doi: 10.1111/j.1751-3928.2007.00018.x Resource Geology Vol. 57, No.

2: 219–229

Original Article

Occurrences of Ore Minerals and Fluid Inclusion Study on

the Kingking Porphyry Copper–Gold Deposit, Eastern
Mindanao, Philippines

Leilanie O. Suerte1,2, Sho Nishihara1, Akira Imai1, Koichiro Watanabe1,

Graciano P. Yumul Jr3,4 and Victor B. Maglambayan3
1Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan, 2Mines and

Geosciences Bureau Regional Office No. VI, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Iloilo City, 3National Institute of
Geological Sciences, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City and 4Department of Science and Technology,
Manila, Philippines

Abstract
The Kingking deposit is a gold-rich porphyry copper deposit and the southernmost deposit at the eastern
Mindanao mineralized belt, Philippines. It is underlain by Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary and volcanic
rocks that are intruded by mineralized Miocene diorite porphyries and by barren Miocene–Pliocene dacite and
diorite porphyries. The main alteration zones in the deposit are the inner potassic zone and the outer propyl-
itic zone. The biotite-bearing diorite and hornblende diorite porphyries are the primary host rocks of mineral-
ization. Two dominant copper minerals, bornite and chalcopyrite, which usually occur as fracture fillings, are
associated with fine crystalline quartz veinlet stockworks in the mineralized diorites. Minor secondary covel-
lite, chalcocite and digenite are also observed. The primary Cu-Fe sulfide phases initially deposited from ore
fluids consisted of bornite solid solution (bnss) and intermediate solid solution (iss), which decomposed to
form the bornite and chalcopyrite. Peculiar bornite pods that are different from dissemination and are
associated with volcanic rock xenoliths in biotite-bearing diorite porphyry are noted in a drill hole. These
pods of bornite are not associated with quartz veinlet stockworks. Fluid inclusion analyses show three types
of inclusions contained in Kingking samples: two-phase fluid-rich and vapor-rich inclusions and polyphase
hypersaline inclusions from porphyry-type quartz veinlet stockworks. The liquid–vapor homogenization
temperatures (TH) and the dissolution temperature of halite daughter crystals (TM) from the polyphase
hypersaline inclusions predominantly range from 400°C up to >500°C. The wide range of TH and TM may be
due to heterogeneous trapping of variable ratios of vapor and brine. For some inclusions, TH > TM and in some
cases, TH < TM, indicating that some of the brine was supersaturated or saturated with NaCl at the time of
entrapment. Calculated salinity of the polyphase hypersaline inclusions ranges from 40 to 60% NaCl
equivalent. Temperature and vapor pressure of mineralized fluid were estimated to be 400°C and 16 MPa.
Keywords: deposits, fluid inclusion analysis, Kingking, Philippines, porphyry copper.

Received: 22 September 2006. Accepted for publication 6 February 2007.

Corresponding author: L. O. SUERTE, Department of Earth Resources Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University,
Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan. Email: lei@mine.kyushu-u.ac.jp, losuerte@yahoo.com

