MOD 1 ACTIVITY 1: WHAT DO YOU PREDICT?

The physiological phases of life

A synopsis of the concepts of the units will be presented to you in the form of a graphical organizer. The
organizer gives you a visual representation of the concepts and their connections. This will help you
highlight the major points as well as study for exams.

Phase 1: Embryo to Birth

The nutritional requirements of women
while pregnant or breast feeding
(lactating) are in direct response to the
needs of the growing embryo/fetus/infant.

 Pregnant and breastfeeding

mothers are really “eating for two”
so they need to increase their
nutritional intake to account for
this including specifically
increasing:
o iron intake (needed for
hemoglobin production),
o folic acid intake (to
prevent neural tube
defects in the developing
fetus that can be caused
by folic acid deficit)
o calorie intake (to store
reserve energy for the delivery and later milk production)

Stage 2: Infancy to childhood

The nutritional requirements of infants and childhood are driven by the dramatic growth and development
that occurs in the body during this time.

 Infants need to be provided with a diet that meets their nutritional needs to support growth and
development. An Infants gastrointestinal system is underdeveloped therefore food needs to be
easy to digest and absorb otherwise infants may suffer discomfort when eating or suffer from
nutritional deficiencies.
 Childhood can be divided into two subgroups: toddlers and school-age:
o Both toddlers and school-age children need high-quality high energy foods to support
growth.
o Toddlers demonstrate strong likes and dislike seemingly refusing or accepting food at
random.
o Adult “fad diets” should be avoided for children because they may not provide the full
complement of nutritional needs for children.
Stage 3: Childhood to adult
The teenage or adolescent period begins at age 13 and continues to puberty. The physical differentiation
that occurs at puberty causes a change in nutritional needs:

 Females will need increased iron intake in response to the onset of menstruation.
 Both girls and boys at this age are susceptible to body image concerns which impact choices
about food, the adoption of fad diets, consumption of fast food,  drugs and alcohol all can impact
future development.
 Pregnancy in the teen years puts an added pressure on adolescent girls who must then consider
their own nutritional needs and those of the fetus, for this reason, teenage girls are at higher risk
for medical complications during pregnancy.

Stage 4:  Adult to Senior

The main determinant factors for the nutritional needs of adults are physical activity and body
maintenance and repair.

 Both an active and sedentary lifestyle require changes to nutritional intake.

 After the age of 70, most people start to experience a reduction in body organ function, atrophy
and disease, these changes have a significant impact on nutritional needs.
 As do interactions between nutritional supplement intake and medication, in some cases these
interactions can cause toxicity of a particular element or changes in metabolism.

MOD 2
INTRODUCTION
Food insecurity is defined as limited or uncertain availability of safe and nutritious food. This is a problem
that families around the world can face, even Canadian. Your body is in many ways a machine that needs
appropriate fuel to function well. Inadequate intake of nutrients causes impairments in cell functions
including physical and mental growth. Similarly, too much of any nutrient may cause toxicity. How do you
determine the right balance without becoming a chemist?

OBJECTIVES

 Identify and characterize the 6 classes of nutrients.

 Define basic Nutrition-related terms: nutrition, nutrients, foods, energy.
 Describe the functions of nutrients in human body.
 Outline the major dietary sources of nutrients.

HOW TO PROCEED

 Familiarize yourself with the unit objectives.

 Complete the assigned readings as outlined in the schedule.
 Take notes as necessary and complete the review questions found within the text.
 Read the synopsis material presented here and complete the activities as directed.

Learn how to read the label

Food labels in Canada
Diet planning is an art and a science. The science begins at the cellular level. Cells are the building
blocks of all organs and tissues in our bodies and the functions of each cell are maintained by nutrients.
In order to maintain optimal functioning of these cells, we must consume adequate amounts of essential
nutrients in our diets. Unavailability of certain nutrients to the cells can lead to abnormal functioning and
shapes of the cells. This, in turn, can lead to functional changes, such as weakness, irritability etc.
Determining which nutrients are in short supply and how to obtain them in a way that tastes good and is
balanced is an art because there are no absolute “good” or “bad” foods or magic formula that work for
everyone.

