HALL, M. (1982) Quantifying Trends in Site Location With Multidimensional Scaling

Quantifying Trends in Site Location with Multidimensional Scaling
Author(s): Martin Hall

Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 14, No. 1, Quantitative Methods (Jun., 1982), pp. 131-152
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/124379
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Quantifying trends in site location with
multidimensional scaling
Martin Hall
In this paper, I shall argue that trends in site locations may be usefully quantified with multi-
dimensional scaling, and that this approach, used as an extension of the time-honoured distri-
bution map, avoids many of the problems inherent in other methods of analysing the spatial
properties of archaeological data.
Multidimensional scaling (MDS) has been used for some time in the analysis of artifactual
assemblages by, for example, Ammerman (1971), Bonsall and Leach (1974), Doran and Hodson
(1966), Hodson, Sneath and Doran (1966), L. Johnson (1972), Shennan and Wilcock (1975)
and True and Matson (1970). Several pioneer studies have also demonstrated the potential of
MDS in the study of spatial distributions. Thus Tobler and Weinberg (1971) predicted the
locations of lost cities in Turkey, and Kendall (1971a,b) looked for missing parishes in
Oxfordshire, first testing his method by reconstructing the map of France from the simple
proximity of different administrative units. In the face of such convincing demonstrations, it is
surprising that recent reviews of analytical techniques in spatial archaeology, such as those by
Clarke (1977) and by Hodder and Orton (1976), do not consider MDS as a technical enhance-
ment of existing methods.
In a recent study (Hall 1981) of early farming settlements in southern Africa, I was faced
with the need to carry out a locational study making use of insubstantial sites, with only a
loosely established chronology, that were scattered patchily across a complex landscape; a set
of circumstances probably not unknown to archaeologists working in other contexts. Most of
the established techniques of spatial analysis were either unsuitable or of only limited use, but,
by using MDS as a refinement of the conventional distribution map, it was possible to extract
locational trends from such poor data.
Quantification techniques in spatial archaeology
A brief review of some of the methods that are currently in use for quantifying archaeological
site distributions will show why it was necessary to develop a different approach for examining
the insubstantial traces of the Zululand Iron Age. I have taken as 'quantifying' those techniques
that allow interrelationships between sites, or between sites and their environments, to be
measured or ranked in some way rather than merely described. I have taken the 'site' as 'a
World Archaeology Volume 14 No. 1 Quantitative methods
?R.K.P. 1982 0043-8243/82/1401-131 $1.50/1
132 Martin Hall
discrete and potentially interpretable locus of cultural materials' (Plog, Plog and Wa
although it must be remembered that this is often an arbitrary division and methods of a
distributions within the site (for example, the approach of Whallon 1973; 1978), and
site (Foley 1981; Isaac 1981; Plog, Plog and Wait 1978), are also important.
For practical purposes, a distinction may be made between those techniques that r
knowledge of the function and rank of each site and those that require only the locat
site in relation to the location of other sites or components in the environment. The
model in the first of these two groups has been central place theory, which has bee
successfully in many different parts of the world (see, for example, Hodder 1972; Ho
Orton 1976; G. A. Johnson 1972). If this technique is to be used, however, the s
must be complete or almost complete and there must be good chronological control,
the identification of sub-groups of contemporary sites (Haggett 1965); conditions that
automatically the range of archaeological circumstances in which central place theor
applied.
Locational techniques that work from site position alone have been more generally applied
in archaeological studies and are the only methods suitable for contexts such as the Zululand
Iron Age. Interest may be in the quantification of inter-site distances and in discerning whether
patterning is random, clustered or spaced. Such approaches have been grouped together as point
pattern analysis by Hodder and Orton (1976) and include measurement of the variability
between quadrats, as used by Whallon (1973) at the assemblage level, trend surface analysis,
which has been attempted only in a few archaeological studies (Orton 1980), and nearest
neighbour analysis (Clark and Evans 1954) - the most widely applied of the point pattern
approaches in archaeology; for example, studies by Earle (1976), Hodder and Orton (1976)
and Peebles (1973).
Perhaps more interesting, though, are locational measurements that quantify spatial relation-
ships between site distributions and the distributions of attributes of the environment, since
such approaches lead more directly to interpretations of the prehistoric record than do point
pattern analyses. Assessed by the number and range of archaeological applications, the dominant
model in this category has been site catchment analysis. This method is based on the assumption
that sites will have economic territories of predictable size (Vita-Finzi and Higgs 1970). Such
regularity will exist because a given resource is more costly to exploit the further it is to be
found from the site (Jarman 1972). Site catchment analysis can be applied to the single site or,
which is more relevant to the present discussion, a set of sites in a region can be analysed,
land-use categories within their territories classified and quantified and the results compared
in a search for generalised economic patterning. Site catchment analysis has been used in this
way in a wide range of situations (for example, by Barker (1973), by Dennell and Webley (1975)
