6resource 131602210601 53

Viva
BOOK 8
Answer Key
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Answer Key
1. Matter
Take a Break! (Page 3)
1. Solids
2. kinetic energy
3. interparticle forces of attraction; interparticle spaces
4. Kinetic molecular theory
5. negligible

1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True

1. law of conservation of mass
2. density; volume; constant
3. the same
4. reactants; products
5. magnesium oxide
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. solid; liquid; gas
2. interparticle spaces
3. interparticle forces of attraction
4. the same
B. 1. Liquids have fixed shape and volume. (Solids)
2. The particles of matter possess potential energy. (kinetic)
3. The particles of matter in solids are far from each other. (gases)
4. Magnesium chloride is formed on burning magnesium in air. (oxide)
C. 1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b)
Short and Precise
A. 1. Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
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2. Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter
Solid Liquid Gas
The particles of matter are The particles of matter in The particles of matter in gases
closely packed to each other liquids are less closely packed are far from each other.
in solids. to each other as compared to
solids and more closely packed
in comparison to gases.
The particles are arranged in a The molecules in liquids are The particles in gases are not
well-defined order and remain comparatively free to move. arranged in a fixed order and
fixed at their positions. They move from one position keep moving randomly in the
to another within the liquid. available space.
The interparticle forces of The kinetic energy of particles The kinetic energy of the
attraction between the is not sufficient to overcome particles is sufficient to
particles are so strong that the the attractive forces. overcome the interparticle
kinetic energy of the particles forces of attraction thus
is not enough to break the enabling the particles to move
forces. away from each other.
B. 1. The particles are closely packed in solids because the interparticle forces of attraction
between the particles are so strong that the kinetic energy of the particles is not
enough to break the forces.
2. The particles of matter in liquids are less closely packed to each other as compared
to solids because the molecules in liquids are comparatively free to move as the
intermolecular force of attraction between the molecules is less than solids but the
kinetic energy of particles is not sufficient to overcome the attractive forces.
3. The particles are far away from each other in gases because the kinetic energy of the
particles is sufficient to overcome the interparticle forces of attraction thus enabling
the particles to move away from each other.
4. The mass in a chemical reaction remains constant because the naturally occuring
elements are stable. The atom is also neither created nor destroyed. The substances
may show change in size, shape, kinetic energy and other properties during a physical
change but the total mass of the substances remain the same.
5. Liquids evaporate on heating because the molecules in liquids are comparatively free
to move and addition of a small amount of energy can make the particles move away
from each other and thus converting the liquid into vapours.
C. 1. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter exists in three states:
solid, liquid and gas.
2. The kinetic molecular theory of matter states that matter consists of very tiny particles
that are constantly in motion and possess kinetic energy. There exist interparticle
forces of attraction between the particles of matter and the distance between the
particles of matter is called interparticle space. A change in phase may occur when the
energy of the particle is changed.
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3. Two properties of solids are as follows.
• Solids consist of closely packed molecules that vibrate at their own positions. They
have fixed shape and volume.
• The volume of solid depends upon the size of the particles.
4. The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
The density of matter and the volume occupied by the matter may vary within a system
but mass remains constant.
5. On mixing 10 g ice with 100 g water, the resulting mixture formed after some time will
be water but the mass of that water will be 10 g + 100 g = 110 g.
At Length
A. 1.
Solids Liquids Gases
• Solids consist of • Liquids consist of closely • A gas consists of a large
closely packed packed particles which number of particles
molecules that vibrate are in random motion moving in a random
at their own positions. and maintain the direction. The distance
volume. between the particles is
larger as compared to
solids and liquids.
• The volume of solid • The volume of the liquid • Since the particles
depends upon the depends on the size of are small, the volume
size of the particles. the particles. This in turn occupied by them is
affects the properties of small compared to the
a liquid. total volume.
• They possess strong • The decrease in the • These particles neither
intermolecular forces. motion of the molecules attract nor repel each
Also, due to negligible of liquids allows the other. The particles in
movement of particles interparticle forces to act gases are not arranged
in solids, they lack which significantly affect in a fixed order and keep
kinetic energy. the properties of a liquid. moving randomly in the
available space.
• They have fixed shape • Liquids have fixed • The particles in gases are
and volume. volume and take up the not arranged in a fixed
shape of the container. order and keep moving
randomly in the available
space.
• The average kinetic • The average kinetic • The average kinetic
energy of particles is energy of particles is energy of the particles is
directly proportional directly proportional to directly proportional to
to the temperature of the temperature of the the temperature of the
the solid. liquid. gas.
2. Interparticle Forces of Attraction Interparticle Spaces
These are the forces of attraction that It is the distance between particles of
exist between particles of states of matter states of matter
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3. Conservation of Mass During a Conservation of Mass During a
Physical Change Chemical Change
The substances may show change in The total mass during a chemical
size, shape, kinetic energy and other change or chemical reaction remains
properties during a physical change but constant. In other words, mass of an
the total mass of the substances remains element at the start of a chemical
the same. reaction will be equal to the mass of
the element at the end of the chemical
reaction. There occurs a rearrangement
of atoms in the reactants to form
products. These molecules break apart
and new ones combine together to
form the products but the atoms in
the products formed are the same as
the ones present in the reactants thus
conserving the total mass.
B. The law of construction (conservation) of mass states that mass cannot (can neither)
be created but (nor) destroyed. The density of matter and the volume occupied by the
matter remain constant (may vary) within a system but the mass may vary (remains
constant). The law of conservation of mass does not hold (holds validity) because the
naturally occurring elements are not stable when found on the Earth’s surface. Atoms
can be (are not) converted to other elements during chemical reactions. The atom itself
can be (is also neither) created or (nor) destroyed.
C. 1. Following are the postulates of the kinetic molecular theory of matter.
• Matter consists of a large number of tiny particles which could be atoms or
molecules.
• The particles of matter are separated by interparticle spaces.
• The particles of matter are always in constant motion due to the heat energy and
hence pass kinetic energy.
• The particles are in random motion resulting in collision with other particles of
same matter and also with the particles of any other matter they come in contact
with. As a result of collision of particles, the exchange of energy occurs between the
colliding particles.
2. The particles of matter in gases are far from each other. Therefore, the interparticle
forces of attraction are negligible in gases. The particles in gases are not arranged in a
fixed order and keep moving randomly in the available space. The kinetic energy of the
particles is sufficient to overcome the interparticle forces of attraction thus enabling
the particles to move away from each other.
3. When wood is burnt in air, ash is formed. The mass of the burnt wood is not equal to
the mass of the residual ash formed. In this case, we compare the total masses before
and after the change.
Total mass of wood + Mass of oxygen taken from the air (Total mass of matter before
burning) = Mass of the residual ash + Mass of other gases such as CO2, NO2, CO and
water vapour (Total mass of matter after burning)
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4. Activity 1.2 given on page 8 in the textbook shows that mass remains same during a
physical change.
5. Activity 1.3 given on page 8 in the textbook shows that mass remains same during a
chemical change.
6. Activity 1.4 given on page 9 in the textbook shows that total mass of reactants is equal
to the total mass of products in a chemical reaction between barium chloride and
sodium sulphate.
Observe and Perform

A. 1. Tightly packed: Solid Closely packed: Liquid Loosely packed: Gas
2. (a) On the basis of intermolecular space: gas > liquid > solid.
(b) On the bases of intermolecular force of attraction: solid > liquid > gas.
B. 1. The image represents “Conservation of mass”. The law of conservation of mass states
that mass can neither be created nor destroyed. The image shows that the total mass
during a chemical change or chemical reaction remains constant.
2. When wood is burnt in air, ash is formed. The mass of the burnt wood is not equal to
the mass of the residual ash formed.
3. In this case, we compare the total masses before and after the change.
Total mass of wood + Mass of oxygen taken from the air (Total mass of matter before
burning) = Mass of the residual ash + Mass of other gases such as CO2, NO2, CO and
water vapour (Total mass of matter after burning)
Apply Your Learning

A. The state of the substance is solid.
B. Air among the given substances has the minimum interparticle forces of attraction.
C. The particles of gases are in constant motion. These particles consist of very low
intermolecular forces between them. The kinetic energy present in a gas is much more
than the intermolecular forces present between the particles of gases. This causes the
gas to spread easily and faster.
Life Skills
Students are expected to do on their own.
Integrate Your Learning

