11
85 degrees and 4 minutes -
Time and temperature
control feed hygiene
By Dick Ziggers
According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), fa-
miliar food-borne diseases, such as salmonella, are on the
rise as a result of their increasing resistance to antibiotics.
The first step in preventing the spread of these diseases
is a substantial increase in microbiological standards ap-
plicable to all feed products. "There is every reason for
creating quality assurance systems, such as the HACCP
(Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) or good man-
agement systems", said Ms Paulsen, Swedish MEP when
reporting to the European Committee.
However, the Committee believes the only way of min-
imising contamination at the end of the food chain is to
exclude too highly contaminated feed materials at the
start. From there, one can start of thinking about additional
measures, such as decontamination technologies. In feed,
they mainly focus on killing salmonellas. Once these are
destroyed or inactivated, it can be assumed that other
harmful bacteria did not survive the same treatment.
Salmonella presence
Salmonella in feed primarily originates from one source,
which is the multiplication of the bacteria in processing
equipment. Table 1 shows a survey of the presence of Sal-
monella in different parts of the feedmill. The real risk for
salmonella in feed is often found in the surrounding en-
vironment, where the few germs might be multiplied mil-
lion-fold in the processing plant at critical moisture and
temperature conditions. But this risk can also be reduced
to a low and acceptable level, since several processing pro-
cedures for preventive decontamination in the routine
manufacturing of livestock, pet- and fish feeds are avail-
able.
Acids
The European Union provides a directive (70/524/EG) for
the application of chemicals in animal feed. This direc-
tive describes all technical (chemical) additives, which can
be used in preparing feed for animals. In chapter G the di-
rective describes the use of preserving chemicals. Formic
Feed Tech Volume 5, Number 6
With all the food scares in the media, feed hygiene is quite
a hot topic in the compound feed industry. At Victam,
several developments in this area will be shown. When it
comes to mechanical cleaning, time and temperature and a
little moisture are the key words for creating a clean feed.
How do these two simple factors relate to hygienising
feed?
acid no.E240 formaldehyde (CH2O), for example is al-
lowed in a single case only.
Pig feed, for pigs up to a maximum age of six months,
can be treated with formaldehyde. All other compound an-
imal feeds cannot be treated with formaldehyde. However,
single feed ingredients, which can be used to prepare a for-
mulation compound feed, are in reality treated with
formaldehyde in a number of cases. This practice led to
many complaints and struggles in the EU between groups
in favour (raw material dealer lobby) and groups against
(consumer related lobby). Formaldehyde in some con-
centration is suspected for triggering various types of
cancer in humans.
Other bio-acid additives like E236 ant acid (CH2O2), and
E280 propionic acid (C3H6O2) are allowed in
all animal feeds and are indeed commonly ap-
plied. Table 1 - Incidence of
Salmonella at different
The European Union by directive 70/524/EG
sampling locations
does not allow a claim for pathogen elimina-
(Shrimpton, 1989)
tion for the mentioned additives in animal
feed. For such a claim, a different type of leg- Location Incidence (%)
islation comes into power. In spite of that, re- Cereal grain 3
duction of salmonella presence is experienced By-products 4
by the application of chemical additives. But Animal protein 67
without heat, microorganisms have the abili- Batch mixer 69
Pellet conditioner 32
ty to adapt to acid and tolerate it, according to
Pellet die 4
Daniel Fung, professor in Kansas State Uni-
Pellet cooler 7
versity’s animal sciences and industry depart-
Finished feed 13
ment. Truck 13
An advantage for chemical approaches Farm 19
against salmonella in feed, is perceived to be
12
the safety against reconta-
Table 2 - Effect of pelleting temperature on mination of clean feed dur-
the number of Enterobacteriaceae in
ing transport. The disad-
pelleted feeds (Veldman et al., 1995)
vantage for chemical ap-
Temper- # Samples Entero- Salmonella proaches are the high cost