LEARN HOW TO INTERPRET CANADA'S FOOD GUIDE (2019)

CANADA'S FOOD GUIDE
WHAT IS ENERGY?
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work. Energy can be found in 4 forms:

 Chemical Energy – stored in the bonds of chemical substances (ex: carbon bonds) and released
when the bonds are broken.
 Mechanical Energy – heat is generated from physical movement (ex: rubbing your hands
together).
 Electrical Energy – from electrical charges (ex: electrical impulses in the nervous system).
 Heat Energy.

Our body is able to convert food energy (chemical form) to other forms of energy. We obtain energy from
the digestion of three of the six essential nutrients: Carbohydrates, proteins and Fats (lipids). Some
sources and processes to obtain energy are indeed more efficient than others.

Source Process name Chemical reactions Products

Aerobic
Krebs cycle Pyruvate and ATP
Glycolysis
Carbohydrate
Anaerobic
Substrate level phosphorylation Lactate and ATP
Glycolysis

Urea and very

Amino Acid Oxidation and products fed into Krebs
Protein small amounts
Catabolism cycle & Urea cycle
ATP

Fatty acid degradation through Beta

Large amounts of
Lipids Lipolysis oxidation and products fed into Krebs
ATP
cycle

Hint: View Brown Universities Sport Nutrition page.
Chemistry of Life.
The three energy-yielding nutrients (also known as macromolecules) are complex structures that store
energy through various types of bonding, it’s the breaking of these bonds that results in different types of
energy. All of these molecules are similar in that they have a backbone of carbon bonds, which is what
makes them “organic” molecules. Life as we know it depends on these carbon chains.
Read:

1. About Carbohydrates
2. About Proteins
3. About Lipids

ACTIVITY 1: VITAMINS, MINERALS AND WATER.

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small amounts to maintain body function. They maybe water-
soluble (Vitamin C & B) or Lipid soluble (Vitamins A, E, D & K). We currently can identify 14 vitamins
needed by the body. Minerals are inorganic compounds. There are 15 different minerals needed by the
body for the reaction of nerves and muscles as well as to help with the regulation of fluid and acidity
within the body. Referring to your text try to determine facts or fallacies of the following advice.

Discuss: Fact or Fallacy (This is one of the discussion topics you

can choose to discuss on the discussion board)

ACTIVITY 2: DEFICIENCIES AND TOXICITIES.

A deficiency arises from inadequate intake of a particular nutrient, which causes the bodies reserves to be
depleted. When the body reserves have depleted a decrease in blood levels of that nutrient is inevitable
causing insufficient amounts of the nutrients to be delivered to cells and impaired cell function results.
Deficiencies might not be noticeable immediately but always result in long term health issues.

Toxicity on the other hand arises from excessive nutrient intake, which causes saturation of the body
tissues/reserves. This results in increased levels in the blood and excessive amounts of a particular
nutrient being delivered to a call. This also results in impaired cellular function and long term health
issues.

MOD 3
INTRODUCTION
In order to diagnose and treat nutrition-related problems, thorough nutritional assessments must be
conducted by trained professionals. There are 4 major components of nutritional assessment. It is
important to include all of these components in an assessment in order to have a good overall picture of
the individual’s nutritional status. One component on its own will not provide enough information to
determine the overall health of the person.  The four components  (The ABCDs of assessment)
are: Anthropometric Assessment, Biochemical Assessment, Clinical Assessment, Dietary Assessment.
OBJECTIVES

 Explain the purpose of conducting a nutritional assessment.

 Outline the principles of ABCD tools available for assessment for nutritional status.
 Discuss the relationship between clinical signs, biochemical levels and dietary intakes of
nutrients.
  Compare various methods of dietary assessment.

HOW TO PROCEED

 Familiarize yourself with the unit objectives.

 Complete the assigned readings as outlined in the schedule.
 Take notes as necessary and complete the review questions found within the text.
 Read the synopsis material presented here and complete the activities as directed

Aspects of conducting a nutritional assessment

ACTIVITY 1: IMPORTANT MISCONCEPTION- YOU ARE NOT WHAT YOU EAT!

While we get components of our bodies from food, there is no association between the amount of nutrient
consumed with the amount of nutrient present in our body. The amount of carbohydrate stored in our
body (1%) does not reflect the proportion of our diet that is carbohydrate (maybe 300-400 consumed by
an adult).
Table of body composition based on approximate values for the body weight of individuals cited from
information provided by Wells (1999) American Journal of Clinical Nutrition volume 69, issue 904.