and by Ellison and Harriss (1972)).
In addition, there have been modifications of Higgs and Vita-Finzi's basic approach. For
instance Cassels (1972), in a study of sites in New Zealand, classified the environment into
resource zones and used the spacing of sites across these zones to determine the size of the
'field' commanded by each prehistoric settlement. Browman (1976) put forward a more
complicated 'exploitable territory threshold model' which was based on the same energy/
distance principles as site catchment analysis, but which used a wider range of types of distance
cost and suggested different distance 'thresholds' by ethnographic analogy. Foley (1977)
proposed the calculation of the energy potential of the environment in 'isocals' and adopted a
Quantifying trends in site location 133
more flexible concept of territory size. Flannery (1976), in establishing site catchments in the
valleys of Oaxaca and Tehuacan, mapped the distributions of plants, animals and minerals
found in excavations and from this information calculated the minimum sizes of village territories.
Another approach to the measurement of site: territory relationships, which can also be used
in studying inter-site patterning, is the Thiessen polygon (Haggett 1965). Thiessen polygons are
the most rational territories for each of a complete set of sites, calculated from the distances
between each site and its closest neighbours. Once Thiessen polygons have been mapped for an
area, the resources within each territory can be measured in much the same way as in site
catchment analysis. Thiessen polygons have been used, for example, in Mayan studies (Hammond
1972) and to delimit the territories of British Iron Age hillforts (Cunliffe 1971).
A further, valuable method of quantifying site: resource correlations has been to compare
the predicted and observed densities of sites across the different environmental zones of a study
area. Thus Davey (1971), in studying the distribution of Late Bronze Age metalwork from
Lincolnshire, used the chi-squared test to compare the observed distributions of objects with
the pattern to be expected if random factors had been dominant. Green (1973) used stepwise
multiple regression in a similar study of prehistoric Maya sites in Belize. Also in Mesoamerica,
Zarky (1976) used more sophisticated tests from inferential statistics, using percentage point
differences between expected and observed site densities to assess the importance of various
land-forms in the selection of site locations.
Although nearest neighbour analysis, site catchment analysis and Thiessen polygons have
been valuable in defining the locational patterning of regions, they share with central place
theory the need for complete or almost-complete sets of sites across a research area. Similarly,
Flannery's (1976) method of assessing territory size needs a good knowledge, from excavation,
of the resources that were used by the occupants of the site, while Foley's (1977) 'isocals'
must be built from a detailed understanding of the palaeoenvironment, information that is
often elusive. These problems are perhaps the reason for the current paradox in settlement
archaeology. For despite a considerable literature describing potential techniques for the
objective quantification of spatial information, there are few published accounts of full appli-
cations of such techniques in regional archaeological studies, in comparison with numerical
and statistical approaches to problems such as assemblage classification and analysis.
Quantifying locational trends with multidimensional scaling
Where data are minimal it may be necessary to revert to the basic distribution map, of importance
since the formative years of archaeology (Clarke 1977). It has often been pointed out that such
distribution maps are themselves analytical models, emphasising the relationships between
selected attributes of the environment and the positions of sites. A major difficulty, however, is
that patterns of interpretative value are often concealed beneath the 'noise' of biases in fieldwork,
preservation and so on (Groube 1981). Even when such 'post-depositional' factors can be con-
trolled, data that are collected in the quadrats or along the transects of a sampling strategy will
be difficult to interpret visually, even if such a subjective analysis were desirable. Thus the
problem is that of finding a way to upgrade the interpretation of the distribution map so that
patterns may be isolated and associations measured in an objective manner.
The method that I found useful in Zululand was to cluster the sites which were similar in
134 Martin Hall
their locations into groups. This was achieved by choosing a set of locational attribu
altitude, aspect and soil type; information that could be obtained by fieldwork or f
the research area. A definitive profile could then be constructed for each site in th
scoring those attributes present at the site's location, and the profiles clustered a
their degree of similarity. The success of such an approach clearly hinges on a metho
analysis that will perform the improbable task of producing quantified results from
data - the presence or absence of attributes making up the profile of each site. Fo
multidimensional scaling is such a technique.
The final result of MDS as with other forms of cluster analysis, is an expression o
larities between items in the form of interpoint distances. MDS, however, requires o
items forming the input are ranked in order, rather than quantified (Kruskal 1964)
(1972) has pointed out, the suitability of such a method for the human scienc
frequently qualitative data is immediately apparent. A further, important, advantag
that it is designed to produce results that are readily interpretable. Thus whereas m
as factor analysis may isolate many variables the multiple nature of which may actu
mask the basic underlying structure of the data, MDS may be used to produce a solu
can be visually portrayed. The process of reducing the true configuration to a mana