© 2007 The Authors

Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology 219
L. O. Suerte et al.
1. Introduction
Porphyry copper deposits are major sources of cop-
per and gold in the Philippines. There are at least 48
significant deposits and prospects distributed in sev-
eral copper and gold belts in the archipelago (Sillitoe &
Gappe, 1984). Some porphyry copper deposits in the
Philippines such as those in Baguio district (e.g.
Lepanto-Far Southeast, Santo Tomas II) have been well
studied by numerous authors. Deposits in other min-
eralized areas in the Philippines, especially those in
eastern Mindanao, are also significant. They have been
explored and mined for several decades. However,
published data about these deposits are very rare, so
that very little information is available about porphyry
copper mineralization in these areas.
The Kingking deposit is a gold-rich porphyry cop-
per deposit located in Pantukan, Compostela Valley,
southeastern Mindanao (Fig. 1). It is part of the Eastern
Mindanao Gold Province, specifically the Agusan–
Davao Gold District, which contains numerous por-
phyry copper–gold and epithermal gold deposits and
prospects. Kingking is the southernmost deposit in this
mineralized zone. It has an optimized total mineable
ore reserve of 371 million tonnes at 0.39% Cu and 0.44
g/t Au (Benguet Corporation, 2003, 2005). The deposit
is explored and managed by Benguet Corporation.
220
At present, Kingking is still under final evaluation and
has not yet started production. Many small-scale min-
ers, however, are currently working in the area.
This paper presents data on ore minerals and fluid
inclusions from the Kingking porphyry copper–gold
deposit.
2. Tectonic setting and regional geology
The Philippine island arc is made up of an assortment
of allochthonous Mesozoic and Cenozoic volcanic
arcs, continental fragments and oceanic basins (e.g.
McCabe et al., 1985). It is located along the southwest-
ern edge of the Philippine Sea Plate. Its western side is
bounded by the South China Sea, Sulu Sea and
Celebes Sea basins, which are subducting along the
Manila–Negros–Sulu–Cotabato trenches. The Philip-
pine Sea Plate on its eastern side subducts along the
Philippine Trench. A left–lateral strike–slip fault, the
Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ) extends along the entire
length of the archipelago.
Mindanao Island lies in the southernmost part of the
Philippine island arc. Two major fault systems traverse
Mindanao Island: the Sindangan–Cotabato–Daguma
Lineament on its western side and the PFZ to the
east, which passes through the Kingking deposit.
Fig. 1 Principal tectonic features in
Mindanao Island and the location
of the Kingking deposit and other
porphyry copper deposits. Inset
map shows the Philippines.
© 2007 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology

Numerous metallic deposits are located in this island,
notably along its eastern side (Fig. 1).
The oldest rocks in eastern Mindanao, probably
formed during Late Jurassic–Cretaceous, are green-
stones and greenschists. Overlying these rocks are
ophiolites and ophiolitic rocks. These crust–mantle
sequences are, in turn, covered by a sequence of
sedimentary and volcanic rocks, such as shales, mud-
stones, sandstones, conglomerates, limestone and
basaltic and andesitic flows. These rocks are inferred
to be Cretaceous–Pleistocene in age. The sedimentary
and volcanic rocks are intruded by stock to batholith-
size diorite plutons during the Miocene–Pliocene
period (e.g. Damasco et al., 1991; Mitchell & Leach,
1991).
3. Geology of the Kingking deposit
Previous workers (Damasco et al., 1991; Benguet Cor-
poration, 2003, 2005) reported that the oldest rocks in
Kingking are the Cretaceous–Paleogene sedimentary
and volcanic rocks consisting of sandstone, siltstone,
mudstone, shale, tuff and andesite flows. These are
intruded by several types of diorite and dacite por-
phyries. The intrusive rocks are classified according
to its relationship with the mineralization in the study
area (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Lithologic map of the study area showing the spatial distribution of the rocks in Kingking. The ore boundary in the
deposit is also marked (adapted from Benguet Corporation, 2003, 2005).
© 2007 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology
Kingking porphyry copper–gold deposit
The pre-mineralization intrusive rocks consist of
the biotite diorite porphyry (BDP), the hornblende
diorite porphyry (HDP) and the diorite porphyry
(DP). The BDP is the main host for copper–gold min-
eralization, with a reported average grade of 0.37%
for copper and 1.17 g/MT for gold (Damasco et al.,
1991). Its most notable feature is the presence of
primary phenocrystic biotite, as euhedral crystals
with perfect cleavage. The HDP has average copper
and gold grade of 0.37% and 0.44 g/MT, respectively
(Damasco et al., 1991). The DP was differentiated from
the HDP on the basis of the presence of the clasts of
HDP and wall rocks observed in some drill cores. Its
average copper and gold values are 0.37% and
0.38 g/MT, respectively (Damasco et al., 1991). Three
barren intrusives were also identified in Kingking.
These are HDP2, DP2 and dacite porphyry (DaP). The
HDP2 and the DP2 are generally similar to the HDP
and the DP, respectively, except for the grain size,
alteration and the absence of sulfide mineralization in
these diorites. The DaP is made up of medium- to
coarse-grained, euhedral to subhedral plagioclase and
hornblende phenocrysts enclosed in a finer feldspathic
matrix. Intrusive or hydrothermal breccias are also
present and these contain an average copper value of
0.27% and average gold value of 0.21 g/MT (Damasco
et al., 1991).
221
L. O. Suerte et al.
4. Hydrothermal alteration
Three main alteration zones were recognized in Kingk-
ing: potassic, the propylitic and the argillic zones
(Damasco et al., 1991). Each zone is further subdivided
into different sub-zones on the basis of distinct mineral
assemblage (Fig. 3). The potassic zone is composed of
the potassium feldspar subzone (PFSZ) and the biotite
subzone (BSZ). The former is dominated by k-feldspar
and is characterized by a pinkish hue and the latter is
composed mainly of secondary biotite and sericite,
with minor chlorite, epidote, quartz and magnetite.
The propylitic zone surrounds the potassic zone. It
consists of two subzones, which grade into each other:
the inner zone, which is dominated by epidote and the
outer chlorite zone, which rarely contains epidote.
Overprinting the potassic and propylitic alteration
zones is the argillic alteration zone. The main mineral
in this alteration zone is kaolinite. Quartz is noted in
some portion.
Other alteration subzones identified in the study
area are the quartz–sericite–chlorite (QSCZ) and the
222
sericite–clay–chlorite (SCCZ) (Damasco et al., 1991)
(Fig. 3). The QSCZ encircles the BSZ and imparts a
greenish color to the rocks. It consists mostly of quartz,
sericite, and chlorite with minor pyrite, magnetite and
epidote. The SCCZ is composed primarily of sericite,
clay and chlorite.
5. Methods
Surface and subsurface samples were collected from
the Kingking deposit for petrographic and ore micro-
scopic analyses and fluid inclusion microthermometry.
For petrographic analysis, polished thin sections were
observed under the microscope to determine the tex-
ture and alteration of the samples. Opaque (ore) miner-
als were examined under the microscope with reflected
light. Doubly polished wafer specimen of quartz vein-
lets stockworks were used for fluid inclusion analyses.
In the fluid inclusion microthermometry, samples from
drilled cores (EB 7, 37, 42 and 63) taken within the
major ore zone in the potassic alteration zone and
Fig. 3 Hydrothermal alteration map of King-
king and surrounding areas indicating the
main alteration zones and subzones
(adapted from Benguet Corporation, 2003,
2005).
© 2007 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology

containing quartz stockworks were selected for
investigation. Only inclusions that follow the criteria
of Roedder (1984) for primary origin and were
large enough to permit measurement of homogeniza-
tion temperature were examined. Microthermometric
analysis was conducted on the USGS-adopted fluid
inclusion heating stage to determine the liquid–vapor
homogenization temperature (TH) and the dissolution
temperature of halite daughter minerals (TM). The
maximum temperature that could be measured by this
machine is currently placed at 500°C. To determine the
TH and the TM for polyphase hypersaline fluid inclu-
sions, the temperature of the stage was continually
raised until the vapor and the halite completely disap-
peared. All analysis was conducted at the Department
of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyushu University,
Fukuoka, Japan.
6. Results
6.1. Ore petrography and mineralogy
Megascopic and ore microscopic observation of the
Kingking samples show two dominant copper ores,
bornite and chalcopyrite (Fig. 4a, b). They usually exist
as infillings in fractures, associated with fine crys-
talline quartz veinlets in the mineralized diorites.
These two minerals occur as individual grains and
chalcopyrite–bornite intergrowths. Bornite partially
replacing chalcopyrite is observed and reported by
earlier workers (Damasco et al., 1991). Often, it
is noted that bornite and chalcopyrite are rimmed by
minor secondary copper sulfides such as chalcocite,
covellite and digenite (Fig. 4a, b).
Some minute gold grains were observed in bornite
and chalcopyrite (Fig. 4c). Also, previous workers (e.g.
Damasco et al., 1991; Benguet Corporation, 2003, 2005)
Fig. 4 Photomicrographs of ore minerals observed in EB 63 from the Tiogdan area in Kingking. (a) Bornite (bn) with
chalcocite (cc) and digenite (di) (bar, 100 ␮m), (b) bornite with chalcopyrite (cp) (bar, 10 ␮m), and (c) chalcopyrite with
gold (Au) surrounded by magnetite (mt) and hematite (hm) (bar, 10 ␮m).
© 2007 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology
Kingking porphyry copper–gold deposit
reported that some of the gold in Kingking are found
as exsolution intergrowths together with chalcopyrite
and bornite.
One notable feature observed at the Kingking
deposit is the occurrence of bornite pods that are
different from dissemination and are associated with
volcanic rock xenoliths in biotite diorite porphyry
(Fig. 5a). These pods are generally elongate in shape
and measure several centimeters across at longest
axis. This feature is similar with what was reported
from the Endeavor deposit in Northparkes, Australia
(Lickfold et al., 2003). Calaverite occurs as minute
blebs in bornite and chalcopyrite forming such pods
(Fig. 5b, c).
6.2. Fluid inclusion petrography and
microthermometry
Quartz crystals from veinlet stockworks in Kingking
contain plenty of fluid inclusions (Fig. 6). These fluid
inclusions occur in several ways: as individual particles
randomly distributed in the crystals, some are aligned
along the crystal growth zones or as clusters along
microfractures. There are three types of fluid inclusions
identified from the deposit based on the number of
phases and the liquid (L) to vapor (V) ratio: two phase
(L-V) liquid-rich inclusions, two-phase (V-L) vapor-rich