  Boys Girls

Water 61% 57%

Proteins 16% 14%

Fats 18% 24%

Minerals 4% 4%
 Carbohydrates            1% 1%

What determines your body composition is rather a result of the biological need and your bodies ability to
process incoming nutrients. Before we move any further in this unit it is important to understand some of
the units of measure we will be working within the rest of this unit and in all other units as well.
Kilocalories (kcal): Energy is measured using kilocalories. One kilocalorie is the amount of heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1 Kg of water at 1 atmospheric pressure by 1ºC.
Grams (g): Macronutrients are measured in grams. 1 g of Carbohydrate will provide you with 4kcal as
does one 1g of Protein. One gram of fat on the other hand provides you with 9kcal.
Milligrams, Micrograms and International units (mg, µg, IU): Micronutrients such as vitamins and
minerals are measured in these smaller units. The international unit is a measure of the biological activity
of a micronutrient, while milli- and micro- grams are measures of mass. For example, one IU of Vitamin C
is equivalent to 50 µg or 0.050 mg of the vitamin, while 1 IU of Vitamin A is equivalent to 0.30 µg or
0.0003 mg because they have different biological activities.
To convert micrograms (µg) to milligrams (mg), divide by 1,000–or move the decimal point 3 positions to
the left. 1000 mcg = 1.000 mg. Converting International Units (IU) isn’t straightforward because it’s a
different conversion for each nutrient based on its biological effect.
Determine:
The upper limit of safe consumption of Vitamin D is 4000 IU daily. I IU of Vitamin D is equal to 0.025
micrograms. How many milligrams can you take daily?
Answer: 0.1 mg
ACTIVITY 2: SECOND MISCONCEPTION-MALNUTRITION DOESN’T ALWAYS MEAN
STARVING!
When you hear the word malnutrition what is the first image to come to your mind? For many people,
malnutrition is characterized by images of starving children from war-torn or drought-ridden countries.
This is one form of malnutrition but not the only one.
Primary Malnutrition: is caused by inadequate or excessive dietary intake. If more/less of the nutrient
was supplied by the diet the deficiency could be alleviated.
Secondary Malnutrition: this is caused when the biochemical needs of a person are not being met in
spite of normally adequate intakes. Factors other than diet are creating the deficiency.
Net Intake = Total Intake – Amount Not Absorbed
Again we see, the level of nourishment depends on the balance between net intake and biochemical
need. Total intake and net intake are not the same. Total intake includes everything that you consume,
whereas net intake does not include components of food that are not absorbed. For example, fibre that
we consume is not digested by the body, therefore it is not included in net intake. There are some factors
that can affect net intake, such as diarrhea and vomiting. Both of these problems decrease how much
food is actually absorbed into the body, thereby decreasing net intake. Intake and needs change over
your life cycle and can be impacted by both external and internal factors. These can impact how much is
consumed and/or the nutrients needed.
External Factors: adequate time for eating/preparing food, food availability, peer pressure,
culture/religion, and the media.
Internal Factors: stages of physiological development, your state of health (disease, nausea,
medication/drug consumption, depression) and allergies.
ACTIVITY 3: CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS: DIETARY
The big question then is how do you determine if your intake is meeting your needs? Nutritional
assessments are used to assess the nutritional status required for the growth, maintenance and repair of
a body. They are also used to determine nutritional deficiencies or toxicities. This allows clinicians to
identify people at risk of diet-related problems. Nutritional assessments also provide the information
needed to allow for nutritional support and to monitor the progress or efficacy of dietary interventions.
Although last in the ABCD list, the dietary assessment is one of the first assessments conducted because
it is one of the easiest at least expensive tests to carry out. There are different ways to conduct a dietary
assessment, and each one has its advantages and disadvantages.
24-hour recall: Subjects or their parents/caregivers are asked to recall all food intake during the previous
24 hours. This recall may not represent the usual intake, so multiple recalls may be necessary to obtain a
true picture. This might also include conducting recalls during different seasons to observe seasonal
variations in consumption. A specific form may be used, but this method is problematic because it relies
on the subjects' memory.
Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ): This method is often used when assessing the frequency of
foods consumed over a period of time. This method is also subjective and people tend to underestimate
their food intake.
Dietary History: This method combines the use of a 24-hour recall and FFQ with a lengthy interview in
order to gain more information about the usual intake and insights into subject habits. This is more
accurate than the previous two tests used alone.
Estimated Food Record: Subjects or their caregiver's record all foods and beverages eaten during a
specific period of time. This method is an improvement on the recall methods because it does not rely on
memory, however, subjects may find estimating portion size difficult and therefore reduce the accuracy
because of inaccurate estimates.
Weighed Food Record: This method asks that all food consumed over a specific period of time be
recorded and weighed before consumption, therefore eliminating the problem of estimation in the
previous method. Along with the weights, methods of food preparation, a description of the food ( and
brand names) should also be included. This is the most accurate measure but also the most inconvenient
as a subject must weigh all food items.