Projects and Activities

Review Your Learning

A. 1. Bed; Table 2. Milk; Juice 3. Oxygen; Carbon dioxide
4. Law of conservation of mass
B. 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True
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C. 1. The forces of attraction that exist between particles of matter are called interparticle
forces.
2. Interparticle space is the distance between particles of matter.
3. Kinetic molecular theory of matter states that matter consists of very tiny particles that
are constantly in motion and possess kinetic energy.
4. Law of conservation of mass: The law that states that mass can neither be created nor
destroyed.
D. 1.
Solids Liquids Gases
solids and liquids.
size of the particles. the particles. This in turn occupied by them is
• They possess strong • The decrease in the • These particles neither
intermolecular forces. motion of the molecules attract nor repel each
Also, due to negligible of liquids allows the other. The particles in
movement of particles interparticle forces to act gases are not arranged
in solids, they lack which significantly affect in a fixed order and keep
kinetic energy. the properties of a liquid. moving randomly in the
available space.
space.
2. Following are the postulates of the kinetic molecular theory of matter.

molecules.
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• The particles of matter are always in motion due to the heat energy and hence pass
kinetic energy.
3. To understand how the mass of a substance changes during a physical change
and chemical change we need to see the law of conservation of mass. The law of
conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
The substances may show change in size, shape, kinetic energy and other properties
during a physical change but the total mass of the substances remains the same.
One the other hand, the total mass during a chemical change or chemical reaction
remains constant. In other words, mass of the reactant at the start of chemical reaction
will be equal to the mass of the product at the end of the chemical reaction. There
occurs a rearrangement of atoms in the reactants to form products.
These molecules break apart and new ones combine together to form the products,
but the atoms in the products formed are same as the ones present in the reactants,
thereby conserving the total mass.
4. Activity 1.3 given on page 8 in the textbook shows that mass remains constant during
a chemical change or a chemical reaction.
Project
Students are expected to do this exercise on their own.
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2. Physical and Chemical Changes
1. False 2. True 3. natural changes
4. fast 5. natural
1. True 2. False 3. True
7. True 8. True
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. change 2. Reversible changes 3. undesirable changes
4. physical 5. energy 6. fermentation
B. 1. Bursting of balloon is a reversible change. (an irreversible)
2. Revolution of the earth is a man-made change. (natural)
3. Glowing of an electric bulb is a chemical change. (physical)
4. Rusting of iron is a physical change. (chemical)
5. Condensation is a process by which a substance changes from the solid state to the
liquid state on heating. (Melting)
6. Fermentation of dough is a chemical change which is man-made and undesirable.
(desirable)
C. Changes Examples
Reversible changes Melting of ice; folding of paper
Irreversible changes Bursting a balloon; curdling of milk
Periodic changes Rising of the sun; changing of seasons
Non-periodic changes Natural calamities; wilting of plants
Desirable changes Cooking of food; burning of fuel
Undesirable changes Rusting of iron; cutting of trees
Slow changes Growth of plants; Curdling of milk
Fast changes Burning of paper; breaking of glass
Natural changes Rotation of the earth; Growth of living things
Man-made changes Manufacturing of products; Deforestation
Physical changes Boiling of water; Melting of ice cream
Chemical changes Fermentation of dough; digestion of food
D. 1. (c) 2. (f ) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (d)
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Short and Precise
A. 1. Changes
Reversible Periodic Desirable Slow Natural Physical

and and and and and and
Irreversible Non-periodic Undesirable Fast Man-made Chemical
2. Changes
Physical Change Chemical Change
A chemical change is permanent and

A physical change is temporary and reversible.
irreversible.
The composition of the substance does not change. The composition of a substance changes.
One or more new substances with new sets of

No new substance is formed.
properties are formed.
No gain or loss of energy takes place in a physical

change. The energy needed to bring about a There is an exchange of energy.
physical change is equal to the energy needed to
reverse the change.
Digestion of food, rusting of iron, and cooking
Dissolving, evaporation and freezing are a few of food are a few examples
examples.
B. 1. No change of mass occurs during a physical change because the substance undergoing
a physical change remains the same. No matter is added or removed.
2. Breaking of a plate is considered to be a physical change because a plate forms many
pieces when it breaks. Each broken piece of the plate is still glass and there is no new
substance formed. Hence, the breaking of a plate is considered to be a physical change.
3. Drying of wet clothes is a physical change as evaporation of water takes place when
wet clothes dry. The water in the clothes changes to its vapour state on absorbing heat
from the surroundings. Therefore, drying of wet clothes is a physical change.
4. Digestion of food is a chemical change because the food undergoes many chemical
changes during the process of digestion. Complex molecules in food, such as
proteins, carbohydrates, fats, etc., breakdown into simpler molecules having different
structures. The original molecules cannot be obtained again from these molecules.
Hence, digestion of food is a chemical change.
5. Boiling is a process by which a substance changes from the liquid state to the gaseous
state when heated to its boiling point. Boiling of water is man-made, fast, reversible
and desirable. Thus, it is a physical change.
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6. Fermentation is a chemical change because fermentation is a process by which a
substance is broken down by the action of microorganisms with the release of heat
and carbon dioxide.
C. 1. Physical changes: Melting of ice; boiling of milk
Chemical changes: Rusting of iron; baking of chapattis
2. Bursting of balloon is an irreversible change because once the balloon is burst, we
cannot get back the original substance by reversing the action.
3. Both melting and freezing are physical changes. Freezing is a process by which a
substance changes from the liquid state to the solid state on cooling whereas melting
is a process by which a substance changes from the solid state to the liquid state on
heating.
4. During a chemical change, two substances react chemically to form new substances.
In chemical changes, the molecules of original substances undergo change to form
the molecules of products, i.e., substances undergo chemical transformation to form
new substances.
5. Burning of paper: The paper burns immediately when brought near the flame of a
burner. The burnt paper or ash cannot be changed to the original paper.
Fermentation: Fermentation is a process by which a substance is broken down by the
action of microorganisms with the release of heat and carbon dioxide.
6. Melting of ice, boiling of water, photosynthesis and evaporation are some changes
which absorb energy.
At Length
A. 1. Reversible Changes Irreversible Changes

• Changes in which we can get back • Changes in which we cannot get
the original substance by reversing back the original substance by
the action are called reversible reversing the action are called
changes. irreversible changes.
• Melting of ice and freezing of water, • Bursting of balloon, cutting of paper
change in shape and size of a balloon and baking of chapatti from dough
on blowing air in it, adding sugar are irreversible changes.
to water and separating sugar from
water by heating, and folding and
unfolding of paper are reversible
changes.
2. Periodic Changes Non-periodic Changes