inclusions and polyphase (L-V-NaCl ± other solid phase)
hypersaline inclusions (Fig. 6). Generally, the last type is
highly visible due to its large size relative to the previous
two and to the solid phases (e.g. halite, hematite) it con-
tains. Halite crystals are larger compared to other solid
phases and have a distinct cubic shape. The hematites
are distinguished by their red color and are randomly
distributed in some inclusions. They are considered to
be accidentally trapped solid inclusions.
The sizes of the inclusions range from a few microns
to approximately 70 ␮m across. Their morphologies
223
L. O. Suerte et al.
Fig. 5 (a) Bornite pods (encircled) noted in EB 63 (approx. 63 m depth) that is not associated with quartz veinlets, (b)
photomicrograph of the bornite pods containing bornite (bn), chalcopyrite (cp) and calaverite (AuTe2) (bar, 50 ␮m), and
(c) backscattered electron image of the calaverite in a bornite pod (bar, 5 ␮m).
are also highly variable, from spherical, elongate,
ellipsoidal, and polygonal negative crystal to irregular.
All of the examined samples contain abundant large
polyphase hypersaline inclusions that permit determi-
nation of TH and TM. The gas-rich inclusions are too
small to observe, while most of the liquid-rich
inclusions are considered to be secondary. Thus, only
Fig. 6 Photomicrographs of fluid inclusions observed in
quartz crystals from the Kingking rocks. The polyphase
hypersaline inclusions consist of interstitial brine (L),
vapor (V), and daughter minerals (S1 and S2), which
are probably halite and sylvite, respectively. In con-
trast, the gas-rich inclusions are dominantly composed
of vapor. Liquid-rich inclusions are also present, but
are not clear in this field of view (bar, 20 ␮m).
224
heating experiments were conducted to obtain the TH
and the TM.
Results of the analyses show high TH and TM in the
polyphase hypersaline inclusions with a wide range of
values. Drill core EB 37 has TH from 391°C to >500°C,
and TM from 379°C to >500°C. For EB 63, TH ranges
from 409°C to >500°C, and TM from 440°C to >500°C.
In EB 42, TH is from 302°C to >500°C and TM from
300°C to >500°C. Last, EB 7 has TH from 433°C to
>500°C, TM from 411°C to >500°C (Figs 7–10). Despite
this wide distribution, it is apparent that TH and TM
are predominantly >500°C. This result is shown by all
samples, which are taken from different areas of King-
king. Moreover, this trend is displayed within each
sample, from the shallow portion to the deeper part of
the deposit.
In addition, it is noted that the polyphase hyper-
saline inclusions homogenize in two ways: halite dis-
solves at a lower temperature than that of disappearance
of the vapor bubble (TH > TM) and halite dissolves at a
higher temperature than that of the disappearance of
the vapor bubble (TH < TM). Due to the limitation of the
instrument, if both TH and TM of the inclusion is
>500°C, it was not included in the count because the
order of the disappearance of the vapor bubble and the
dissolution of the halite could not be determined. In
the sample from the shallower portion of EB 37 and
samples taken throughout the length of EB 42 and
EB 7, the first case, TH > TM, was mostly observed,
although the second case is also noted in some
© 2007 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology

Fig. 7 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH)
and the dissolution temperature of halite daughter
mineral (TM) in polyphase hypersaline inclusions from
(a, b) EB37 53.4 and (c, d) EB37 80.8.
Fig. 8 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH)
and the dissolution temperature of halite daughter
mineral (TM) in polyphase hypersaline inclusions from
(a, b) EB63 52.0, (c, d) EB63 150.8, (e, f) EB63 206.3 and
(g, h) EB63 282.0.
© 2007 The Authors
Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology
Kingking porphyry copper–gold deposit
inclusions. The sample from the deeper part of EB 37
and all samples from EB 63 show generally the second
case, TH < TM, while the first case is also noted in some
inclusions. In cases where TH < TM, the discrepancy
between TH and TM is from 1°C up to 100°C.
As previously stated, most of the inclusions contain
halite daughter minerals. Inclusions having approxi-
mately 26.5 wt% NaCl should contain a halite daugh-
ter salt at room temperature (Roedder, 1984). Thus, the
salinity of Kingking samples should be equal to or
greater than this value. Salinity was computed using
the equation from Sterner et al. (1988) for the inclusions
having TH > TM.
wt% NaCl = 26.242 + (0.4928 × Td) + (1.42 × (Td)2)
⫺ (0.223 × (Td)3) + (0.04129 × (Td)4)
⫹ (0.006295 × (Td)5) − (0.001967 × (Td)6)
⫹ (0.00011112 × (Td)7)
where Td = (TM/100). For the inclusions having
TH < TM, the salinities were calculated at the tempera-
ture of TH, assuming that the hydrothermal solution
was saturated with NaCl at the trapping tempera-
ture. The computations yielded salinities of 46.5–59.8,
48.4–59.8, 38.2–59.8 and 48.7–59.8 wt% NaCl equiva-
lent for EB 37, EB 63, EB 42 and EB 7, respectively.
7. Discussion
7.1. Homogenization temperature and
salinity of ore fluids for porphyry copper
mineralization
The early stage of porphyry copper mineralization is
largely influenced by magmatic fluids and the later stage
by meteoric water (Titley & Beane, 1981; Hemley & Hunt,
1992). Thus, fluid inclusions, which are representative of
these trapped fluids, are excellent sources of information
on the nature and evolution of solutions and the process
of ore deposition in the porphyry system.
Fluid inclusions that contain halite daughter
minerals are common in porphyry copper deposits
(Nash, 1976) and these delineate the mineralized core of
the porphyry system (Spooner, 1981). The inclusions in
Kingking samples have high TH, generally >400°C. Pre-
vious workers on the area reported a mean temperature
of 848°C for some fluid inclusion populations (Damasco
et al., 1991). Due to instrument limitation this is not con-
firmed, although most of the inclusions observed have
not homogenized below 500°C. High TH of fluid in-
clusions (>400°C) is also one of the characteristic
features of porphyry copper systems (Roedder, 1984).
225
L. O. Suerte et al.
Fig. 9 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH) and the dissolution temperature of halite daughter mineral (TM) in
polyphase hypersaline inclusions from (a, b) EB42 254.5, (c, d) EB42 314.8 and (e, f) EB42 430.7.
Fig. 10 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH)
and the dissolution temperature of halite daughter
mineral (TM) in polyphase hypersaline inclusions from
(a, b) EB7 163.8, (c, d) EB7 270.6 and (e, f) EB7 290.6.
226
The TH of inclusions are distributed above, along
and below the halite saturation curve, as illustrated in
Figure 11. In the TH versus TM diagram (Fig. 12), the in-
clusions plot above and below the diagonal line. Those
inclusions that lie above the halite saturation curve
and above the diagonal line have TH < TM. This is prob-
ably due to the entrapment of supersaturated fluid
with respect to NaCl and the capture of minute halite
crystals suspended in the fluid (Shepherd et al., 1985).
These halite crystals would serve as a nucleus and a
larger halite crystal is later developed, which would
provide misleading TM values (Calagari, 2004). The
data points lying along and below the halite saturation
curve and below the diagonal in the TH versus TM dia-
gram, in contrast, indicate trapping of saturated and
undersaturated fluids. Very high salinity values from
inclusions having TH < TM may not reflect the real sa-
linity of the fluid at the time of entrapment. There is no
significant difference between the TH and TM obtained
from the different samples in Kingking. Thus, the tem-
perature at the lower end of the TH range, around
400°C, where most of the saturated and undersatu-
rated fluids plot, may represent the actual temperature
of the mineralized fluid for the porphyry system
(Fig. 11).
The simultaneous occurrence of polyphase inclu-
sions and gas-rich inclusions is evidence for boiling
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Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology
 Kingking porphyry copper–gold deposit