Once dietary data is collected it must be analyzed. This can be done using a variety of tools and
compared to specific standards.
The most commonly used tools are computerized databases that can calculate nutrient intake based on
estimates of nutrients found in particular foods. In some cases, the database may not contain all foods
eaten and so substitutions must be selected. With more and more of these tools available online free you
have to be sure to ask yourself:
Is this database complete?
Has the database used accurate nutrient equivalencies for foods?
before you invest a lot of time entering your data! The analysis is done by comparing the compiled list of
nutrients obtained from your data to set standards. Every country has their own set of standards for its
specific populations. Standards used in Canada come from four sources: nutrient recommendations for
Canadians, Canada’s guidelines for healthy eating, Canada’s food guide and Nutrient Reference values.
The amount needed is further qualified by terms such as:
Adequate Intake (AI): If more research is needed into the human requirements of a nutrient, an estimate
of the adequate intake is created based on the best available evidence.
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR): the average requirement of energy or nutrient intake for a
group of people.
Recommended Daily Allowances (RDA): the level of essential nutrient intake needed to meet the
functional needs of the average healthy person. Statistically, this intake would prevent deficiency
disorders in 97% of the population.
Upper Limit (UL): the highest amount of the nutrient intake unlikely to post a risk to health or adverse
health effects for almost all individuals in the general population.
Daily Reference Intakes (DRI): a collective name given to the nutrient-based reference values: EAR,
RDA, AI and UL
By comparing intake to the standards a dietary assessment can provide information of the estimate or risk
for an individual, however further measurements are needed to confirm actual deficiencies of toxicities.
ACTIVITY 3: BIOCHEMICAL ASSESSMENT

Before moving on to the next unit ponder upon:

Biochemical assessment involves the internal assessment of body tissues and fluids (blood or urine). The
tests that are performed will depend on what problems are suspected. The tests will look for specific
nutrients, enzymes (as many nutrients are part of enzymes or coenzymes) or metabolites (the end
product of a nutrient breakdown). For example, if a teenage girl is experiencing chronic fatigue and does
not appear to be consuming enough iron, blood haemoglobin and ferritin may be analyzed to determine
the status of body iron. A metabolite is an end product resulting from metabolic processes.
Biochemical assessments can be affected by many factors: disease, dehydration, drugs, diet or physical
activity. These factors may affect the accuracy of the biochemical measurements of nutrients in blood or
other tissues. For example, if the concentration of a nutrient is measured in serum samples under a state
of dehydration, the levels may falsely show higher concentrations of the nutrient due to dehydration (low
blood volume).
Common lab tests include:

 Blood lipids: standard test for heart disease factors

 Blood glucose: screen for diabetes, which includes conducting a fasting glucose concentration
measure and a glucose tolerance test
 Iron status: iron deficiency (anemia) is common and affects people at all stages of the life cycle.

ACTIVITY 4: CLINICAL ASSESSMENT

A clinical assessment is a visual exam done by a qualified professional (such as a physician) to identify
any signs of malnutrition. This assessment involves examining parts of the body that are easily observed
in a routine physical, hair, eyes, mouth, skin etc. Findings could include excessive body fat, bruises and
or pallor. If any of these symptoms are found, they would need to be investigated further to determine
what, if any, nutritional problem is present. This is the first non-invasive search for signs of nutrient
deficiency or toxicity.
ACTIVITY 5: ANTHROPOMETRIC ASSESSMENT
These measurements involve looking at the visible and easily measurable features of a person. This
includes measurements of the entire body (height and weight) and measurements of body parts
(circumference of head or fat fold). These measurements are used by comparing them to a population
standard or to previous measurements of the individual to determine if the person falls into the “normal”
range or has changed “significantly” since the last measurement. By normal, we are referring to the
statistical normal, where 50% of the people measured will have measurements that fall within one
standard deviation from the mean (midpoint). By significance, we are discussing how many standard
deviations away from the mean the recorded numbers fall. Luckily you do not need to determine the
mean/normal or standard deviation or any other statistical calculation when reviewing anthropometric
measurements as this has already been scientifically calculated and color-coded growth and development
charts are available for use. You only need to concern yourself with plotting your measurements
accurately on the graph and interpreting the trend.
Plot your own Growth Chart: Female, Male
Use the chart and to the best of your memory plot your BMI (the calculation of this is presented in the
growth chart) for at least five years of your life. Look at the trend. uSe the following table to evaluate your
BMI for age. (Normal BMI: 3rd  85%h percentile for ages 5-19. Average BMI: 50th percentile)