ature (°C) bacteriaceae (# positive) per tonne produced feed, ex-
(log10 cfu/g) isting equipment can suffer
< 60 18 3.3 1 strongly from the acids, and
60 – 65 17 3.4 1 animal feed consumption
65 – 70 33 3.0 0
can go down due to acid
70 – 75 44 2.5 1
feed flavour and limited ef-
75 – 80 34 1.7 0
fectiveness.
> 80 24 1.1 0
Another option to elimi-
nate salmonella is to vacci-
nate, but this is costly and re-
quires additional labour at
the farm. Radiation of ani-
mal products is also for the
time being not an option due
to public perception towards
the use of radioactive treat-
ments.
Because of the above
overview many groups in
Europe feel that the ap-
proach for salmonella con-
trol needs to be diverse.
Heat treatment
Pelleting, extrusion and oth-
er forms of heat treatment
can reduce the risks of mi-
crobial infestations, includ-
ing Salmonella, in complete
feeds. Several studies have
focused on the pelleting con-
The Stolz conditioner is quite difficult to operate. ditions that result in the
elimination of Salmonella.
Results of two studies are summarised in Tables 2 and 3.
The reduction of Salmonella in pelleted feed is dependent
on the time of heat exposure, the temperature obtained,
and the moisture content of the feed at pelleting. However,
pelleting systems starting from a cold start are seldom ef-
fective in controlling bacteria. The initial feeds pelleted
at the start of a run, particularly after the pellet mill has
been down for a day or two, are unlikely to see the con-
ditions needed to destroy Salmonella. The problem can
be addressed by diverting the initial feed pelleted at start-
up back to the pellet mill supply bin and re-pelleting.
This would reduce the risk of pellet cooler contamination
Feed Tech Volume 5, Number 6
and, if properly implemented, would serve as a "critical
control point" in a HACCP program.
Recent developments
There have been several recent developments in equip-
ment that influenced our ability to thermally treat feeds.
The expander was introduced in Europe about two decades
ago with the idea of improving pellet quality. Addition-
al attributes include increased production (pelleting) rate
and improved animal performance. The process subjects
the feed to temperatures and pressures well in excess of
those possible in atmospheric pressure conditioning.
While these conditions (130°C and 40 bar) seem extreme,
the duration of exposure is relatively short (4 to 6 seconds).
The conditions in the expander increase the likelihood of
effective heat destruction of bacteria in the feed. The lev-
el of Salmonella post expansion decreases with each in-
crease in die temperature. Passing the expandate through
a pellet die following expanding does not result in further
reduction in Salmonella organisms. This indicates that ex-
panding destroys all heat-liable micro-organisms but not
heat stable organisms.
Expanded feed beneficial to animal
In short we can say the expander belongs to the family of
equipment that is designed to put a lot of mechanical en-
ergy into the produced feed (approximately 10-18Kwh/T).
Product particles in these machines are subject to a shear-
ing and kneading action during a relative short period of
approximately 4-15 seconds (depending on actual through-
put). These results into a significant product temperature
increase (2°C per kWh/Ton) to a total meal temperature
between 110 and 125°C and a plastification of the feed.
Danish research in pigs by Jorgensen et al. (1999)
showed the largest population of bacteria was found in
meal feed followed by partly heated-treated feed. Pigs fed
finely ground feed had a significantly higher salmonella
prevalence compared to pigs fed coarsely ground feed. The
use of pelleted feed resulted in a higher prevalence of sal-
monella positive pigs compared to pigs fed non-pelleted
feed. No significant difference was found on the occur-
rence of salmonella when using different degrees of heat-
treatment of the grain part.
The test showed that the feed processing affects the mi-
crobial eco-system in the pig’s gastro-intestinal tract, the
Salmonella prevalence and the production results. The feed
mixes that reduced the Salmonella prevalence and/or had
a positive effect on the microbial eco-system affected the
production results negatively. The microbial eco-system
in the pig’s GI-tract was better in pigs given meal feed,
 13