due to previous heating in nature or in the labora-

tory, post-entrapment necking, and real variation in
entrapment temperatures of immiscible fluids (Loucks,
2000). In the Kingking deposit, the wide range
of data points is attributed to the heterogeneous
entrapment of gaseous vapor and hypersaline brine
at different ratios.
Vapor pressures of hydrothermal fluids are esti-
mated to be 5–30 MPa for all inclusions (Fig. 11). The TH
versus pressure diagram (Fig. 13) indicates that for in-
clusions with TH > TM, pressure approximates 16–
30 MPa. For TH < TM, if the lower end of the TH (around
400°C) is assumed to be the real temperature of the
Fig. 11 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH)
vs salinity diagram displaying the spread of TH with
respect to the NaCl saturation and critical points and
the vapor pressures of the NaCl solution at indicated
temperatures and salinity (Ahmad & Rose, 1980; Roed-
der, 1984). Also shown are typical trends in TH–salinity
space due to various fluid inclusion processes
(Shepherd et al., 1985; Wilkinson, 2001).

Fig. 12 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH)

vs dissolution temperature of NaCl daughter mineral
(TM), where TH < TM and TH > TM. The diagonal line
where TH = TM is from Shepherd et al. (1985).

(Weisbrod, 1981). A wide range of TH and TM is also

apparent from the data set, with a difference of 60–
121°C within individual inclusions (Figs 7–10). This
trend is also noted in other porphyry copper deposits
such as Far Southeast and Dizon in the Phillipines and
Batu Hijau deposit in Indonesia (Imai, 2000, 2005; Imai
& Ohno, 2005). There are many causes for variable TH:
isothermal entrapment of variable proportion of im-
miscible fluids, heterogeneous entrapment, analytical
imprecision, inelastic stretching of the inclusion cavity
Fig. 13 Liquid–vapor homogenization temperature (TH)
vs pressure for polyphase hypersaline inclusions with
different TH and melting temperatures (TM) through
the system NaCl-H2O (Roedder & Bodnar, 1980). (Line
a), inclusions where TH < TM, (line b), TH = TM, (line c),
TH > TM (Keevil, 1942; Sourirajan & Kennedy, 1962;
Urusova, 1975; Haas, 1976). The isochors for experi-
mentally determined (liquid + halite)/liquid for salin-
ity >46 wt% is from Gunter et al. (1983). The lower end
of the TH for inclusions with TH < TM is marked with a
dark gray rectangle.

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Journal compilation © 2007 The Society of Resource Geology 227
L. O. Suerte et al.
mineralized fluid, then the pressure is estimated to
be 16 MPa.
7.2. Primary ore minerals
Porphyry copper deposits typically consist of sulfides
disseminated in the intrusive rocks and located in vein-
lets. In Philippine porphyry copper deposits (e.g. Santo
Tomas II, Dizon, Tampakan), Cu-Fe sulfides such as
chalcopyrite and bornite are the most principal ore
minerals (Imai, 2001, 2005; Middleton et al., 2004). This
is also observed in Kingking, wherein copper ores are
composed predominantly of bornite and chalcopyrite
and bornite–chalcopyrite intergrowths. Based on fluid
inclusion data, the temperature of the mineralizing
fluid is inferred to be around or higher than 400°C. In
the Cu-Fe-S system at 100–600°C, the central portion
has a large solid solution field at high temperatures
that decomposes to distinct phases at lower tempera-
tures (Cabri, 1973). Phase equilibria at approximately
ⱖ400°C are dominated by the presence of three solid
solutions: (i) bornite solid solution (bnss); (ii) the inter-
mediate solid solution (iss); and (iii) the pyrrhotite (po)
solid solution (Cabri, 1973; Craig & Scott, 1974). Born-
ite exhibits extensive solid solution within the Cu-Fe-S
system; the solid solution with the digenite phase is
not present above approximately 335°C, and the com-
position of the high-temperature phase expands to-
ward chalcopyrite (Craig & Scott, 1974). Chalcopyrite,
meanwhile, appears as a stable phase below 557°C.
Natural intergrowths of chalcopyrite and bornite likely
form as decomposition products of initially deposited
iss. Thus, bnss and iss are most probably the primary
phases. The coexistence of chalcopyrite or iss with bnss
as primary phases in the Cu-Fe-S system means that
the bnss is at the Fe-rich portion of the bnss field. In this
Cu-poor state, chalcocite and digenite cannot form
by exsolution process (Imai & Ohno, 2005) and are
therefore considered to be secondary minerals. Sta-
ble copper sulfide phases at a low temperature in-
clude covellite, chalcocite and digenite ( Craig &
Scott, 1974; Potter, 1977 ), which repre sent some
of the secondary copper minerals in the Kingking
deposit.
8. Conclusions
The primary ore minerals of the Kingking porphyry
copper–gold deposit consists of bnss + iss, which later
decomposed to form the principal bornite and chalco-
228
pyrite ores. Fluid inclusion studies of quartz veinlet
stockworks from Kingking drilled cores reveal a typi-
cal porphyry copper system dominated by polyphase
hypersaline inclusions with high and wide-ranging
vapor and halite homogenization temperatures. This is
attributed to the heterogeneous trapping of variable
proportion of vapor and brine. Temperature and
pressure of the mineralized fluid is approximately
400°C and 16 MPa.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to the following persons and
institutions for all the help and support during field-
work at Kingking and surrounding areas and in pro-
cessing the samples: Benguet Corporation; Mines and
Geosciences Bureau Central Office, and Regional
Offices No. VI and XI; National Institute of Geological
Sciences; Economic Geology Laboratory of the Depart-
ment of Earth Resources Engineering, Kyushu Univer-
sity; the people, local government units and miners
association in Kingking and surrounding areas.
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