Source: Dieticians of Canada and Canadian Pedriatic Society, 2014

People above the age of 19 have generally stopped growing, and therefore rather than a chart, a simple
calculation of BMI is used and compared to a table of BMI norms using standard weight status categories
that are the same for all ages and for both men and women. This is a second difference from
measurements involving children and teens where the interpretation of BMI is both age- and sex-specific.
Before moving on to the next unit:

MODULE 4 AND 5

NUTRITION BEFORE AND DURING PREGNANCY

What do pregnant women need to know about nutrition to have a healthy outcome of
pregnancy?

MOD 4
INTRODUCTION
Nutrition is very important during pregnancy, but it is also important before the baby is even conceived.
We usually only think about the nutritional needs of potential mothers but inadequate nutrition can also
hinder a man’s chance of becoming a father. Once pregnant the female body undergoes many dramatic
changes. In fact, the changes are so extreme that in the past, doctors would attempt to reverse them by
prescribing low sodium diets to decrease fluid retention and limiting weight gain to prevent complications.
We now know that these changes occur for good reason and attempting to reverse them may cause
complications in itself. In this unit we will explore the requirements for both men and women with regard to
fertility and providing the optional nutrition for the growing fetus and mother.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 Describe the role of optimal nutrition on fertility in both males and females.
 Outline the major physiological changes during pregnancy.
 Discuss the nutritional requirements during pregnancy.
 Outline the impact of inappropriate nutrient intakes on the development of some disorders
of fetus.

HOW TO PROCEED

 Familiarize yourself with the unit objectives.

 Complete the assigned readings as outlined in the schedule.
 Take notes as necessary and complete the review questions found within the text.
 Read the synopsis material presented here and complete the activities as directed.


Diet planning is an art and a science. The science begins at the cellular level. Cells are the building
blocks of all organs and tissues in our bodies and the functions of each cell are maintained by nutrients.
In order to maintain the optimal functioning of these cells, we must consume adequate amounts of
essential nutrients in our diets. Unavailability of certain nutrients to the cells can lead to abnormal
functioning and shapes of the cells. This, in turn, can lead to functional changes, such as weakness,
irritability etc. Determining which nutrients are in short supply and how to obtain them in a way that tastes
good and is balanced is an art because there are no absolute “good” or “bad” foods or magic formulas
that work for everyone.
ACTIVITY 1: FERTILITY
Appropriate nutrient intake before and during pregnancy are needed for at least 3 reasons: Fertility,
Health of the Mother, Health of the Fetus. If there is nutrient deficiency fertility may be impaired therefore
pregnancy will not take place. If a healthy woman gets pregnant but does not get enough nutrients during
pregnancy the fetus may develop some abnormalities or a miscarriage can
occur. Alternatively, the mothers' health may suffer as the nutrients are drained from her body to support
the fetus.
A woman’s fertility is impacted by age, body weight, physical activity, nutrition and the consumption of
harmful substances. Caffeine (more than four cups of coffee a day) and alcohol (more than 6 drinks a
week) dramatically impacts a woman’s ability to become pregnant. Extreme exercise, weight
loss and inadequate body fat stores will negatively impact a woman’s fertility as does stress. Starvation
can cause a disruption to menstruation and decreased sexual interest.
Alternatively, regular consumption of Iron and antioxidants can reduce the risk of infertility in women.
Fertility in men is measured by sperm count (the number of sperm produced), the life span of the sperm
and their motility. All of these factors are impacted by age, weight, physical activity and nutrition. Alcohol
decreases both estrogen and testosterone levels and therefore has an impact on men’s fertility as does
the consumption of soy products. Increasing the consumption of Zinc improves the quality of sperm men
produce, therefore increasing fertility. Starvation also causes decreased fertility and sexual interest for
men.