ber of dimensions, however, leads to a departure from the ideal form. Thus a three
solution may be an approximation of a configuration which fits a greater number o
closely. The degree of this departure, as measured for each solution, is known as 'st
choice of the appropriate number of dimensions for any given set of data belong
interpreter; the main guideline is the stress figure, which should not fall too abr
further dimension is added.
As with any technique of cluster analysis, the value of the result is constrained ultimately
by the quality of the data. Thus MDS will produce an 'objective' distribution map only in that
it will allow spatial relations to be measured, countering subconscious biases on the part of the
observer. The choice of the locational attributes to be used in each study, however, is a
'subjective' process that follows from the archaeologist's perception of the environment of each
study area. In other words, MDS as a technique of locational analysis allows initial, crude
propositions to be examined rigorously and to be either rejected as untenable or turned into
more formal hypotheses. The method will not labour inductively to produce hypotheses from
a mass of unsorted locational information. It also follows that the problems of archaeological
sampling, as discussed, for instance, by Mueller (1975) and by Plog (1976), will apply. Site
locations that are deemed 'typical' by MDS are only typical of the sample analysed, and if such
a sample cannot be taken as representative of prehistoric settlement patterns in the study area,
the locational analysis will not have any meaning.
A final methodological point is that MDS, employed in the way suggested here, is primarily
an experimental technique. Just as distribution maps, such as J. D. Clark's Atlas of African
Prehistory (1967), are often used with different combinations of transparent overlays, so
various sets of location attributes can be used in searching for meaningful patterns and associ-
ations and in reducing stress to acceptable levels. In addition, non-locational attributes, such as
artifact categories, can be included in the search for correlations; the only criterion is that a
potential attribute should be relevant to the particular problem being researched. In the
examples of studies in Zululand that follow, a number of different types of attribute have been
used, although there has been only limited experimentation with attribute combination. If,
QuantifYinig trends in site location 135
Figure 1 Southern Africa: Zululand and the two study areas
136 Martin Hall
however, some value can be seen in these relatively crude applications, the full pote
method must be all the greater.
Two examples from Zululand
Zululand lies to the south-east of the Drakensberg Escarpment, the mountain chain t
the interior of the subcontinent from its coastal margins (fig. 1). In common with
regions of southern Africa, Zululand was occupied for many millennia by Stone A
munities, populations that were certainly itinerant and perhaps moved from highla
in a seasonal round (Carter 1970; Mazel 1981). Between AD 250 and 500, however, t
radical changes in human geography as Iron Age farming communities moved sou
settled parts of the Zululand coastal plain as well as the alluvial soils in the river val
about AD 1000 the high, interfluvial regions, as well as the foothills of the D
mountains, were also settled by Iron Age farmers (Hall 1981; Hall and Vogel
Maggs 1980a,b).
Although the landscape is highly varied, there are three major types of environ
coastal plain is mostly flat but has a high dune cordon immediately behind the shore
easy estuaries, the meandering rivers have formed large lakes and pans behind these c
Inland, in contrast, the rivers have cut deep, wide valleys, exposing older geological
and then depositing tracts of deep and fertile alluvium. Different again are the up
form the boundaries between the catchments of the major rivers.
For sampling the distributions of these Iron Age settlements, I took advantage
partite form of the landscape, concentrating on three study areas which, between t
representative of the range of environments to be found within Zululand. In this
summarise the results of distribution studies in the coastal and riverine areas (fig. 1
strate the use of the MDS approach. The same approach was also employed in the upla
for conformity, but in this case the existence of a far fuller set of data meant that oth
such as nearest neighbour analysis and Thiessen polygons, were more profitable.
The coastlands have a clear structure of north-east: south-west zonation with littoral dune
cordon, marshlands, lake and coastal hinterland lying one behind the other (fig. 2). Because of
this regularity, sample transects were chosen perpendicular to the coastline, thereby covering
the full range of different environments. All the sites recorded were marked by either ceramics
or scatters of marine shell, and the majority had both. Because pottery was common, and
because collections showed varied and distinctive patterns of decoration, I was able to construct
a typological scheme and link this with a radiocarbon chronology obtained from the results of
limited excavation. This procedure produced evidence for three chronologically separate groups
of sites; an Early Iron Age component, dated to between AD 250 and 1000, and two sequential
Late Iron Age components, dated to between AD 1000 and the recent past.
The locational trends in these three groups of coastal sites were studied with separate MDS
runs. Nineteen attributes (Table 1) were used to define the position of each site in relation to
the major topographical features shown in fig. 2, as well as to altitude and distance from the
major ecotones of shoreline, marshland edge and lakeside. In addition, the study area was
divided into north-eastern, central and south-western areas to allow for the possibility of
locational trends that bore no relationship to the dominant pattern imposed by the structure of
/ ST LUCIA \
LAKE
j '!::: - - NORTH EASTERN

