Introduction

Formation Evaluation

Wathik Mohammed Alhashimi, P.Eng.

GOALS OF FORMATION EVALUATION

⚫ To evaluate the presence or absence of commercial

quantities of hydrocarbons in formations penetrated by, or
lying near, the wellbore.
⚫ To determine the static and dynamic characteristics of
productive reservoirs.
⚫ To detect small quantities of hydrocarbon which
nevertheless may be very significant from an exploration
standpoint.
⚫ To provide a comparison of an interval in one well to the
correlative interval in another well
Methods
⚫ Mud logging
⚫ Coring
⚫ Wireline Logging
⚫ Testing
⚫ Sampling
Mud Log

⚫ Immediate interpretation of what the drill bit has

penetrated and whether there are any hydrocarbons
present (a show).
⚫ Making maps of the subsurface geology.
Coring - Conventional
⚫ Taking a core requires that the regular
drill bit be removed from the hole. It is
replaced with a "core bit", which is
capable of grinding out and retrieving the
heavy cylinder of rock.

⚫ The core bit is usually coated with small,

sharp diamonds that can grind through
the hardest rock. A core bit cuts very
slowly.

⚫ A core is a solid cylinder of rock about 4-

5 inches in diameter, and a single core
will usually be about 30 feet long.
Coring - Conventional

Whole Core Slab Core

Coring - Sidewall
⚫ This method is cheaper than the
conventional coring.

⚫ Cores can be taken in hours, instead

of days.

⚫ In sidewall coring, a slim wireline

coring tool is run into the hole. The
tool may be of two general types;
either "rotary sidewall" or
"percussion".

⚫ Typically, cores about 1" in diameter

and 1" to 2" long can be retrieved
with this method.
Coring - Sidewall
Coring - Sidewall
INTRODUCTION - WHAT
IS LOGGING?

⚫ In situ meas. (vs. depth) of

⚫ Rock properties
⚫ Fluid properties
⚫ When
⚫ Openhole (before casing) Casing
⚫ While drilling (LWD / MWD)

⚫ After drilling (wireline)

⚫ Cased hole
⚫ Interpretation for
⚫ Geological properties Open hole
⚫ Petrophysical properties
⚫ Production properties
VALUE AND LIMITATIONS OF WELL
LOG DATA

Strengths
• Provides remotely sensed values of reservoir properties and
fluids
• Among the most abundant reservoir data
• Presentation results fairly well standardized
• Allows evaluation of lateral (map) and vertical (cross
section) changes in reservoir properties
and fluids

• Limitations
• Indirect measurements
• Vertical resolution
• Depth of investigation
OPEN HOLE LOGGING
MEASUREMENTS
⚫ Passive
⚫ Caliper
⚫ Gamma Ray
⚫ Spontaneous Potential
(SP)
⚫ Active
⚫ Acoustic

LOGGING TOOL
- tc, ts, Ac, As

⚫ Nuclear

- b, N, Pe, 1, 2

⚫ Electromagnetic
- R, tPL, EATT
CASED HOLE LOGGING
MEASUREMENTS
⚫ Passive
⚫ Gamma Ray

⚫ Temperature

⚫ Flow Velocity

⚫ Caliper

⚫ Active
⚫ Acoustic

⚫ Nuclear

⚫ Electromagnetic

⚫ Mechanical
SOME QUESTIONS ADDRESSED BY
LOG INTERPRETATION
⚫ Geophysicist / Geologist
⚫ Are the tops as predicted?
⚫ Are potential zones porous?
⚫ Formation intervals?
⚫ Lithology?
⚫ Hydrocarbons?
⚫ What type of hydrocarbons?
⚫ Commercial quantities?
⚫ Reservoir Engineer
⚫ How thick is the pay zone?
⚫ How homogeneous is the
zone?
⚫ Porosity?
⚫ Permeability?
⚫ Production Engineer
⚫ Which zone(s) to complete?
⚫ What production rates?
⚫ Any water production?
⚫ Is zone hydraulically
isolated?
⚫ Will well need stimulation?
⚫ What stimulation would be
best?
WHAT DOES AN OPEN HOLE LOG COST?
IT DEPENDS ON...
⚫ Well type
⚫ Vertical/Deviated
⚫ Deep/Shallow
⚫ Hot/Normal
⚫ Measurements
⚫ Depth charge
⚫ Survey charge
⚫ Time / location / special procedures
⚫ Land/offshore
⚫ Service charge
⚫ Equipment availability
⚫ Rig time
⚫ Wireline/LWD
TYPICAL OPEN HOLE WIRELINE
COSTS