• Changes that occur after a regular • Changes that do not occur after a
interval of time are called periodic regular interval of time, i.e., they
changes. occur irregularly are called non-
periodic changes.
• Rising and setting of the sun, • Precipitation, earthquake and wilting
changing of seasons and phases of a plant are some examples of non-
of the moon are all examples of periodic changes.
periodic changes.
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3. Desirable Changes Undesirable Changes
• Changes that are beneficial to us are • Changes that are not beneficial to us
called desirable changes. are called undesirable changes.
• Ripening of fruits, burning of fuels to • Occurrence of earthquakes, and
run automobiles and cooking of food floods, rusting of iron, and spoilage
are desirable changes. of food are undesirable changes.
4. Slow Changes Fast Changes
• Changes that take place over a period • Changes that occur very quickly are
of time are called slow changes. called fast changes.
These changes may take hours, days,
months or even years to occur.
• Boiling of an egg, curdling of milk, • Burning of paper and breaking of
growth of plants and animals, glass are fast changes.
changing of day into night and
rusting of iron are slow changes.
5. Natural Changes Man-made Changes
• Changes that occur naturally on their • Changes that occur due to human
own, i.e., without any human effort effort or activity are called man-made
are called natural changes. changes.
• Rotation and revolution of the earth, • Cooking of food, and manufacturing
change of day into night, and formation of clothes and furniture are man-
of coal and petroleum occur naturally, made changes.
and hence are natural changes.
6.
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
• Changes in which only the physical • Changes in which two substances
properties of a substance change react chemically to form new
without any change in its composition substances with different properties
are known as physical changes. are called chemical changes.
• During physical changes, no new • In chemical changes, the molecules
substances are formed and such of original substances undergo
changes are generally reversible in change to form the molecules of
nature. products, i.e., substances undergo
chemical transformation to form
new substances. They are generally
irreversible in nature.
• No gain or loss of energy takes place • There is an exchange of energy
in a physical change. The energy during a chemical change.
needed to bring about a physical
change is equal to the energy
needed to reverse the change.
• Dissolving, evaporation and freezing • Digestion of food, rusting of iron,
are a few examples. cooking of food are a few examples.
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7. Condensation Sublimation
Condensation is a process by which a Sublimation is a process by which a
substance changes from the gaseous substance changes directly from the
state to the liquid state on cooling. The solid state to the gaseous state without
water vapour condense to form clouds. forming the liquid state.
B. Physical change like freezing of water absorbs (releases) energy in the form of heat.
This is because when water freezes into ice, i.e., water changes its state from solid to
liquid (liquid to solid), the intermolecular force of attraction decreases (increases)
thus decreasing the intermolecular distance. This is possible only when heat energy is
absorbed (released) by the liquid or gas. Physical (Chemical) changes like combustion
and digestion of food also involve absorption (release) of energy.
C. 1. Following are the characteristics of a physical change.
• A physical change is temporary and reversible.
• The composition of the substance does not change during a physical change.
• No new substance is formed during a physical change.
• During a physical change, only physical properties like size, shape, colour and state
of the substance change.
• No gain or loss of energy takes place in a physical change. The energy needed to
bring about a physical change is equal to the energy needed to reverse the change.
• No change of mass occurs during a physical change. This is because the substance
undergoing a physical change remains the same. No matter is added or removed.
2. Few examples of physical change are as follows.
• Breaking of a glass plate: A glass plate forms many pieces when it breaks. Each
broken piece of the glass plate is still glass and there is no new substance formed.
Hence, the breaking of a glass plate is considered to be a physical change.
• Drying of wet clothes: Evaporation of water takes place when wet clothes dry.
The water in the clothes changes to its vapour state on absorbing heat from the
surroundings. Therefore, drying of wet clothes is a physical change.
• Melting of ice: It involves a change from solid state of water to liquid state. There
is no change in the properties of the substance and no new substance is formed.
Hence, melting of ice is a physical change.
3. The Activity 2.4 given on page 20 in the textbook shows that melting of ice is a physical
change.
4. Following are the characteristics of a chemical change.
• A chemical change is permanent and irreversible.
• The composition of a substance changes during a chemical change.
• One or more new substances with new sets of properties are formed during a
chemical change.
• There is an exchange of energy during a chemical change.
5. Rusting of iron: A piece of iron when left out in moist air comes in contact with oxygen
to produce a dull brittle brown substance called rust. This process of formation of rust
on the iron surface is called rusting of iron. The rust formed has different properties
from those of iron and it cannot be converted back to iron by simple physical methods.
Hence, rusting of iron is a chemical change.
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Burning of paper: The paper burns immediately when brought near the flame of a
burner. The burnt paper (ash) cannot be changed to the original paper. Therefore,
burning of paper is a chemical change.
6. Most of the changes involve energy changes. Energy, usually in the form of heat, is
either released or absorbed during such changes.
Changes in which energy is absorbed: Melting of ice, boiling of water and evaporation
are some changes which absorb heat. This is because when a change of state occurs
from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, the intermolecular force of attraction decreases
resulting in an increase in the intermolecular distance. This is possible only when heat
energy is absorbed by the solid or liquid. Some chemical changes like photosynthesis
absorb energy in the form of sunlight.
Changes in which energy is released: Physical change like freezing of water releases
energy in the form of heat. This is because when water freezes into ice, i.e., water
changes its state from liquid to solid, the intermolecular force of attraction increases,
released by the liquid or gas. Chemical changes like combustion and digestion of food
also involve release of energy.
Observe and Perform
A. 1. cotton plug
solid camphor
camphor
Bunsen
burner
Sublimation
2. Sublimation of camphor is shown in the image.
3. Physical change is shown in the image.
B. • Breaking of glass is a physical change as the glass forms many pieces when it breaks.
Each broken piece of the glass is still glass and there is no new substance formed. It is
also an irreversible and a fast change.
• Baking a chapatti is an irreversible change as once the chapatti is made from the
dough it cannot be changed back into flour. It is also a chemical change because when
we take some dough of flour, roll a chapatti out of it and bake it on a griddle, we will
observe that the rolled chapatti changes into a baked chapatti. Now, it is not possible
to get back the dough of flour. This shows that baking a chapatti is a chemical change.
• Melting of ice involves a change from solid state of water to liquid state. There is no
change in the properties of the substance and no new substance is formed. Hence,
melting of ice is a physical change.
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Rusting of iron a piece of iron when left out in moist air comes in contact with oxygen
•
to produce a dull brittle brown substance called rust. This process of formation of rust
on the iron surface is called rusting of iron. The rust formed has different properties
from those of iron and it cannot be converted back to iron by simple physical methods.
Hence, rusting of iron is a chemical change.
Apply Your Learning

A. Day changing into night Changing of seasons Digestion of food
Curdling of milk Burning of fuels Cooking of food
Fermentation Ripening of fruits A seedling growing into a plant
B. Physical change like freezing of water releases energy in the form of heat.
Physical change like boiling of water absorbs energy in the form of heat.
C. When milk changes into curd, it cannot be changed back to milk. This shows that
curdling of milk is a chemical change.
Life Skills

A. 1. Reversible change
2. Earthquake
3. Spoilage of food
4. Freezing and melting of water
5. Rusting of iron
B. 1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. False
C. 1. Changes that occur very quickly are called fast changes.
2. Changes that occur naturally on their own, i.e., without any human effort are called
natural changes.
3. A process by which a substance changes from the liquid state to the gaseous state at a
temperature below the boiling point is called evaporation.
4. A process by which a substance changes from the gaseous state to the liquid state on
cooling is called condensation.
5. A process by which a substance changes directly from the solid state to the gaseous
state without changing into the liquid state is called sublimation.
6. A process by which iron objects when left exposed to moist air develop a brown flaky
layer of hydrated iron oxide on their surface is called rusting.
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D. 1. Reversible Changes Irreversible Changes
and change in shape and size of and baking of chapatti from dough
a balloon on blowing air in it are are irreversible changes.
reversible changes.
2. Physical changes are changes in which only the physical properties of a substance
change without any change in its composition.
Following are the characteristics of a physical change.
Breaking of a glass and drying of wet clothes are examples of physical changes.
3. Evaporation Boiling
• Evaporation is a process by which • Boiling is a process by which a
a substance changes from the substance changes from the liquid
liquid state to the gaseous state at a state to the gaseous state when
temperature below the boiling point. heated to its boiling point.
• The evaporation of water is a physical • Boiling of water is a physical change
change which is slow, natural, which is man-made, fast, reversible
desirable and reversible. and desirable.
4. Sublimation is a process by which a substance changes directly from the solid state to
the gaseous state without forming the liquid state.
Sublimation of ammonium chloride: We take a small quantity of ammonium chloride
in an evaporating dish and place an inverted glass funnel over it. We close the opening
of the funnel using cotton wool. Now we heat the dish over the flame of a burner. We
will observe that white fumes of ammonium chloride rise in the funnel which change
back to solid ammonium chloride and settle along the cooler parts of the process.
5. Changes in which two substances react chemically to form new substances with
different properties are called chemical changes. They are generally irreversible in
nature. In chemical changes, the molecules of original substances undergo change to
form the molecules of products, i.e., substances undergo chemical transformation to
form new substances.
16
Following are the characteristics of a chemical change.
chemical change.
Cooking of food and burning of paper are examples of a chemical change.
6. • Changes in which energy is absorbed: Physical changes may involve change of
energy. Melting of ice, boiling of water and evaporation are some changes which
absorb heat. This is because when a change of state occurs from solid to liquid
or liquid to gas, the intermolecular force of attraction decreases resulting in an
increase in the intermolecular distance. This is possible only when heat energy is
absorbed by the solid or liquid. Some chemical changes like photosynthesis absorb
energy in the form of sunlight.
• Changes in which energy is released: Physical change like freezing of water
releases energy in the form of heat. This is because when water freezes into ice, i.e.,
water changes its state from liquid to solid, the intermolecular force of attraction
increases thus decreasing the intermolecular distance. This is possible only when
heat energy is released by the liquid or gas. Chemical changes like combustion and
digestion of food also involve release of energy.
Project
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3. Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
1. pure substances; mixtures 2. element 3. Noble gases
4. uniform 5. simple physical methods
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True
1. sieving 2. Winnowing 3. solvent extraction
4. fractional crystallization 5. sediments 6. residue
1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False
6. True 7. True 8. False
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. elements, compounds 2. Metalloids 3. emulsion
4. Magnetic separation 5. sedimentation and decantation
6. froth floatation
B. 1. (c) 2. (e) 3. (a) 4. (f ) 5. (b) 6. (d)
C. 1.
Mixture Separation Technique
Small stones from sand at a construction site Sieving
Small stones mixed with rice Handpicking
Sand and water Sedimentation and decantation
Bits of paper and pulses Winnowing
Sodium chloride and calcium carbonate Solvent extraction
Iron filings and sulphur Magnetic separation
Sawdust and water Filtration
D. 1. A compound can be broken down into its constituent elements by physical methods.
(chemical reaction)
2. A salt solution is a heterogeneous solution. (homogeneous mixture)
3. Chalk in water is an example of emulsion. (Oil)
4. Nichrome is an alloy of iron and carbon. (Stainless steel)
5. A mixture of common salt and potassium nitrate can be separated by solvent
extraction. (fractional crystallization)
6. We can separate butter from milk by filtration. (centrifugation)
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E. Separation Technique Uses
1. Sieving • Removes small stones from sand at construction sites
• Separates impurities from flour
2. Magnetic • Separates a mixture of iron filings and sulphur
separation • Separates a mixture of iron and sand
3. Filtration • Separates tea from tea leaves
• Separates clay and water
4. Evaporation • Obtains salt from water
• Separates copper sulphate crystals from copper sulphate
solution
5. Centrifugation • Separates butter from milk
• Used in laboratories to separate blood cells from plasma
6. Fractional • Separates crude oil into various useful components such
distillation as kerosene, gasoline, diesel, paraffin wax, liberating oil
and other fuels
• Separates pure gases from mixture of gases
Short and Precise
A. 1. Matter
Pure Substances Mixtures
Elements Compounds
2.
Separation Techniques
Handpicking Sieving Winnowing Magnetic Gravitation Solvent Fractional