whereas the finely ground pellets affects the microbial eco- to the conditioning chamber until it passes through the pel-
system negatively. The expanded feed resulted in the best let die. While the pressures possible in the machine are
microbial eco-system within the mixes that were heat-treat- not extreme (about 0.5 bar max), the elevated
ed and/or pelleted. pressure makes temperatures in excess of 100°C
possible. This should result in the destruction
Hydrothermal treatment of all heat labile microbes and does result in su-
There have been recent developments in the area of hy- perior pellet quality and improved electrical
drothermal processing that may play a role in, not only efficiency.
feed quality improvement, but in heat treatment for mi- French company Stolz Sequipac developed a
crobial control as well. The first device is widely known conditioner that injects steam into a double-
as a compactor (by PTN). This machine is essentially a barrelled mixer. The system is demands quite
replacement for the pellet conditioner. However, in addition a bit of energy (40 kW), and has four steam in-
to the conditioning chamber, the device has a set of rollers jectors. The processing temperature is around
and two v-shaped rings that work together with the rolls 95°C and five to six percent steam is added. Due
to force the feed under high pressure through a narrow to many moving parts maintenance and wear is With the pressurised conditioner of
opening between the rings. Since the compactor operates relatively high. The two revolving augers assure Pelleting Concepts International, a
at atmospheric pressure, temperatures beyond 100°C are good quality mixing, but first in first out can- process temperature of above 100°C can
not possible, however, operating near that temperature is not be fully guaranteed. The risk of condensa- be achieved, enough to kill salmonella.
routine. Although no references were found concerning
the effectiveness of a compactor for microbial control, it
should be capable of destruction well beyond normal
conditioning.
The pellet mill under the pre-compactor and expander
will shape the expanded feed into a pellet using a signif-
icantly reduced energy level. The available vitamins and
proteins in the feed suffer significantly from the high
process temperatures. Especially in poultry feed the ex-
panded feed is held responsible for bird health problems,
also resulting in dirty eggshells (chicken diarrhoea). In
places where the pre-compactors and expanders are in-
stalled, the dirty eggshell phenomena reduce the popularity
of these machines significantly.
The pre-compactor-expander has the advantage of in-
creasing the pellet quality at high fat formulations. Still An expander is a good device in controlling salmonella, but requires a lot of energy.
this system is not ideal in all circumstances, because
• there is a loss in vitamins and proteins due to high tem-
Table 3 - Effect of time, temperature and moisture on the
peratures (110-125°C) destruction of Salmonella enteritidis in animal feed
• t requires high energy consumption (between 10 - 18 (Reimann, 1996)
kWh/Ton).
• the operational costs are high because of wearing items Temper- Time Percent reduction at different moisture levels
(screw flights, stop bolts, barrel liners) ature (°F) (seconds) 5% moisture 10% moisture 15% moisture
• the maintenance costs are high because of the sensitivity 160 20 68.22 83.44 90.06
of the design for tramp steel. 40 73.50 86.35 97.43