Land Offshore
Service Charge $1-3K $6-10K

Depth Charge 30-50¢ 50-100¢

(per msmt-foot)

Survey Charge 30-50¢ 50-100¢

$12-25K/day jack-up
Rig Time $4K/day $100K+/day floater
LOGGING IS COMPARITIVELY
INEXPENSIVE!
Vertical Land Well Costs

Misc.
Mud
7%
Trouble 20%
15%

Wireline
Logging
8% Rig Time
25%
Steel
25%

Total cost to drill a well: $75 to $200 per foot!

WIRELINE
LOGGING
EQUIPMENT
DETAILS OF WIRELINE LOGGING RIGUP

Modified from Halliburton (EL-1007)

LOGGING CABLE
LOG PRESENTATION - THE
HEADING
⚫ Well location
⚫ Depth references
⚫ Date of log
⚫ Well depth
⚫ Casing shoe depth
⚫ Bit size
⚫ Mud data
Type
⚫
⚫ Properties
⚫ Resistivities

⚫ Max. Temperature
LOG PRESENTATION -
LINEAR GRID
Depth
Track 1 track Track 2 Track 3
LOG PRESENTATION - LOG GRID
Track 1 Depth Track 2 Track 3
track

n n+4
2x10 2x10
LOG PRESENTATION - HYBRID GRID
Depth
Track 1 track Track 2 Track 3

n
2x10

n+2
2x10
LOG PRESENTATION - COMMON
DEPTH SCALES
⚫ Correlation
⚫ 1:500 or 1:1000
⚫ 2 in. (1:600) or 1 in. (1:1200)
⚫ Heavy lines every 100 ft. or
50m
⚫ Light lines each 10ft or 5m
⚫ Routine
⚫ 1:200 or 1:240 (5 in)
⚫ Heavy lines every 50 ft. or 5 m
⚫ Medium lines each 10 ft. or 5 m
⚫ Light lines each 2 ft or 1 m
CHOOSING A LOGGING TOOL
It is necessary to choose the right tool to get the
desired measurement.
Considerations:
⚫ Type of well ( wildcat or development )
⚫ Hole conditions ( depth, deviation, hole size, mud
type )
Examples:
⚫ Oil based mud : Induction tool
⚫ Water based salty mud : Laterolog Tool
⚫ Formation fluid content (fresh/salt connate water)
⚫ Economics (cost of the job, rig time involved)
TYPES OF LOGS TO BE RUN
⚫ Logging suites generally include one resistivity and
one porosity device
⚫ The logging string will also have other tools like the
gamma ray, SP and caliper tools
⚫ However, logging suites usually have two porosity
devices to give more information about rock type,
hydrocarbon type and porosity
⚫ Other considerations – to estimate permeability or
to take fluid samples – require other special tools
like the formation testers
NOMENCLATURE FOR ZONES IN
AND AROUND THE BOREHOLE

Modified from Halliburton (EL-1007)

TOOL CALIBRATIONS
⚫ A logging tool collects data that are converted to
porosity, resistivity, and other values

⚫ Each tool is calibrated to an industry standard

⚫ This ensures that each tool, irrespective of the type

of tool or tool history or service company, reads the
same value when logging the same formation
(normalization may still be required between log)

⚫ Check tool calibrations before and after a logging

job to ensure good quality log data
LOG QUALITY CONTROL
⚫ Check all calibrations before and after job
⚫ Record a repeat section of about 200 ft to ensure
validity of data and to explain abnormal curve
response
⚫ Compare log response with offset well logs
⚫ Keep hole conditions (hole size, mud type, tool
centralization) in mind when interpreting log data
⚫ Ensure that logging speeds are as recommended
by the service company.
DRILLING DISTURBS FORMATION