Read: Chapter 1 The Fertility Diet

ACTIVITY 2: FETAL HEALTH

It is very important for pregnant women to have a healthy body weight in order to avoid the complications
that can occur from being underweight, as well as from obesity. Obesity can increase the chance of
neural tube defects. More commonly we hear of neural tube defects being caused by a deficiency in
folate, which is why folic acid supplements are often suggested before and during pregnancy. There are
many more health conditions that are attributed to inadequate nutrition in pregnancy. Excessive amounts
of vitamin A can increase the likelihood of an infant being born with facial and heart abnormalities. If the
pregnant mother is deficient in iron, the infant will have an increased chance of developing this same
deficiency early in life. Regular consumption of alcohol during pregnancy puts the infant at risk of fetal
alcohol syndrome which causes impairment of mental and physical development. Many of these
conditions are caused by deficiencies or excesses at particular stages of the pregnancy.
The stages of pregnancy

The Placenta
The Placenta is the connection point for mother and fetus, all gas and nutrient exchange occurs on the
membrane of the placenta. Nutrients are passed from the mother through the placenta, through a variety
of different processes.

Pa
lo

Fa
co

En
m

Ac

The placenta uses 30-40% of the glucose that is delivered by maternal circulation. If the supply of glucose
is low, the placenta will still take what it needs before sending glucose to the fetus. The mode of
transportation of nutrients through the placenta depends on 3 factors: the size and charge of the
molecules, the concentration of the nutrient in the blood of mother and fetus, and the lipid solubility of the
nutrient.
ACTIVITY 3: MATERNAL HEALTH
Pregnant women should gain appropriate weight during pregnancy, what is appropriate depends on pre-
pregnancy BMI.

Visit: Canadian gestational weight gain recommendations from

Health Canada

In all cases, weight gain should be steady and incremental. Married women are more likely to gain the
appropriate pregnancy weight than single women are. This can also be said about more highly educated
women and women with a higher income. Education is a critical factor for a healthy pregnancy because
women are better able to seek out the information needed to make wise decisions for their health
including during pregnancy. The race has also been indicated to be a factor when examining weight gain.
Smoking negatively impacts weight gain during pregnancy.
Inappropriate weight gain can lead to low birth weight in infants, premature births, perinatal (recently born)
mortality, gestational diabetes, miscarriage and large-sized infants. Low birth weight is associated with
chronic diseases that will appear later in the infants' life such as hypertension, heart disease and type 2
diabetes.
Other maternal changes in physiology include an increase in blood volume, increased cardiac output,
blood pressure changes, suppressed immunity and increased insulin resistance.
All of these changes are a result of changes in hormone levels. The placenta plays a large role here as
well through the production of the following hormones required during pregnancy.
Placental Hormone Production and Control

Hormone Role

Estrogen Promotes uterine and breast duct development.

Progesterone Maintains the implant and stimulates the growth of the endometrium.

Human chorionic Stimulates production of estrogen and progesterone, stimulates the growth of

gonadotropin the endometrium.

Human chorionic
Increases insulin resistance to ensure glucose availability for the fetus.
somatotropin

Leptin Regulation of appetite, weight gain etc.

Challenges to obtaining ideal nutrition

The hormone changes needed for pregnancy also have many side effects for the pregnant mother which
may make it a challenge to keep up a healthy diet. Nausea, Vomiting, Heartburn, constipation,
hypertension and gestational diabetes are common ailments that impact many women during pregnancy.
Nausea most commonly occurs between 5 and 12 weeks gestation and is so common that it is
considered to be normal. Unless nausea and vomiting are severe, these symptoms are actually
associated with a reduced risk of miscarriage by 60%. It is important for women to be aware of the herbal
remedies that should be avoided during pregnancy. Peppermint tea and ginger appear to be safe for
pregnant women and can be helpful when taken for nausea.
In order to avoid heartburn, pregnant women should eat regular small meals, avoid going to bed with a full
stomach and simply try to avoid foods that cause heartburn.
To avoid constipation, women should ensure adequate intake of fiber and fluids. Laxatives are not
recommended.
Disorders relating to hypertension are the second leading cause of maternal mortality in the US.
Unfortunately, they affect 6-10% of all pregnancies. Preeclampsia is characterized by elevated blood
pressure and proteinuria (protein in the urine). Eclampsia is characterized by the accompaniment of
seizures. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy is thought to reduce the risk of preeclampsia by
50%.