSULAE AND TAVERNS: Caius stays in a room in an insula (apartment). Crowed conditions in
which Romans live. He eats in the city`s taverns or buys food that he eats in the Street, as most
Roman do.
GAMES AND SHOWS: It is easy to have fun in Rome. Caius goes t osee races at the circus and
watches gladiator fights in the amphitheatre.
BATHS: Caius goes to the baths to relax with friens. They are enormous compared to those of
his native city. Baths are complexes for personal higiene and sports, with an openair space for
physical exercise and cold, warm and hot wáter pools for bathing.

6. THE INHABITANTS OF THE EMPIRE

A. CITIZENS: THE RICH AND THE POOR
Most free men enjoyed Roman citizenship from the 3rd century AD. They had political rights
and were protected by laws. However, some were much more fortunate tha others.
* The most provileged (the nobles) were senators, senior empire ooficials, rich plebeians with
businesses and middle managers in the goverment (equites).
* below these were the large masses of peasants and salaried urban dwellers (plebeians).
When they were out of work, they lived on money given to them by the state and were
satisfied with the amusements givem (“bread and circuses”).
However, Roman socitety was open and social mobility was posible. Rich plebeians could
obtain the status of nobles.
B. SLAVES AND FREEDMEN
There were a huge number os slaves. They made ip half of Rome´s population. They did the
most difficult work, but they were also teachers and administrators.
Sometimes they were feerd (libertus) and obtained Roman citizenship. The number of libertus
or freedmen was growing all the tome.
C. AN URBAN SOCIETY
Roman society was mostly based in cities. The cities (urbes) were home to to the authorities
and governments and were economic centres, where artisan and comercial activities
happened.
Hundreds of cities with a similar structure were founded throughout the Roman Empire.
They were protected by walls and had a central square and a fórum, which was the centre of
political and religious life.

The market was the meeting place for all social classes. Patrician women went there with their
slaves.
The artisans attended to their customers in their workshops.
The patricians and equites met at the FORUM to discuss business and politics.
One of the responsabilities of domestic slaves was to trasnsport their masters in a litter.
The peasants came to the city to sell their produce.
the magistrates administered justice in THE BASÍLICA.
Circus; Theatre; Basilicia; Amphitheatre; Aqueduct; Temple; Forum
7. A NEW RELIGION: CHRISTIANITY
THE HEBREWS: THE PEOPLE OF THE BIBLE
The Hebrews lived on the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, in an área called Palestine.
They followed Judaism, a monotheistic religión that said there was only a God, Yahweh, and
proclaimed the arrival of a Messiah.
Theis holy book, the Hebrew Bible, tells of the origins of the world, the history of the Jews and
their covenant with Yahweh. It also contains the Ten Commandments.
In the 1st century AD, the región became parto f the Roman empire. Judea became a Roman
province, which included Samaria. It was ruled by a Roman prefect.
JESUS OF NAZARETH
Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem during the reign of Augustus. His parent (Mary and Joseph)
were Jews from Galelee who had moved to Judea.
He called himself the Son of God, and his followers recognised him as the Messiah announced
by the prophets. Jesus preached his teachings around Samaria and Judea and surrounded
himself with 12 disciples (apostles). Some Jews considered him an imposter and accused him
of spreadjung false doctrine.
At the age of 33, he was arrested by the Roman governor Pontius Pilate and sentenced to die
on the cross (crucifixión). His followers said that on the third day he rose again (resurrection)
and ascended to heaven (ascensión).
The teachings of Jesus form the basic of the Christian religión, which spread throughout the
Empire.
CHRISTIAN COMMUNITIES
The first followers of Jesus were organised into small communities. These formed the Church
(the meeting of all Christians). They had to receive instruction (catechesis) and be baptised.
Each community elected a bishop who was the leader. Over the centuries, the bishop of Rome
became the leader of the roman Catholic Church (te Pope)
WHAT WERE THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS?
Jesus spread his beliefs amonsg his followers. These are told in the gospels, which means
“Good news” in Greed.
He preached a universal religión, which meant that anyone who followed his beliefs could join.
It was base don love for God and one´s neighbour, forgiveness and renouncing material godos.
All those who followed the principles preacheed by Jesus could have eternal life in the
kingdom of God (heaven9.
THE APOSTLES
Four of the apostles wrote about the life os Jesus and his teaching. These writings are know as
the four Gospels, which form the basic of Christianity.
Each evangelist was represented by a symbol: Matthew was an ángel, John was an Eagle, Mark
was a lion and Luke was a bull.
THE GOSPELS
After the death of Jesus, the apostles spread his teaching among Jewish communities.
However very few converted to the new religión.
A Roman patrician who had converted to Christianity, Paul of Tarsus, spread Christianity
among non-Jews (gentiles) and travelled throughtout the Roman Empire to créate small
Christian communities.
He was beheaded and given name Saint Paul.
8. WHY DID THE EMPIRE COME TO AN END?
THE START OF THE CRISIS
The empire stopped expanding and experienced a crisis in the 3rd century AD. The borders
were not safe because of attacks from the Germanic peoples who lived beyond the limites.
There was also financial problems. There were not enough slaves because there had been no
conquest, and this caused a reduction in agricultural production and minig. Also, the barbarian
attacjs cut off communication links and stopped trade.
It was difficult to collect taxes and state revenue fell. The imperial authority became waker.
Revolts and assassinations of empetors were frequent. The military leaders increase their
power and the army was the only authority in the provinces.
THE GERMANIC PEOPLES
The Germanic lifestyle was very different to the Roman lifestyle. They dis not have writting or
money, and the dis not build cities.
They were semi-nomadic and lived off very primitive livestock farming and agricultura. They
understood iron kmetallurgy and made high quality weapons.
They were organished in families, wich formed a clan. The heads of families chose a military
leader, who had the title of King.
CHRISTIANITY: THE RELIGION OF THE EMPIRE
Between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD, the Christians were acuused of refusing to follow the
imperial cult and serve Rome as soldiers. They were persecuted and many were tortured
(martyrdom).
From the 3rd century AD, the Empire suffered a deep social crisis. Its gods and beliefs did not
seem to be enough.
The values of Christianity (love of one´s neighour,…) spread throughout the empire.
In 313, Emperor Constantine made Christianity legal (Edict of Milan) and converted. At the end
of the century, Emperor Theodosius declared it the oficial religión
THE VISTORY OF CONSTANTINE
Constantine was camped at the gates of the city. A visión told him to Paint the sign of the cros
son the shields of his soldiers before starting battle.
Gos helped Constantine, and his enemies ran away in fear.
THE END OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
In 395 Ad, the Emperor Theodosius divided the Empire between his sons Arcadius and
Honorius. This was to make it easier to defend. It was divided into:
- The Eastern Roman Empire or Bysantine Empire: the richest and most populous part,
where emperors maintained their authority and defended themselves from the
barbarians.
- The Western Roman Empire: the poopest part, which the emperors could not protect
THE GERMANIC INVASIONS
At the start of the 5th century, Germanic peoples entered the Roman Empire, driven by a
Central Asian peorple: the Huns.
Teh Germanic peoples (Suebi, Vandals, Alans, Visigoths) settled and created independent
kingdoms.
THE LAST EMPEROR OF THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE
In 476, Odoacer, a barbarian chief, removed Romulus Augustus from power. Romulus
Augustus was a 10 year old boy who was the last emperor or the Western Roman Empire.
In Europe, a new era began: the end of the Ancient History and the start of the Middle Ages.