• Drilling and rock crushing

✓ Damage zone
• Mud systems and invasion
✓ Oil based mud
Mudcake
➢Small conductivity mud Damaged zone
➢Shallow invasion
➢Thin cake
✓ Water based mud
➢Moderate to very conductive Invading filtrate
mud
➢Shallow to deep invasion
➢Thin to thick cake
MUD FILTRATE INVASION
Uninvaded
Zone
(Rt)
Invaded
Zone (Rxo)

Wellbore
Mud
(Rm)

Uninvaded Mud Cake

Zone (Rmc)
(Rt)

Modified from J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes

 COMMON TERMINOLOGY

Borehole
Rm : Borehole mud resistivity
Rmc : Mudcake resistivity
Invaded zone
Rmf : Mud filtrate resistivity
Rxo : Invaded zone resistivity
Sxo : Invaded zone water saturation
Uninvaded zone
Rw : Interstitial water resistivity
Rt : Uninvaded zone resistivity
Sw : Uninvaded zone water saturation
PASSIVE MEASUREMENTS

⚫ Caliper
⚫ Spontaneous Potential
⚫ Gamma Ray
⚫ Natural
⚫ Spectral
CALIPERS
⚫ Uses
⚫ Hole volume
⚫ Mudcake (permeability)
⚫ Tool corrections
⚫ Crude lithology indicator
⚫ Properties
⚫ two, three, or four arms
⚫ linked or independent
⚫ Calipers may disagree
(limitations)
⚫ non-circular hole
⚫ deviated wells
 THE SP TOOL

• One electrode
SHALE
• Insulators on
either side
• Surface ground
SAND electrode – at a
stable potential

SHALE
 TYPICAL SP RESPONSES

REVERSED SP
5
(+)
4
– BASED ON THE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
Rw and Rmf.
3
1. Rmf >> Rw - Amplitude large and
negative
2 2. Rmf > Rw - Amplitude negative
but not large
NORMAL SP

3. Rmf = Rw - No SP deflection
(-)
4. Rmf < Rw - Amplitude positive but
1 not large
5. Rmf << Rw - Amplitude large and
positive
GAMMA RAY LOGS
⚫ Uses Rock Formations
⚫ Correlation
⚫ Lithology indicator; exploration
for radioactive materials
⚫ Evaluation of shale content
⚫ Paleoenvironmental indicator
Open or cased hole; any fluids

GR Tool
⚫

⚫ Fracture detection
⚫ Properties
⚫ Measures natural gamma
radiation
⚫ random fluctuations
GR RESPONSE IN COMMON
FORMATIONS 0 50 100 API units
Shaly sand
⚫ Shales often radioactive
Shale
⚫ Clays
⚫ Trace and heavy minerals Very shaly sand

⚫ Sandstones may be radio- Clean limestone

active
⚫ Non-clay minerals, e.g., mica, Dolomite
feldspar Shale
⚫ Clays Clean sand
⚫ Units
Coal
⚫ GR calibrated to standard
Shaly sand
⚫ Response in “mid-continent Anhydrite
shale” equals 200 API units
⚫ Calibration pits Salt
Volcanic ash
Gypsum
PASSIVE LOG
CORRELATION
⚫ GR, SP, and CAL
⚫ often correlate
⚫ different
measurements
⚫ different reasons
⚫ Correlation helps
⚫ GR instead of SP in
OBM
⚫ Easier detection of
shales
⚫ Facilitates “zonation”
POROSITY TOOLS

⚫ Sonic (acoustic)
⚫ Density
⚫ Neutron
SONIC PRINCIPLE
Ray, 2002
FAMILY OF NUCLEAR TOOLS

Particle GR Neutrons

Emitted
Source Natural GR Emitted GR
Neutrons

Shaliness Porosity
Application Porosity
Correlation Density
Lithology

Gas
Oil
GR tools Density tools Neutron tool
 DENSITY & POROSITY MEASUREMENTS
COMPENSATED DENSITY LOG