Separation Extraction Crystallization
Sedimentation Evaporation Froth Chromatography

and Floatation
Decantation Distillation Separating
Funnel
Filtration Crystallization Sublimation Centrifugation Fractional

Distillation
19
3. Types of Mixtures
Solid-solid mixture Solid-gas mixture Liquid-liquid mixture Gas-gas mixture

(solid mixed with a (solid mixed with (liquid mixed with a (gas mixed with a
solid) a gas) liquid) gas)
Solid-liquid mixture Alloy (a metal with Liquid-gas mixture

(solid mixed with a another metal or a (liquid mixed with
liquid) non-metal) a gas)
B. 1. A mixture has no definite composition as the constituents of a mixture are not present
in a fixed ratio.
2. The constituents of a mixture can be separated by simple physical methods because
there is no chemical reaction taking place between the constituents of a mixture and
hence the forces of attraction holding the constituents are weak.
3. A few iron nails sunk in the sand can be separated using a magnet because only iron
nails get attracted to magnet and hence can be separated from the iron mixture easily.
4. We can separate a mixture of sand and water by sedimentation and decantation as
sand being heavier settles down and water is decanted into a separate container.
C. 1. A substance that has a fixed composition and fixed chemical properties is called a pure
substance. Elements and compounds are pure substances.
A pure substance has the following characteristics.
• A pure substance has a definite composition. For example, a molecule of carbon
dioxide consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen. We cannot have
a molecule of carbon dioxide that consists of a different number of carbon and
oxygen atoms other than this.
• A pure substance has definite melting and boiling points. It has a characteristic
taste, colour or smell.
2. A type of mixture in which a component is not dissolved completely into another
component is called a suspension. The undissolved particles remain unequally
distributed throughout the mixture and settle down when the mixture is left
undisturbed for some time. Chalk in water and dust in air are examples of suspensions.
3. The examples of the following types of mixtures:
(a) Solid-liquid mixture: Clay mixed with water
(b) Solid-gas mixture: Smoke which contains soot or unburnt particles and gas
(c) Liquid-liquid mixture: Alcohol mixed with water
(d) Gas-gas mixture: Air containing different gases
4. The separation of mixtures becomes essential due to the following reasons.
• To obtain a useful component
• To obtain a pure sample of a substance and to enhance purity of a substance
• To remove harmful and undesirable impurities.
5. The method in which components of a mixture can be separated by picking them with
one’s hand is called handpicking.
20
6. The method of separating components of a mixture using wind or moving air is called
winnowing. The mixture contained in a basket is allowed to fall from a height. The
heavier component falls almost straight downwards and the lighter component is
blown away which forms a separate heap at a distance.
7. The principle of centrifugation is that the heavier particles experience larger centrifugal
force as compared to the lighter particles.
8. Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of miscible liquids.
At Length
A. 1. Pure Substances Mixtures

• A substance that has a fixed • A mixture consists of two or more
composition and fixed chemical pure substances such as elements,
properties is called a pure substance. compounds or both that retain their
individual properties.
• A pure substance has a definite • A mixture has no definite
composition. composition.
• A pure substance has definite • A mixture has no fixed melting and
melting and boiling points. boiling points.
2.
Elements Compounds
• An element is a substance that • A compound is a substance
cannot be broken down into simpler composed of two or more elements
substances. chemically combined in a definite
proportion by mass.
• An atom is defined as the smallest • The formation of a compound occurs
possible unit of an element. when atoms or molecules of different
elements combine.
3. Homogeneous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures

• A mixture in which the constituents • A mixture in which the constituents
are uniformly distributed throughout are distributed non-uniformly is
is called a homogeneous mixture. called a heterogeneous mixture.
• The constituents of these mixtures • The constituents of these mixtures
are not clearly visible and cannot be are clearly visible and can be
identified individually. identified individually.
• A salt solution, a glucose solution, • A mixture of iron filings and
and an alloy of iron and carbon are sulphur powder, a mixture of oil
examples of homogeneous mixtures. and water, and a mixture of chalk
powder in water are examples of
heterogeneous mixtures.
21
4. Sieving Magnetic Separation
• The method in which the • The process used to separate a
components of a mixture are mixture which has one of the
separated using a sieve is called components made up of iron is
sieving. called magnetic separation.
• The principle of the technique is the • In this process, the component
difference in size of the components made up of iron gets attracted to the
of a mixture. When we place a magnet and hence can be separated
mixture on a sieve and shake it, the easily.
component with smaller size falls
down through the holes of the sieve,
whereas the component with larger
size remains on the sieve.
• A sieve is used to remove small • This method can be used to separate
stones from sand at construction a mixture of iron filings and sulphur,
sites. a mixture of iron and sand, and other
such mixtures consisting of iron as a
component.
5. Gravitation Solvent Extraction
• The process used for separating a • The process used to separate
mixture when one of the components components of a mixture based
of a mixture is much heavier than on their relative solubility is called
water and the other component of solvent extraction.
the mixture is much lighter than water
is called gravitation.
• We can use gravitation to separate • We can separate a mixture of sodium
a mixture of sand and sawdust by chloride and calcium carbonate
putting them into water in a beaker. using solvent extraction.
6. Filtration Distillation
The process by which insoluble solid The process of separating a liquid from
particles can be separated from a a soluble component by selective
liquid by allowing the mixture to pass evaporation and condensation is
through a filter is called filtration. called distillation.
B. A separating funnel is a device made up of steel (glass) with a tap called stopclock
(stopcock). The stopclock (stopcock) is attached to the top (bottom) of the funnel and
controls the flow of the liquid. The separating funnel is used to separate a mixture of
miscible (immiscible) liquids, i.e., an emulsion. The principle behind the separation of the
liquids is that the heavier (lighter) liquid floats above the lighter (heavier) liquid.
• The mixture to be separated is put into a beaker (separating funnel) and is allowed
to settle.
• After some time, the liquids mix with each other (form separate layers one above
the other).
22
• The liquid forming the upper (lower) layer is collected on opening the stopclock
(stopcock).
• The stopclock (stopcock) is opened (closed) once the liquid is collected in the
separating funnel (container).
• The liquid forming the lower (upper) layer is collected in another container in the
same way.
This method is used to separate a mixture of oil and water.
C. 1. Characteristics of mixtures are as follows.
• A mixture has no definite composition. The constituents of a mixture are not present
in a fixed ratio.
• The constituents of a mixture can be separated by simple physical methods. This is
because there is no chemical reaction taking place between the constituents of a
mixture and hence the forces of attraction holding the constituents are weak.
• The original properties of constituents of a mixture are retained.
• A mixture has no fixed melting and boiling points.
• A mixture has no fixed physical and chemical properties.
• There is no energy absorbed or released during the formation of a mixture.
2. Different mixtures can be formed on combining different states of matter. The
following table shows the different types of mixtures.
Types of Mixtures Examples
• Solid-solid mixture (solid mixed • Soil containing clay, silt and sand
with a solid)
• Solid-liquid mixture (solid • Clay mixed with water: Clay particles are
mixed with a liquid) suspended in water and form a mixture
called suspension.
• A solution is formed if the solid dissolves.
• Solid-gas mixture (solid mixed • Smoke containing minute dust particles
with a gas) suspended in gases
• Liquid-liquid mixture (liquid • Alcohol mixed with water
mixed with a liquid)
• Liquid-gas mixture (liquid • Mist containing tiny droplets of water mixed
mixed with a gas) with air
• A suspension of liquid droplets in a gas
called aerosol
• Carbon dioxide mixed in water in soft drinks
• Gas-gas mixture (gas mixed • Air containing different gases
with a gas)
• Alloy (a metal with another • Stainless steel: An alloy of iron and carbon
metal or non-metal)
3. Activity 3.1 given on page 37 in the textbook discusses the separation of components
of a mixture by sieving.
4. Activity 3.2 given on page 37 in the textbook discusses how to separate the components
of a mixture by winnowing.
23
5. Fractional crystallization is the process used to separate components of a mixture
when the solubility of solid components varies in the same solvent. We can separate
a mixture of common salt and potassium nitrate by fractional crystallization. Both the
components are soluble in water but the solubility of potassium nitrate is more as
compared to the solubility of sodium chloride in hot water. On cooling the solution
containing the mixture, potassium nitrate crystallises and sodium chloride is left
behind.
6. Evaporation Sublimation
• The process by which a liquid • The process by which a substance
changes to its vapour state either by changes directly from the solid state
heating or exposing it to air is called to the gaseous state without passing
evaporation. through the intermediate liquid state
is called sublimation.
• This method is used to separate • This process is used to separate a
homogeneous solid-liquid mixtures. mixture of iodine and sand.
We can separate salt from sea water
by evaporation.
7. The technique of froth floatation air pumped
into the tank
is based on the principle of
wetting of components of a
mixture. In this process, a suitable ore-rich
froth
liquid is mixed with the mixture
overflows
and compressed air is allowed to
pass through the mixture. Due to
the absorbed liquid, the weight
of the component that gets wet
more, increases. As a result, the heavy gangue
lighter component floats in the
Separating ore from gangue
form of froth over the mixture
and the heavier component settles down. This froth can be easily drained out. The
component can be obtained by drying.
8. The process of separating finely suspended solid components in a liquid by spinning
the mixture in a closed container is called centrifugation. Spinning of the mixture
occurs in a machine called a centrifuge. The principle of centrifugation is that the
heavier particles experience larger centrifugal force as compared to the lighter
particles. In this process, the centrifuge spins rapidly to speed the process. The mixture
is put in test tubes which are kept in the centrifuge. After spinning the mixture in the
centrifuge, the suspended components in the liquid get collected at the base of the
container followed by the separation of liquid by the process of decantation.
9. The process of separation of a mixture into its components or fractions by heating the
mixture is called fractional distillation. This method is used to separate a mixture of
miscible liquids. The principle on which the method of separation is based upon is that
different liquids have different boiling points and the liquid having lower boiling point
evaporates first as compared to the liquid having higher boiling point. A fractional
24
distillation apparatus consists of a distillation flask, a heat supply, a fractionating
column, a condenser and a laboratory thermometer. In this process, the mixture of
miscible liquids is heated to obtain different components of the mixture. Since heat
energy is involved in the process, boiling points play a significant role in the fractional
distillation.
The mixture to be separated is put into the distillation flask and is heated. The vapour
rise up into the fractionating column as the mixture begins to boil. The temperature
across the column is variable. The temperature at the top is lower as compared to the
temperature at the bottom which is higher. The vapour of the liquid having a lower
boiling point rise to the top of the fractionating column, whereas the vapour of the
liquid having a higher boiling point condense at the bottom of the fractionating
column. After this, the vapour are allowed to pass into a condenser where on cooling,
they form a liquid which is then collected in a container.
Fractional distillation is used to separate the crude oil into various useful components
such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel, paraffin wax, lubricating oil and other fuels.
Activity 3.3 given on page 38 & 39 in the textbook explains how the components of a
mixture of CaCO3 and NaCl can be separated.
10. Chromatography is the process of separating different components of a mixture by
passing it through a medium in which the components move at different rates. We can
separate the components of ink which is a mixture of different dyes by this method.
The principle on which the process of chromatography is based upon is the difference
in the rates of absorption of various components of a mixture on the surface of a
suitable adsorbent. Filter paper and silica gel are the common adsorbents used. The
commonly used solvents are water, acetic acid and ethyl alcohol.
Paper chromatography is considered to be the simplest type of chromatography. It
is performed using a special type of paper called chromatographic paper or ordinary
filter paper. A line is drawn using a pencil near the edge of the paper at the bottom. A
drop of the mixture that needs to be separated is placed on the filter paper above the
drawn line.
The paper is then dipped in the beaker containing the solvent such that the line drawn
on the paper is above the level of the solvent. In this process, the solvent acts as a
mobile phase whereas the filter paper acts as a stationary phase. The solvent carries
along with it the drop of mixture that contains various components as it rises on
the paper. The more soluble component of the drop rises faster, followed by other
components depending on rates of absorption. We observe various spots on the filter
paper that indicate different components of a mixture. Later, we remove the paper
from the solvent and dry it.
Chromatography has the following advantages.
• Chromatography is used to separate very small quantity of a substance.
• It is used to separate components of a mixture exhibiting very similar physical and
chemical properties.
• It is used to identify various components of a mixture.
• It is used in quantitative estimation of components of a mixture.
• It is an effective method to test the purity of a sample.
25
• It is used to separate contaminants, traces of harmful chemicals and other microbes
in food.
• Paper chromatography is used to separate various dyes from a mixture.
• It is also used to test the quality of food by examining the presence of different
vitamins, preservatives, amino acids and proteins.
Observe and Perform

A. 1.
solution
sand bath evaporating

dish
wire gauge
tripod stand burner
2. Evaporation is shown in the image.

3. The principle of this technique is that a liquid when heated changes to its vapour state
leaving behind solid in the mixture.
4. This method is used to separate homogeneous solid-liquid mixtures. We can separate
salt from sea water by evaporation.
B. 1. vapours thermometer
rising
water out condenser
water in
distillation
flask
conical
flask
pure liquid
2. Fractional distillation is shown in the image.

3. The principle on which this method of separation is based upon is that different liquids
have different boiling points and the liquid having a lower boiling point evaporates
faster as compared to the liquid having a higher boiling point.
4. In this process, the mixture of miscible liquids is heated to obtain different components
of the mixture. The mixture to be separated is put into the distillation flask and is
26
heated. The vapour rise up into the fractionating column as the mixture begins to boil.
The temperature across the column is variable. The temperature at the top is lower
as compared to the temperature at the bottom which is higher. The vapour of the
liquid having a lower boiling point rise to the top of the fractionating column, whereas
the vapour of the liquid having a higher boiling point condense at the bottom of
the fractionating column. After this, the vapour are allowed to pass into a condenser
where on cooling, they form a liquid which is then collected in a container.
5. A fractional distillation apparatus consists of a distillation flask, a heat supply, a
fractionating column, a condenser and a laboratory thermometer.
6. Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into various useful components
such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel, paraffin wax, lubricating oil and other fuels. It is
also used for separating alcohol from water. It also has industrial uses in petroleum
refineries, chemical plants, natural gas processing, for separation of pure gases from
mixture of gases and for purification and separation of many organic compounds.
Apply Your Learning
A. Chalk in water is considered a suspension as chalk does not dissolved completely in
water.
B. Aerosol is a suspension of liquid droplets in a gas.
C. The technique of solvent extraction is applicable when one of the solid components is
soluble in a liquid and the other is not.
D. Centrifugation is the technique that is used in laboratories to separate blood cells from
plasma. The principle of centrifugation is that the heavier particles experience larger
centrifugal force as compared to the lighter particles.
Life Skills