AREA
\': -:-' - - . . .d~r

N'"
SOUTH WESTERN AREA
== I mts
Figure 2 The environment of the coastal study area (for key to attribute numbers, se
138 Martin Hall
Table 1 Locational attributes employed in the coastal study area (numbers run consecutively
from attributes used in constructing the ceramic typology)
Attribute Description
10 Occurrence on the site of a concentration of shell of marine origin

11 Occurrence on the site of ferruginous material indicating iron working
12 Site located in the higher parts of the coastal dune cordon, altitude greater than
45 rn a.s.l.
13 Site located on the north-western slopes of the coastal dune cordon, altitude
between 15 and 45 m a.s.l.
14 Site located in the marshlands, areas with altitudes of less than 15 m a.s.l. located
between the dune cordon and the marsh or north-western hinterland
15 Site located in the Sibomvini area, relict dunes surrounded by marshlands and lying
between St Lucia lake and the coastal dune cordon. Altitude greater than 15 m a.s.l.
16 Site located in the north-western hinterland of the study area, inland of the lake
and/or marshlands. Altitude greater than 15 m a.s.l.
17 Site located in the north-eastern sector of St Lucia lake area
18 Site located in the central sector of St Lucia lake area
19 Site located in the south-western area
20 Site located less than 1 km from the edge of the marshlands

21 Site located between 1 and 2 km from the edge of the marshlands
22 Site located less than 1 km from the edge of a lake or estuary
23 Site located between 1 and 2 km from the edge of a lake or estuary
24 Site located less than 1 km from the high water level of the sea
25 Site located between 1 and 2 km from the high water level of the sea
26 Site located at an altitude of less than 15 m a.s.l.
27 Site located at an altitude of between 15 and 45 m a.s.l.
28 Site located at an altitude of more than 45 m a.s.l.
the landscape. Two cultural attributes, indicating evidence for iron-working

use of shellfish, were also included. The presence or absence of these attri
provided unique and definitive profiles which, translated to a matrix form
multidimensional scaling. Satisfactory stress levels were for solutions in t
which are represented in figs 3, 4 and 5. Note that the position of each attr
axis is shown by the size of the circle - 'typical' attributes will be found clos
of the x and y axes and will have circles of medium size.
The results show both definite patterning in the locations of each group
seen from fig. 3, settlements in the Early Iron Age tended to be clustered
part of the study area (attribute 17), close to the seaward margin of the ma
20, 21 and 27). Most sites had evidence for both metal working (attrib
exploitation of marine fauna (attribute 10). During the first part of the L
was less consistency (fig. 4), with clearly favoured locations in the lower ly
14 and 26), close to the edge of the marshlands (attribute 20) and somewhat
sea (attribute 25). Metal-working was frequently practised at sites such as
It is important to note, however, that in fig. 4 this 'typical' location is no
220
1o { ) 2
17 27
13.
O^~~ ^-^ ~ Figure 3 MDS solution for Early Iron

26 0 Age sites in the coastal study area (stress
14 12%; for key to attribute numbers, see
Table 1)
configuration of attributes. This is because other attributes are not scattered evenly around the
periphery of the constellation, indicating that other site locational choices were of more than
passing importance. An example of such a location is in the higher part of the dune cordon and
close to the sea (attributes 12, 24 and 28). The MDS solution for the later group of Late Iron
Age sites is shown in fig. 5. Here, there is again more consistency, with a central cluster of attri-
butes closer to the intersection of the three axes. The locational trends indicated are similar to
those of the preceding phase, with the favoured choice for village site location on low-lying land
close to the edge of the marshland and a little distance from the sea (attributes 14, 20, 25 and
26). Iron-working (attribute 11) would again seem to have been practised mostly in such areas.
The patterns displayed in figs 3, 4 and 5 can be regarded as hypotheses for explaining Iron
Age settlement locations in the coastal region. My interpretative argument involves the use of a
large amount of supplementary ecological information (Hall 1981), which I will only summarise
here. During the Early Iron Age, the concentration of settlements close to the boundary between
the marshlands and the dune cordon probably reflected interest in a specialised niche particularly
suited to the colonising stage of agricultural expansion. In the third century, it is likely that the
coastal dune cordon was thickly shrouded with forests that were broken only where the water
table was prohibitively high. Such a boundary would have run along the inland margin of the
dune cordon and the width of the transition zone would have varied with the steepness with
which the dunes dipped towards the marshlands. As the dune cordon is lower in the north-
eastern part of the study area, the marshland: dune-cordon ecotone would have been widest in
this region. From this initial zone of settlement, farmers of the Early Iron Age could have cut
their fields back into the forests.
Although the lush vegetation of the coastal dunes will allow high agricultural productivity
for a few seasons, the sandy soils are poor in quality and fields must have been moved frequently
140 Martin Hall
(28
17
16
Figure 4 MDS solution

for the earlier group of
Late Iron Age sites in
the coastal study area
(stress 6%; for key to
2
attribute numbers, see
Table 1 )
28
12
17
19
22 )
0 0
16
15
Figure 5 MDS solution for

the later group of Late Iron
Age sites in the coastal study
area (stress 18%; for key to
C:>0Q~ ~attribute numbers, see
23 Table 1)
in order to maintain sat