• Uses
– Density
– Porosity
– Lithology
• Curves
e D b c
– Bulk density
(b and )
– Pe

From Halliburton (EL – 1007)

 DENSITY PRINCIPLE

⚫ Detect GR’s from the source which have been

scattered back by the formation
Formation Low Density
Windows
Hydraulic
Stabilizer
sonde Cesium
Skid Source

Caliper
arm Detectors
Gamma rays Tungsten
Near Detector Bore Liner
Gamma ray Tungsten Far Detector
emitting source Shield
 PRINCIPLE

⚫ Gamma rays emitted from radioactive source

⚫ Gamma rays collide with electrons in formation,

losing energy

⚫ Detectors measure intensity of backscattered

gamma rays

⚫ High energy GR relate to - Density

⚫ Low energy GR relate to - Lithology

NEUTRON LOGS
Uses of neutron logs
• Identify porous zones
• Determine porosity
• Identify gas in porous zones

Where neutron logs can be used

• Any borehole
• Open or cased
• Liquid- or air-filled

Depth of investigation
• 6-12 inches for CN
 NEUTRON MEASUREMENT
b

N
⚫ Uses Pe
• Lithology
Porosity
⚫ Curve N
NEUTRON TOOL
PRINCIPLE
• Source AmBe 15-20Cu 5MeV

⚫ Detects neutrons from the

source which have been
scattered back by the formation
•The neutron tool
employs a dual
detector design to
compensate for
mudcake, lithology,
etc.
•Still, corrections are
required for the NPHI
values
•NOTE : The tool is
pressed against the
borehole wall to
minimize mud effects
LIFE OF A NEUTRON - 1

⚫ Neutrons emitted from source

⚫ Neutrons interact with Hydrogen in formation
⚫ Neutrons loose energy
⚫ Neutrons are absorbed or reflected back to
detectors
⚫ High counts = Low porosity
⚫ Low counts = High porosity
LIFE OF A NEUTRON - 2

⚫ Source AmBe 15-20Cu

5MeV neutrons
⚫ Collisions cause
neutrons to lose energy
⚫ Energy loss due mainly
to hydrogen
⚫ Therefore tool measures
amount of hydrogen in
formation, ie., water, oil
 NEUTRON SCATTERING

Energy transfer to the nucleus is a maximum if the

collision is head-on and the nucleus has the same
mass as the neutron. The only atom that has the same
mass as a neutron is hydrogen.
Thermal Neutrons

⚫ The neutron tool responds primarily to the

presence of hydrogen
⚫ The more hydrogen, more neutrons
slowed to the thermal level and captured
by the formation
⚫ Other minerals also have a small effect
on the neutron tool, which requires
compensation
 RESISTIVITY
Resistivity

• The voltage required to cause one amp to pass

through a cube having a face area of one
square meter

• Units are ohm-m 2 / m; usually ohm-m (.m)

1
Resistivity =
Conductivity
RESISTIVITY – DEFINITION OF THE
OHM-METER

From Halliburton (EL 1007)

RESISTIVITY OF EARTH MATERIALS

1
Resistivity =
Conductivity

Conductivity
Increasing
(1) Rock
(2) Gas
Resistivity
Increasing

(3) Oil
(4) Fresh Water
(5) Salt Water
FACTOR AFFECTING RESISTIVITY

• Resistivity of water
• Porosity of the formation,
• Pore geometry - tortuosity
• Lithology of the formation
• Degree of cementation, and
• Type and amount of clay in the rock

From J. Jensen, PETE 321 Lecture Notes

 Rock containing pores saturated
with water and hydrocarbons

Non-shaly rock, 100% saturated

with water having resistivity,
Rw

Rt Cube of water
= 20% having resistivity,
Sw = 20% Rw
Ro
= 20%
Sw = 100%

Rw
= 100%
Sw = 100%
(1) Rock
Conductivity
Increasing
Increasing
Resistivity

(2) Gas
(3) Oil
a
(4) Fresh Water F = Ro =
(5) Salt Water Rw m