A. 1. Pure substance 2. Compound 3. Emulsion
4. Fractional crystallization 5. Centrifugation 6. Paper chromatography
B. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True
C. 1. The method of separating components of a mixture using wind or moving air is called
winnowing.
2. The process by which a liquid changes to its vapour state by heating is called
evaporation.
3. The process of separating a solid that has dissolved in a liquid and made a solution is
called crystallization.
27
4. The process of separating a liquid from a soluble component by selective evaporation
and condensation is called distillation.
5. The process of separating finely suspended solid components in a liquid by spinning
the mixture in a closed container is called centrifugation.
6. A separating funnel is a laboratory equipment made up of glass with a tap called
stopcock. The stopcock is attached to the bottom of the funnel and controls the flow
of the liquid. The separating funnel is used to separate a mixture of immiscible liquids.
D. 1. Mixtures can be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Homogeneous mixtures: A mixture in which the constituents are uniformly distributed
throughout is called a homogeneous mixture. A salt solution, a glucose solution,
and an alloy of iron and carbon are some examples of homogeneous mixtures.
The constituents of these mixtures are not clearly visible and cannot be identified
individually.
Heterogeneous mixtures: A mixture in which the constituents are distributed non-
uniformly is called a heterogeneous mixture. A mixture of iron filings and sulphur
powder, a mixture of oil and water and a mixture of chalk powder in water are some
examples of heterogeneous mixtures. The constituents of these mixtures are clearly
visible and can be identified individually. Heterogenous mixtures are found in the
form of suspensions or emulsions.
• Suspension: A type of mixture in which a component is not dissolved completely
into another component is called a suspension. The undissolved particles remain
unequally distributed throughout the mixture and settle down when the mixture
is left undisturbed for some time. Chalk in water and dust in air are examples of
suspensions.
• Emulsion: A type of mixture consisting of two or more immiscible liquids is called
an emulsion. An emulsion is formed on mixing oil and water.
2. Handpicking Sieving
• The method in which components • The method in which the
of a mixture can be separated by components of a mixture are
picking them with one’s hand is separated using a sieve is called
called handpicking. sieving.
• The principle on which the technique • The principle of the technique is the
is based upon is the visible difference difference in size of the components
in size, shape or colour of the of a mixture.
components of a mixture.
3. Solvent extraction is the process used to separate components of a mixture based on

their relative solubility. This process is applicable when one of the solid components is
soluble in a liquid. For example, we can separate a mixture of sodium chloride (NaCl)
and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) using solvent extraction. We put a mixture of sodium
chloride and calcium carbonate in a beaker containing water. We observe that salt
being soluble dissolves in water whereas calcium carbonate being insoluble settles
at the bottom of the beaker. We can then obtain the salt solution by decantation thus
leaving the calcium carbonate behind.
28
4. The process by which insoluble solid particles can be separated from a liquid by
allowing the mixture to pass through a filter is called filtration. We use this method to
separate solid-liquid mixtures in which the solid particles are lighter and are insoluble
in the liquid. We can use filter paper, a layer of sand and charcoal as filters. Whereas,
froth floatation is based on the principle of wetting of components of a mixture. In this
process, a suitable liquid is mixed with the mixture and compressed air is allowed to
pass through the mixture. Due to the absorbed liquid, the weight of the component
that gets wet more, increases. As a result, the lighter component floats in the form of
froth over the mixture and the heavier component settles down. This froth can easily
be drained out and the component can be obtained by drying.
5. The principle on which the method of fractional distillation is based upon is that
different liquids have different boiling points and the liquid having a lower boiling
point evaporates first as compared to the liquid having a higher boiling point. In the
process of fractional distillation, the mixture of miscible liquids is heated to obtain
different components of the mixture.
Fractional distillation is used to separate crude oil into various useful components
such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel, paraffin wax, lubricating oil and other fuels. It is
also used for separating alcohol from water. It also has industrial uses in petroleum
refineries, chemical plants, natural gas processing, for separation of pure gases from
mixture of gases and for purification and separation of many organic compounds.
6. Chromatography is the process of separating different components of a mixture by
passing it through a medium in which the components move at different rates. We can
separate the components of ink, which is a mixture of different dyes, by this method.
The principle on which the process of chromatography is based upon is the difference
in the rates of absorption of various components of a mixture on the surface of a
suitable adsorbent. Filter paper and silica gel are the common adsorbents used. The
commonly used solvents are water, acetic acid and ethyl alcohol.
Chromatography has the following advantages.
• Chromatography is used to separate a very small quantity of a substance.
• It is used to separate components of a mixture exhibiting very similar physical and
• It is used to identify various components of a mixture.
• It is used in quantitative estimation of components of a mixture.
• It is an effective method to test the purity of a sample.
• It is used to separate contaminants, traces of harmful chemicals and other microbes
in food.
Project
Students are expected to do this exercise on their own.
29
4. Atomic Structure
1. mass, other properties 2. cathode 3. protons
4. False 5. Electrons 6. False

1. Electrons, protons and neutrons 2. True 3. False
4. protons, neutrons 5. True 6. 14 7. isotopes
8. eight 9. False 10. True 11. bond 12. covalent
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. Atoms 2. Cathode 3. nucleus 4. isotopes 5. Valence 6. covalent
B. 1. All matter consists of tiny particles called elements. (atoms)
2. Gases are good conductors of electricity under ordinary conditions. (poor)
3. The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in the atom
which makes the atom positively charged. (electrically neutral)
4. Elements with valency two are called bivalent elements. (divalent)
5. Cations are negatively charged ions. (positively)
6. Sodium chloride is a covalent compound. (electrovalent)
C. Element Atomic Number Mass Number
Lithium 3 7
Carbon 6 12
Fluorine 9 19
Magnesium 12 24
Sulphur 16 32
Potassium 19 39
D. Element Number of Protons Number of Electrons Number of Neutrons
Beryllium 4 4 5
Oxygen 8 8 8
Sodium 11 11 12
Aluminium 13 13 14
Phosphorus 15 15 16
Potassium 19 19 20
E. 1. (d) 2. (f ) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c)

F. 1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (c)
30
Short and Precise
A. 1. Valency
Monovalent elements Divalent elements Trivalent elements
Example: Sodium Example: Magnesium Example: Aluminium

and chlorine and calcium and phosphorus
2. Valency
Positive Valency Variable Valency Negative Valency
3. Chemical Bond
Electrovalent Compound Covalent Compound
B. 1. The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements i.e., atoms of
different elements have different mass, different size and different chemical properties.
2. Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles because when an electric field
was applied in the path of cathode rays, the rays got attracted (or bent) towards the
positively charged plate.
3. Anode rays consist of positively charged particles because when an electric field
was applied in the path of anode rays, the rays got attracted (or bent) towards the
negatively charged plate.
4. An atom is electrically neutral, as it contains equal number of electron and proton.
5. The valence shell cannot have more than eight electrons except in case of the first shell
which cannot have more than two electrons because the presence of eight electrons
in the outermost shell makes the atom very stable.
C. 1. Gases become good conductors of electricity when
• the gas is stored at very low pressure (0.01–0.001 mm of mercury) and
• a very high voltage is applied through the gas (more than 10,000 volts).
2. In 1904, J.J. Thomson proposed the ‘plum pudding’ model. According to in this model,
each atom was a sphere of positive charge called ‘pudding’ with electrons carrying
negative charge, called ‘plums,’ embedded in it. This model failed to explain many
experimental observations about atoms.
3. Atomic number: The number of protons present inside the nucleus of an atom of an
element is called its atomic number. It is represented by the letter Z. Each element has
its own atomic number.
Since an atom has equal number of protons and electrons, the atomic number of the
atom of an element is also equal to the number of electrons present in it.
Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons = Number of electrons
For example, the atomic number of magnesium is 12.
Mass number: The sum total of the number of protons and the number of neutrons
present in the nucleus of an atom of an element is called the mass number of that
element. It is represent by the letter A.
31
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
= Atomic number + number of neutrons
For example, the mass number of magnesium is 24.
4. The relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times by which the average
mass of one atom of an element is heavier than 1/12th of the mass of a carbon atom.
It is expressed in unified atomic mass unit and denoted as u.
Relative atomic mass = Average mass of one atom of an element
One-twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon-12
5. Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number
14 15
are known as isotopes. For example, 7 N and 7 N are the two isotopes of nitrogen. There
are 7 protons and 7 electrons in both the isotopes. But the first atom has 7 neutrons
and the second atom has 8 neutrons.
Let’s understand this with the help of examples.
• Hydrogen has three isotopes.
1 2 3
Protium (1 H) Deuterium (1 H) Tritium (1 H)
All three isotopes of hydrogen have same number of electrons and protons, i.e., equal
to 1. However, the number of neutrons vary. Protium has no neutron, deuterium has 1
neutron and tritium has 2 neutrons.
6. The arrangement of electrons in different orbits or shells around the nucleus of an
atom is called electronic configuration. The requirements to write down the electronic
configuration of an element are as follows.
• The number of electrons present in an atom of the element.
• The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in different
energy shells of the atom.
• Each orbit or shell has a fixed or definite amount of energy.
7. The distribution of electrons in various energy shells of an atom is governed by
a scheme called Bohr-Bury scheme as it was proposed by Niels Bohr and Charles
Bury. The rules of Bohr-Bury scheme of n=5
electronic configuration are as follows. n=4 shell with
• Each orbit or shell has a fixed or definite n=3 the highest
amount of energy. The amount of n=2 energy
energy in the various levels increase as O N M n=1
L K
we go further away from the nucleus (K
< L < M < N ...).
• The maximum possible number of shell with
electrons that can be present in any the lowest
energy
shell of an atom is given by the formula
2n2, where n is the number of shells. The
shells are labelled as K (n = 1), L (n = 2), Shells (orbits) in an atom
M (n = 3), N (n = 4) and so on.
• The outermost shell also called the valence shell cannot have more than 8 electrons
(octet) except in case of the first shell which cannot have more than 2 electrons
(duplet).
32
Let’s understand this better with the help of an example. The atomic number of lithium
is 3, its first two electrons will occupy K shell and the third electron will occupy the next
shell L. Hence, the electronic configuration of lithium is written as 2, 1.
8. Atoms of elements combine or react to become stable and/or non-reactive in nature.
Atoms of elements combine or react to attain the electronic configuration of the
nearest noble or inert gas and thus, become stable. Elements tend to combine in such
a way that each element has eight electrons in its valence shell (except hydrogen,
lithium and beryllium). This theory is commonly called the octet rule.
9. Valence shell: The outermost shell of an atom is known as valence shell.
Valence electrons: The electrons present in the valence shell of an atom are called
valence electrons.
Valency: The number of electrons that an atom needs to accept, donate or share so as
to form a complete outer octet (8 electrons) (except the first shell that forms a duplet)
is called valency. In other words, valency is the combining capacity of an atom of an
element.
10. Some elements show more than one valency. Such elements are said to have variable
valency. For example, copper, iron, silver, lead, tin and mercury have variable valencies.
11. Two or more non-metals that collectively accept or donate one or more electrons
and become negatively or positively charged in the process are called radicals. For
+ 2–
example, ammonium (NH ) (valency 1), carbonate (CO 3 ) (valency 2) and phosphate
3– 4
(PO 4 ) (valency 3). Radicals occur in compound form and behave as a single unit.
12. Electrovalent compounds: The chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of
electrons from one atom to the other is called electrovalent or ionic bond and the
compounds so formed are called electrovalent or ionic compounds.
Covalent compounds: The chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons is
covalent bond and the compounds so formed are called covalent compounds.
At Length
A. 1.
Electrons Protons
• The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of • The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of
electron was found to be 1.78 × 108 proton is not fixed, i.e., it varies.
C/g (coulomb per gram).
• The value of e/m is independent • The e/m value depends on the gas
of the nature of the gas and the being used in the discharge tube.
material of the electrodes used in the
discharge tube.
• The mass of an electron was found • The mass of a proton is almost equal
to be 9.1/10–28 g, which was about to the mass of an atom of hydrogen,
1/1837 of a hydrogen atom. i.e., 1.672 × 10–24 g.
• The charge on an electron is one unit • The charge on a proton is equal
negative charge, i.e., 1.602 × 10–19 in magnitude to the charge on an
coulombs. electron, i.e., 1.602 × 10–19 C but
opposite in nature and sign.
33
2. Cathode Rays Anode Rays
• Cathode rays are produced from the • Anode rays are produced from the
cathode in a discharge tube when anode in a discharge tube when an
an electric field is applied to a gas at electric field is applied to a gas at
reduced pressure. reduced pressure.
• Cathode rays consist of negatively • Anode rays consist of positively
charged particles because when charged particles because when an
an electric field was applied in the electric field was applied in the path
path of cathode rays, the rays got of anode rays, the rays got attracted
attracted (or bent) towards the (or bent) towards the negatively
positively charged plate. charged plate.
3. Positive Valency Negative Valency