of farming settlement,
dispersal of sites in the
coastal dune cordon. It
extensive areas of grass
portant in the Iron Age
cordon may reflect a balancing of the requirements for winter grazing of the hygrophilous
marshland species and summer grazing on the secondary grasses of the higher dunes. The use of
marine resources and the working of iron were clearly important throughout the Iron Age, and
during the Early Iron Age evidence for both is to be found on most sites. The locational
preference during the first part of the Late Iron Age probably reflects the different clistribution
of resources, as iron ore is to be found along the shores of the lake.
The Umfolozi Game Reserve was chosen to represent the river valley environments of
Zululand (fig. 1). An important point of contrast with the coastal region is the complexity of
the environment. The tributaries which feed the White Mfolozi river have cut through a wide
variety of geological formations, creating a topography which varies with differing resistance to
weathering as well as a myriad of floral communities which reflect differences in aspect, slope, soil
and microclimate (figs 6 and 7). A further contrast is methodological, for whereas archaeological
N
N
m ~ Below 140m a.s.l. (3)
10 km
i1
0--140-280m a.s.l. (4)
Ljji Above 280m a.s.l. (5)
Figure 6 The topography of the Umfolozi Game Reserve (for key to attribute numbers, see
Table 2)
142 Martin Hall
MFOLOZi RIVER
WHITE MFOLOZI RIVER
Themeda Grassland 20 Combretum ajoicuL Woodland 24
[I Acacia tortilis Woodland 21

Acacia nilotica Woodland 25
Acacia nigrescens Woodland 22 m M000o Acacia crandicornuta Woodland 26

El PL ocSFc W n
Acacia burkei Woodland 23 Acacia/Ficus Woodland 27

t-i~-i-Wri
0 5 ___01
Figure 7 Floral communities of t

Table 2)
Quantifying trends in site location 14.3
data in the coastal area were collected in a controlled fashion along transects, the input from
the Umfolozi Game Reserve was from an earlier survey (Penner 1970) in which the sampling
strategy and biases in recording were unknown.
Fortunately, a fieldwork itinerary for the earlier survey was available, from which it was
possible to estimate the intensity of sampling and to plot those areas that had been searched
most carefully. These documents indicated that the survey had been substantial, and that the
reserve had been searched from eight suitable base camps. The choice of areas in which to work,
however, had clearly been dictated by pragmatic factors, rather than by a concern for random
sampling. In order to estimate the representativeness of the survey, the proportions of different
geological, topographical and floral units covered were compared with the proportions of these
same units in the reserve as a whole. The differences were in fact slight but where they existed,
divergences could be taken into account. As an additional check, I carried out a control survey
along randomly placed transects in one part of the reserve.
Establishing a chronological framework for the Umfolozi Game Reserve was not as straight-
forward as for the coastal area. Very little artifactual material was collected from Iron Age
sites during the earlier survey, probably because, as I discovered during the control survey, few
of the sites had substantial scatters of pottery. This may be attributed to post-depositional
factors: whereas the sandy soils of the coastal area are constantly being eroded to expose archae-
ological materials, the soils of the Umfolozi Game Reserve are far more stable and much of the
evidence for earlier settlement remains buried.
Despite these problems, a broad delimitation was possible. In sorting his sample of Iron Age
sites, Penner (1970) had followed the then-accepted scheme of Schofield (1948) and assumed
that the southern African Iron Age had a short time depth of a few centuries. Since 1970,
radiocarbon dating has allowed the complete revision of both typology and chronology (Hall
and Vogel 1980; Maggs 1973; Maggs and Michael 1976). When Penner's descriptions are set
against this new scheme, it is apparent that his entire sample was of Late Iron Age sites - that
is, settlements dated to between AD 1000 and the recent past. Sites recorded during the control
survey also belonged to this period. This is not to say that the ceramics from the Umfolozi
sample are uniform, for there is clear evidence for different components. Unfortunately, how-
ever, this evidence is not sufficient for a finer division comparable to that used in the coastal
study, and so the Late Iron Age sites in the riverine area were all considered together for the
locational study. Early Iron Age sites are also an important part of the archaeology of the river
valleys and are known from the study area but there were too few for locational study and
other approaches were used in examining the ecology of this first phase of farming settlement.
A set of forty-three attributes was used for the MDS analysis (Table 2), including topography
and altitude, as in the coastal area, as well as geology and floral type, information which was
available for the Umfolozi Game Reserve but not for the coastal areas of Zululand. Attributes
6 to 13 indicate from which base camp Penner recorded the site and were included to allow for
the possibility of unanticipated sample biases. Ecotones which were used included distances
from boundaries of topographic units and significant geological formations. Other attributes
indicated site aspect, proximity to water supply and the amount of floral diversity at a location,
allowing for the possibility that positions with marked diversity of microclimate were favoured.
The two archaeological attributes used in this case were the presence or absence of pottery and,
as in the coastal area, evidence for iron working.
The configuration for the full set of ninety-four Iron Age settlements is shown in fig. 8. There
144 Martin Hall
Table 2 Locational attributes employed in the study of site distributions, Umfolozi G