• the system is relative difficult to control and handle for 80 83.57 90.80 99.70
170 20 87.36 92.36 98.24
operators. De-blocking compactors can be a very time
40 80.93 96.91 98.91
consuming.
80 91.61 93.49 99.73
Another device being developed for hygienic feed pel-
180 20 79.92 98.09 99.80
leting is the pressurised pellet mill (Pelleting Concepts In- 40 89.14 99.02 99.99
ternational). The design is unique in that the mash can be 80 91.62 99.12 99.98
conditioned under elevated pressure from its entrance in-

Feed Tech Volume 5, Number 6

14
tion is there and retention time is depending on capacity
(throughput).
Name of process is no guarantee
Hydrothermal processing, with or without additional me-
chanical processing treatments, includes strategies such
as:
• long term conditioning, ripening kettle;
• sterilisation by increased retention time and temperature
(SIRT), high capacity but only possible to include in new
operations, due to the space required;
• heat shield / double conditioning;
• anaerobic pasteurisation conditioning (APC);
• agglomeration by compaction (BOA Compactor);
• expander processing;
• extruder processing
• hygieniser, etc.
In discussing processing effects, however, it is not easy
to simply state, that some form of technology or some spec-
ified supplier process has a defined effect on decontam-
ination. However it may be, every
student is still learning that ‘the
name of a process is no guaran-
tee for the ultimate product qual-
ity’. A clear direction of the effect
will be known but the extent of
all effects are determined by the
process’ variables to be used.
‘Conditioning’ - for example -
is a blanket name for a process
that delivers material to the next
The CPM superconditioner/hygieniser under process step in good condition
construction. and can thus be referred to e.g.
Inside view of the hygieniser. It has a double wall that is heated by steam to avoid condensation.
Feed Tech Volume 5, Number 6
sieving or marketing but can indicate all steps that have
to be taken (from raw material unloading till the beak of
the chicken) to guarantee a salmonella-‘free’ feed intake.
Superconditioner
Because of the mentioned disadvantages of the expander,
and other systems CPM recently introduced the super-
conditioner type "Hygieniser" to replace the pre-com-
pactors-expanders. This hygieniser is developed to pro-
vide a hygienic conditioning treatment for feed, based on
a thermal process.
To comply with a hygienic process, a certain tempera-
ture is needed as well as a certain retention time. Next to
that, a first-in, first-out strategy has to be followed. The
system needs to be clean and recontamination should be
avoided.
The needed temperatures and retention times, to come
to a certain salmonella elimination factor, are determined
by Dr. Pasteur and established in graphs (Figure 1). Used
retention times vary case by case, but are commonly be-
tween 2-4 minutes and usually between 83-85°C. Opti-
mum temperature and retention time for killing salmonella
is found at four minutes and 85°C. The demanded tem-
perature can be reached by adding steam in the pre-con-
ditioner. With the hygieniser, the mash is given a certain
retention time independent from the throughput, while the
product flow is absolute first in first out.
The hygieniser comes in two sizes: one for two minutes
retention time at 15 MT/H, and one for two minutes re-
tention time at 30 MT/H. The retention times are fully con-
trollable, so if one chooses for example for four minutes
retention time the maximum capacity will be 7.5 MT/H
on the smaller and 15 MT/H on the bigger model.
The steam jacket keeps the system clean and is pre-heat-
ing it. Also there is no product temperature loss during the
retention time (Tin=85°C = Tout). The effects of these char-
acteristics are that the moisture added by steam in the mix-
er is perfectly by the product particles and thus and opti-
mum gelatinisation takes place of the available starch
and proteins in the feed.
Insulation of the hot parts of the process equipment and
filtering of the cooler air, as well as a newly developed
feed handling management prevents the treated product
from recontamination. The long retention time combined
with the first-in first-out product flow results in an opti-
mum pasteurisation of the feed, preserving the available
vitamins. As a result, the birds stay healthy, dirty eggshells
do not occur and an optimum safety against salmonella
infection by feedstuffs is realised. The advantages of the
CPM Hygieniser can be summarised as follows:
 15

• Preservation of available vitamins after heat treatment

Figure 1 - Time versus temperature for 100,000:1 salmonella kill
conditioning
rate @ 15% moisture (Reimann, 1995)
• Optimum pasteurisation process kills entero-bacteria in
the feed resulting in healthier poultry stock.
• Optimum hydration and therefore gelatinisation of
available starch in product formulation for improved feed
conversion rates.
• Optimum pellet mill performance due to higher moist
addition allowance by steam (up to 5%) resulting in im-
proved pellet quality and long service life of dies.
• Very low energy consumption (2.2 kW Hygieniser
drive)

Treating of mash by batch

The first-in, first-out principle is more difficult to achieve
when using a continuous flow system. This problem dis-
appears when a batch system is used. A disadvantage of
a batch system is the relatively small capacity. Norwegian
company Forberg recently introduced their steam mixer,
which overcomes capacity problems. The mixer can
process capacities of up to 50 MT/H in a batch operation.
The process is a combination of Forberg’s mixer/condi-
tioner together with their dryer system. According to their
findings the system operates very cost effectively and re-
quires a minimum of space compared to traditional ani-
mal feed sterilising equipment. The first Forberg condi-
tioner was sold to a company in Germany, which required
a complete hygienic feedmill last March. ●

Feed Tech Volume 5, Number 6