When an atom donates electrons When an atom accepts electrons
to acquire a stable electronic to acquire a stable electronic
configuration, it becomes a positively configuration, it becomes a negatively
charged ion and is said to have charged ion and is said to have
positive (electropositive) valency. negative (electronegative) valency.
4. Chemical Bond Electrovalent Bond
• Atoms tend to gain, lose or share • The chemical bond formed by the
electrons in order to achieve stability. complete transfer of electrons from
The chemical bond formed by one atom to the other is called
the sharing of electrons is called electrovalent or ionic bond.
covalent bond.
B. An atom is positively charged (electrically neutral). This suggests that the number of
positively charged particles present in an atom are more than (equal to) the number
of negatively charged particles. E. Goldstein, a French (German) scientist, performed
an experiment in the glass rod (tube), with a perforated anode (cathode). During the
experiment, he observed another set of rays moving in direction opposite to that of
the anode (cathode) rays. Since these rays originated from the cathode (anode), they
were named as cathode (anode) rays. They were also called discharge (canal) rays.
The cathode (anode) rays consist of the positively-charged particles called electrons
(protons).
C. 1. Maharishi Kanada, a great Indian philosopher of 600 BC, proposed that matter consists
of indestructible particles called paramanu (param means ultimate and anu means
particle). A paramanu does not exist in free state, rather it combines with other
paramanus to form a bigger particle called the anu. In other words, he believed that
an anu may be made up of two or more particles called paramanu.
2. The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows.
• All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible or indestructible. They can neither be created nor destroyed.
• In chemical reactions, atoms rearrange, combine or separate.
• All atoms of a particular element are identical in mass and other properties.
34
• The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements,
i.e., atoms of different elements have different mass, different size and different
• Atoms of an element combine with atoms of another element (or elements) in
fixed whole numbers to form compounds. For example, 2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
combine with one atom of oxygen (O) to form water (H2O).
3. In 1897, the English scientist Sir J.J. Thomson proved that an atom can be split into
even smaller parts. His discovery of the electron was the first step towards a detailed
model of the atom. He used William Crookes’ experiment where two metal plates were
placed at each end of a discharge tube. The metal plate connected to the negative
terminal of the voltage source served as the cathode and the metal plate connected
to the positive terminal served as the anode. Crookes had observed that on passing
an electric current of high voltage through the discharge tube, rays were emitted from
the cathode. He showed that the emitted rays were negatively charged by studying
the direction in which these rays were deflected by a magnetic field.
J.J. Thomson applied the following conditions in electric discharge tubes to conduct
his experiment on a gas. Under ordinary conditions, gases are poor conductors of
electricity. But gases become good conductors of electricity when
When a high voltage electric current was passed through the discharge tube
containing small quantity of a gas, at very low pressure, a green fluorescence was
seen coming from the glass opposite to the cathode. This fluorescence was observed
due to a stream of rays originated from the cathode, hence called the cathode rays.
J.J. Thomson found that the cathode rays consisted of negatively charged particles.
These particles were named as electrons.
4. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford bombarded a thin sheet of gold of thickness 0.00004 cm
with alpha (a) particles, in an evacuated chamber. Rutherford made the following
observations on the basis of his experiment.
• Most of the a-particles passed straight through the foil without any deflection from
their path.
• Few particles were deflected at very large angles.
• A small fraction of the particles were deflected from their path at small angles.
Based on these observations Rutherford’s conclusions were as follows.
• A lot of space was empty in the atom as a-particles passed straight without any
deflection.
• Since the mass of a-particles is about 8000 times that of an electron, it was evident
that the force which causes such large deflections was also strong.
• Deflections of the a-particles could only be caused by a centre of concentrated
positive charge that accounts for most of the atom’s mass. He called this central
body of concentrated positive charge nucleus.
5. Initially it was concluded that the mass of an atom was entirely concentrated within
the nucleus in the form of protons, since electrons had negligible mass. However,
35
during subsequent experiments, it was accounted that the mass of an atom is far more
than the total mass of protons present in the atom. It was realized that there must be
a third type of subatomic particle, which was present in the nucleus that had mass but
no electric charge. Thus the neutron was discovered. Neutron was discovered in 1932
by James Chadwick.
6. According to the modern concept of the atom:
• An atom consists of three subatomic particles—electrons, protons and neutrons.
• There are two structural parts of an atom.
– The nucleus
– The extra-nuclear region or the empty space that surrounds the nucleus
• The nucleus is the positively charged central part of the atom. It contains protons
and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are held tightly in the nucleus by strong
nuclear forces. The positive charge of nucleus is due to the protons present in it.
The neutrons have no charge. The entire mass of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus (since electrons have negligible mass).
• The extra-nuclear region of an atom consists of electrons which revolve around the
nucleus in definite orbits or shells. Each orbit has a fixed energy level. The energy
increases as you go away from the nucleus. The electrons experience an outward
pull (or centrifugal force) due to their circular motion. This outward pull is counter
balanced by the inward attraction between these electrons and the protons present
inside the nucleus.
• An atom is electrically neutral as it contains equal number of electrons and protons.
7. A force of attraction exists between the electrons and protons present within the
atom. The electrons being charged and lighter are in constant motion and would lose
energy, and eventually fall into the nucleus leading to structural collapse of the atom.
However, this does not happen. This is because the electrons revolve in fixed orbits
(shells) around the nucleus at a very high speed. Each orbit is associated with a fixed
amount of energy. The electrons in the orbits neither lose nor gain energy until some
external force is applied on them. They are thus able to maintain their position. This
results in the balancing of the inward force exerted by the nucleus by the outward
force of the moving electrons. This in turn prevents the electrons from falling into the
nucleus, thus making the atom structurally stable.
8. Electropositive ions: When an atom donates electrons to acquire a stable electronic
configuration, it becomes a positively charged ion and is said to have positive
(electropositive) valency.
During chemical reactions, metals donate electrons, resulting in a greater number
of protons and lesser number of electrons left with them. As a result, they become
positively charged thus forming cations.
Example:
• Sodium (Na) donates 1 electron to become sodium ion (Na+).
–1 electron
(11 electrons) Na Na+ (10 electrons)
Electronic configuration
Na → 2(K), 8(L), 1(M) Na+ → 2(K), 8(L)
unstable stable
36
Depending upon the number of electrons donated, the elements are monovalent
(Na+), bivalent (Mg2+) or trivalent (Al3+).
Electronegative ions: When an atom accepts electrons to acquire a stable electronic
configuration, it becomes a negatively charged ion and is said to have negative
(electronegative) valency.
During chemical reactions, non-metals accept electrons resulting in an excess of
electrons over protons in their atoms and become negatively charged. This leads to
the formation of anions (negatively charged ions).
Example:
• Chlorine (Cl) accepts 1 electron to become chlorine ion (Cl–1).
+1 electron
(17 electrons) Cl Cl– (18 electrons)
Electronic configuration Electronic configuration
Cl → 2(K), 8(L), 7(M) Cl– → 2(K), 8(L), 8(M)
Depending upon the number of electrons accepted, the elements are monovalent
(Cl–), bivalent (O2–) or trivalent (N3–).
Observe and Perform
1. Phosphorus
2. Atomic number: 15; Mass number: 31
3. Electrons: 15; Protons: 15; Neutrons: 16
Apply Your Learning
A. Rutherford’s model displaced Thomson’s model of an atom. The Rutherford model of
an atom did not explain the stability of an atom.
B. The electrons revolve in fixed orbits (shells) around the nucleus at a very high speed.
Each orbit is associated with a fixed amount of energy. The electrons in the orbits
neither lose nor gain energy until some external force is applied on them. Thus, they
are able to maintain their position.
C. The isotopes of elements show same chemical properties because they have same
atomic number.
Life Skills