Reserve
Attribute Description
1 Occurrence on the site of pottery

2 Occurrence on the site of evidence for metal working
3 Site located in the low topographical unit; land below 140 m a.s.l.
4 Site located in the medium topographical unit; between 140 and 280 m a.s.l.
5 Site located in the high topographical unit; land above 280 m a.s.l.
6 Site located in Madlozi area
7 Site located in Mhlolokazana area
8 Site located in Nqabaneni area

9 Site located in Mpila area
10 Site located in Gome area
11 Site located in Makhamisa area
12 Site located in Mbhizana area
13 Site located in Ncoki area
14 Site located on Recent alluvium
15 Site located on dolerite
16 Site located on Beaufort Group formations

17 Site located on Ecca Group formations
18 Site located on Dwyka Group formations
19 Site located on Basement Complex
20 Site located in Thereda grasslands
21 Site located in Acacia tortilis open woodland
22 Site located in Acacia nigrescens open woodland
23 Site located in Acacia burkei open woodland
24 Site located in Cornbretum apiculatum mixed woodland
25 Site located in Acacia nilotica mixed woodland
26 Site located in Acacia grandicornuta closed woodland

27 Site located in A cacia/Ficis riverine woodland
28 Site located less than 1 km from 140 m contour
29 Site located between 1 and 2 km from 140 m contour
30 Site located less than 1 km from 280 m contour
31 Site located between 1 and 2 km from 280 m contour
32 Site located less than 1 km from the edge of dolerite
33 Site located between 1 and 2 km from edge of dolerite
34 1 floral community ecotone within 0.5 km of site
35 2 floral ecotones within 0.5 km of site
38 Site aspect north-west
39 Site aspect north-east
40 Site aspect south-west
41 Site aspect south-east
42 Nearest supply of water less than 0.3 km from site
43 Nearest supply of water between 0.3 and 0.5 km from site
is a clear cluster of attributes around the intersection of the three axes, indicating the nature
the 'typical' site location. Such a site is to be found at an altitude of between 140 and 280 m
Quantifjying trends in site location 145
(attribute 4) but fairly close to the upper boundary of this topographical unit (attribute 30), on
Ecca geological formations (attribute 17), but close to dolerite outcrops (attribute 32), and on
an easterly, and particularly south-easterly, hill slope (attribute 41). The 'typical' site is also
close to a water supply (attributes 41 and 42) and likely to be found in Acacia nilotica woodlands
(attribute 25), rather than in the other six floral types for which attributes were included. Fig. 8
also shows that attributes 6 to 13, which indicate Penner's search areas, had only peripheral
importance.
In addition to this basic analysis, the sites recorded during the control survey were clustered
by themselves as a test of the larger set of data. The result was confirmatory, with two minor,
but important, differences. The control survey data suggested that no particular hill-slope was
favoured, in contrast to the easterly preferences suggested by the full suite of sites. Second,
sites recorded in the control survey showed a definite association with a further floral com-
munity, Acacia nigrescens woodland.
18
20
12 ?
33
7
?
29
36
37
27
Figure 8 MDS solution

key to attribute numb
146 Martin Hall
As with the coastal study area, interpretation of this patterning must depend on
ecological information as well as a knowledge of the geological and topographical s
the Umfolozi Game Reserve. A first point to note is that the tendency for sites to b
Ecca formations and in the medium topographical zone does not reflect a particular
on the part of Iron Age farmers. Ecca sediments are the most common geological
Umfolozi Game Reserve and, as fig. 6 illustrates, the majority of the reserve also falls b
and 280 m above sea level. Thus late Iron Age communities, in siting their villages, w
the overall trends of the river valley landscape. This fact accounts for the dominan
given by Penner's distribution map - sites seem to be scattered everywhere.
Fig. 8 also shows, however, the existence of more significant locational trends. Of
interest is the tendency for sites to be placed close to the boundary between the
high topographic zones and close to dolerite outcrops. Between them, the high and
altitudes of the Umrfolozi Game Reserve offer two grazing types which are seaso
plementary and which are used today in a rotational system by grazing species. The
the other hand, offer agricultural soils of high quality which hold water for a long p
the pronounced aridity of the winter months. It would be an understandable choi
village close to such soils, making use of their farming potential while avoiding r
already scarce resource by actually building on the dolerites.
A further interesting association was between site locational preferences and parti
communities. Fig. 8 shows that many sites were found in Acacia nilotica woodlands while
analysis of the control survey data provided a refinement in indicating that there was also a
significant association with Acacia nigrescens woodland. By checking the proportions of these
two woodland types searched both by Penner and by myself in the control survey, it was
established that this was not due to sample bias. In fact, Penner slightly undersearched Acacia
nilotica woodland in proportion to its total occurrence in the game reserve. Nor was this merely
a further reflection of the particular importance of an attribute in the study area; fig. 7 shows
both woodland types distributed widely across the reserve while not dominating the vegetation
map. The reason for this association becomes clearer when the structure of the two types of
vegetation is taken into account. Both are unstable floral communities with low species diversity,
indicating that they are an early seral stage in the regeneration of the vegetation following
disturbance. This observation allows the hypothesis that these plant communities are indicative
of, and result from, the interaction of Late Iron Age farmers and their environment.
A final point of interest is the different tendencies in aspect preference suggested by the two
MDS runs. The full set of site profiles, dominated by data recorded by Penner, suggests that an
easterly aspect was usually chosen, a trend that conforms well with the ethnographic model of
Zulu settlement (see, for example, Bryant 1949). In contrast, the data from the control sample,
which were collected from transects placed without reference to topography or slope aspect,
suggest that no particular aspect was favoured. This difference between the two sets of infor-
mation could, of course, be a reflection of sample size. On the other hand, Penner may have
selected 'probable' locations of sites with the ethnographic model firmly, if subconsciously, in
mind. The potential to indicate the existence of such subtle biases may be a further strength
of the MDS technique.
Quantify,ing trends in site location 147
Discussion
These two examples of the application of MDS to archaeological research problems demonstrate
the advantages of using this technique in locational analysis. They include the facilities of dealing
with minimal amounts of archaeological data and of extracting locational patterns from distri-
butions that cannot be interpreted easily from visual representations. Both problems existed in
Zululand and, in sorting the data prior to further interpretation, MDS can be considered to have
been applied successfully. Thus although the patterning of sites in the coastal study area may
have seemed clear enough without the aid of cluster analysis, the more interesting associations
were not apparent until they were indicated by MDS. Similarly, although from Penner's study it
may have seemed that sites were to be found almost everywhere, it would have been difficult
to find the unanticipated association between settlement location and early stage woodland
types without the methodology described in this paper or a comparable technique.
It is also apparent, however, that the methodology is capable of further refinement. The
advantages of manipulating configurations by experimenting with the inclusion or omission of
different attributes have already been pointed out. Another possibility would be to apply
correction factors to compensate for known biases in sampling. I attempted this with the data
from the coastal study area, but it became clear that the sample of sites was insufficient to
sustain any results obtained in this manner (Hall 1981). Nevertheless, with a larger sample there
is every reason to believe that correction factors would allow more sophisticated interpretations.
A further improvement, which was not attempted in the Zululand study, would be to measure
the actual interpoint distances in the multidimensional configuration, thus providing a more
precise measure of similarity and difference, rather than a ranking of configurations (Kruskal
1964). For such a procedure, it would obviously be easier if a two-dimensional solution were to
be found with an acceptable level of stress. This was not possible in the examples given here,
but would have been obtainable had the configurations been manipulated and simplified on an
experimental basis.
Further advantages of using a technique such as MDS are of a more theoretical nature.
Approaches such as site catchment analysis incorporate underlying assumptions that may be
difficult to test. Thus a basic tenet of site catchment analysis and its variants is that the economic
distance defining a site territory is constant and therefore predictable (Browman 1976; Cassels
1972; Vita-Finzi and Higgs 1970). This paper is not the place for a critique of site catchment
analysis, which has been discussed widely (see for instance Flannery 1976; Foley 1977; Hodder
and Orton 1976; Roper 1979). It is, however, important to bear in mind that the assumption
of constant territory size is based on a narrow range of ethnographic analogy (Chisholm 1962;
Lee 1968; 1969). As areas beyond the predicted site catchment are not assessed by fieldwork,
the basic assumption is never tested and the rationale of the model can become circular.
A more general tenet, which is shared by simple and complex techniques of locational analysis
alike, is that the decision behind the location of a site was logical - that the community had a
full knowledge of the environment and its possibilities. In addition, it is often assumed (for
example, in site catchment analysis) that the site location was also chosen with the aim of
maximizing the return of the environment while minimizing the effort involved in resource
exploitation. Studies have shown, however, that communities may often not follow such rules
(Wolpert 1964). Clarke (1968) pointed to the possibilities of strategies other than maximization
and these different approaches have been incorporated in some archaeological analyses (see for
example Conrad 1978; Hammond 1981).
148 Martin Hall
Assumptions such as constant territory size and rational site location choice are n
in the methodology that I have described in this paper. Assumptions will of cours
they are determined by the nature of each particular research problem and are exp
choice of locational or other attributes. In this, there is a danger in the tendency t
primary objective of research the configuration of attributes itself, rather than the
which provided the original input. This can become a serious problem if the archa
sample is poor or if inappropriate locational attributes were chosen. In such a situ
archaeologist may find that he is in fact studying computer artifacts rather than re
of historical artifacts.
Difficulties such as these exist with all methods of statistical analysis and underli
to keep the constraints of the data and the nature of the research problem firmly i
precautions are easier with multidimensional scaling than with most technique
analysis, since input can be manipulated easily and degrees of similarity measured
figurations that can be graphically expressed. As Whallon (1978) noted when discuss
of spatial analysis within the site, such an approach may be preferable to more so
models that incorporate untested, and perhaps untestable, assumptions.
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to John Butler-Adam and Michael Sutcliff of the University of Natal

Meyer of the University of Pennsylvania for help with multidimensional scaling pr
Graham Avery, John Parkington and Michael Wilson read through this paper and
valuable suggestions.
24.xi. 1981 Department of Archaeology

South African Museum
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152 Martin Hall
Abstract
Hall, Martin
Quantifying trends in site location with multidimensional scaling
In this paper, 1 consider some of the problems of quantifying locational trends in archaeology.
A review of the methods available reveals that techniques may either be limited to situations
where a considerable knowledge of the nature of the site, or a full set of sites across a research
area, may be required. Such data are not common in archaeology, where sites are often damaged
by post-depositional decay or only partially sampled by fieldwork. Because of these problems,
I suggest that cluster analysis can be used to identify and measure trends in locational attributes.
For this, multidimensional scaling is an ideal technique, since it does not require metric infor-
mation as input and produces configurations that are easy to interpret visually. By describing
the use of multidimensional scaling in the study of the location of early farming settlements in
Zululand, I have been able to demonstrate some of the advantages of this approach, and to sug-
gest some ways in which the method may be improved for future application.
JOURNAL OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL ARCHAEOLOGY

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Robert Whallon
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Articles will cover a broad range of topics, from the purely theoretical to explicit
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logical evidence for the emergence of human culture to historically documented
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Quantifying Trends in Site Location with Multidimensional Scaling

Author(s): Martin Hall

Quantification techniques in spatial archaeology

World Archaeology Volume 14 No. 1 Quantitative methods

?R.K.P. 1982 0043-8243/82/1401-131 $1.50/1

Quantifying locational trends with multidimensional scaling

Figure 1 Southern Africa: Zululand and the two study areas

Two examples from Zululand

j '!::: - - NORTH EASTERN

\': -:-' - - . . .d~r

SOUTH WESTERN AREA

10 Occurrence on the site of a concentration of shell of marine origin

20 Site located less than 1 km from the edge of the marshlands

the landscape. Two cultural attributes, indicating evidence for iron-working

O^~~ ^-^ ~ Figure 3 MDS solution for Early Iron

Figure 4 MDS solution

Figure 5 MDS solution for

in order to maintain sat

m ~ Below 140m a.s.l. (3)

Ljji Above 280m a.s.l. (5)

WHITE MFOLOZI RIVER

Themeda Grassland 20 Combretum ajoicuL Woodland 24

[I Acacia tortilis Woodland 21

Acacia nigrescens Woodland 22 m M000o Acacia crandicornuta Woodland 26

Acacia burkei Woodland 23 Acacia/Ficus Woodland 27

Figure 7 Floral communities of t

Table 2 Locational attributes employed in the study of site distributions, Umfolozi G

1 Occurrence on the site of pottery

8 Site located in Nqabaneni area

16 Site located on Beaufort Group formations

26 Site located in Acacia grandicornuta closed woodland

Figure 8 MDS solution

I am indebted to John Butler-Adam and Michael Sutcliff of the University of Natal

24.xi. 1981 Department of Archaeology

Ammerman, A. J. 1971. A computer analysis of epipalaeolithic assemblages in Italy. In

Bonsall, J. C. and Leach, C. 1974. Multidimensional scaling analysis of British microlithic

Browman, D. L. 1976. Demographic correlations of the Wari conquest of Junin. American

Bryant, A. T. 1949. The Zulu People. Pietermaritzburg: Shuter & Shooter.

Cassels, R. 1972. Location analysis of prehistoric settlement in New Zealand. Mankind.

Chisholm, M. 1962. Rural Settlement and Land Use. London: Hutchinson.

Clark, J. D. 1967. Atlas of African Prehistory. University of Chicago Press.

Clark, P. J. and Evans, F. C. 1954. Distance to nearest neighbour as a measure of sp

Clarke, D. L. 1968. Analytical Archaeology. London: Methuen.

Clarke, D. L. 1977. Spatial information in archaeology. In Spatial Archaeology (ed. D. L. Clarke).

Conrad, G. W. 1978. Models of compromise in settlement pattern studies: an example from

Earle, T. K. 1976. A Nearest-Neighbour Analysis of two Formative settlement syst

Flannery, K. V. 1976. Empirical determination of site catchments in Oaxaca and Tehuacan. In

Haggett, P. 1965. Locational Analysis in Human Geography. London: Arnold.

Kendall, D. G. 1971b. Maps from marriages: an application of non-metric multi-dimension

Kruskal, J. B. 1964. Multidimensional Scaling by optimizing goodness of fit to a nonmetric

Lee, R. B. 1969. !Kung Bushman subsistence: an input-output analysis. In Environment and

Mueller, J. D. 1975. Sampling in Archaeology. University of Arizona Press.

Orton, C. 1980. Mathematics in Archaeology. London: Collins.

Penner, D. 1970. Archaeological Survey in Zululand Game Reserves. Unpublished report.

Shepard, R. N. 1972. Introduction. In Multidimensional Scaling: Theory and Applications in

Tobler, W. and Weinberg, S. 1971. A Cappadocian speculation. Nature. 231:39-41.

Quantifying trends in site location with multidimensional scaling