A. 1. J.J. Thomson 2. Ernest Rutherford 3. Nucleus
4. Atomic number 5. Isotopes 6. Electronic configuration
B. 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. True
37
C. 1. In 1904, J.J. Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of the atom. In this model,
each atom was a sphere of positive charge called the ‘pudding’ in which electrons
known as ‘plums’ were embedded. This model failed to explain many experimental
observations about atoms.
positively
charged –
–
matter – –
–
negatively – –
–
–
charged –
electrons –
Thomson’s plum pudding model of the atom
2. Rutherford in 1911 published his views on atomic theory. He suggested the following
model of the atom.
• Most of the mass of an atom was concentrated in the centre of the atom called
nucleus.
• The nucleus is the densest part of an atom and contains the positively charged
particles, the protons.
• The size of the nucleus is extremely small as compared to the size of atom as a
whole, as there is a lot of empty space around the nucleus.
• An atom is electrically neutral, i.e., an equal number of electrons surround the
nucleus to counter balance the positive charge in an atom.
• Electrons revolve in circular orbits (shells) in the space available around the nucleus.
D. 1. Following are the characteristics of cathode rays.
• Cathode rays are produced from the cathode in a discharge tube when an electric
field is applied to a gas at reduced pressure.
• Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles because when an electric field
positively charged plate.
• Cathode rays are a stream of fast moving charged particles.
• Cathode rays travel in a straight line.
2. Following are the characteristics of electrons.
• An electron is an integral part of an atom and all matter.
• The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of electron was found to be 1.78 × 108 C/g (coulomb
per gram).
• The value of e/m is the same irrespective of the nature of the gas and the material
of the electrodes used in the discharge tube.
• The mass of an electron was found to be 9.108/10–28 g, which was about 1/1837 of a
hydrogen atom.
• The charge on an electron is one unit negative charge, i.e., 1.602 × 10–19 coulombs.
3. Following are the characteristics of anode rays.
• Anode rays are produced from the anode in a discharge tube when an electric field
is applied to a gas at reduced pressure.
• Anode rays consist of positively charged particles because when an electric field
negatively charged plate.
38
• Anode rays are a stream of fast moving charged particles.
• Anode rays travel in a straight line.
4. Following are the characteristics of protons.
• A proton is an integral part of an atom.
• The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of proton is not fixed, i.e., it varies.
• The e/m value depends on the gas being used in the discharge tube.
• The mass of a proton is almost equal to the mass of an atom of hydrogen, i.e.,
1.672 × 10–24 g.
• The charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, i.e.,
1.602 × 10–19 C but opposite in nature and sign.
5. Following are the characteristics of neutrons.
• Neutron is an integral part of an atom and is present inside the nucleus.
• It is of the same size as that of a proton.
• It is electrically neutral, i.e., it has no charge.
6. Following are the characteristics of isotopes.
• The isotopes of an element have same atomic number. Thus, the number of
electrons are also same.
• The isotopes of elements show same chemical properties because they have same
atomic number.
• Mass dependent properties such as density, melting point and boiling point will
differ in different isotopes. This is because the mass of the isotopes differs slightly.
E. 1. Discovery of electron: The English chemist, William Crookes in 1879 conducted an
experiment in a discharge tube. Two metal plates were placed at each end of the tube.
The metal plate connected to the negative terminal of the voltage source served as
the cathode and the metal plate connected to the positive terminal served as the
anode. He observed that on passing an electric current of high voltage through the
discharge tube, rays were emitted from the cathode. He showed that the emitted rays
were negatively charged by studying the direction in which these rays were deflected
by a magnetic field.
We know that under ordinary conditions, gases are poor conductors of electricity. But
gases become good conductors of electricity when
J.J. Thomson applied these conditions in electric discharge tubes to conduct his
experiment on a gas. When a high voltage electric current was passed through the
discharge tube containing small quantity of a gas, at very low pressure, a green
fluorescence was seen coming from the glass opposite to the cathode. This fluorescence
was observed due to a stream of rays originated from the cathode, hence called the
cathode rays. J.J. Thomson found that the cathode rays consisted of negatively charged
particles. These particles were named as electrons.
Discovery of protons: An atom is electrically neutral. This suggests that if negatively
charged electrons are present in an atom, so there must be some positively charged
particles present in the atom to neutralize the negative charge of the electrons.
E. Goldstein, a German scientist, performed an experiment in the discharge tube, with
a perforated cathode (a cathode with small holes to allow passage of positive rays).
39
During the experiment, he observed another set of rays moving in a direction opposite
to that of the cathode rays. Since these rays originated from the anode, they were
named as anode rays. They were also called canal rays. The anode rays consist of the
positively charged particles called protons.
2. In 1911, Ernest Rutherford carried out the famous gold foil experiment. In his
experiment, Rutherford bombarded a thin sheet of gold of thickness 0.00004 cm with
alpha (a) particles, in an evacuated chamber.
Rutherford made the following observations on the basis of his experiment.
• Most of the a-particles passed straight through the tail without any deflection from
their path.
• Many particles were deflected at very large angles.
• A small fraction of the particles were deflected from their path at small angles.
Rutherford’s Conclusions
• A lot of space was empty in the atom as a-particles passed straight.
• Since the mass of a-particles is about 8000 times that of an electron, it was evident
that the force which causes such large deflections was also strong.
• Deflections of the a-particles could only be caused by a centre of concentrated
positive charge that accounts for most of the atom’s mass. He called this central
body of concentrated positive charge nucleus.
3. According to the modern concept of the atom
– The nucleus
– The extra-nuclear region or the empty space that surrounds the nucleus
• The nucleus is positively charged central part of the atom. It contains the protons
• The extra-nuclear region of an atom consists of the electrons which revolve around
the nucleus in definite orbits or shells. Each orbit has a fixed energy level. The
energy increases as you go away from the nucleus. The electrons experience an
outward pull (or centrifugal force) due to their circular motion. This outward pull
is counter balanced by the inward attraction between these electrons and the
protons present inside the nucleus.
4. Atomic number is the number of protons present inside the nucleus of an atom of an
element. It is represented by the letter Z. Each element has its own atomic number.
Since an atom has equal number of protons and electrons, the atomic number of the
atom of an element is also equal to the number of electrons present in it. Mass number
is the sum total of the number of protons and the number of neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom of an element. It is represented by the letter A.
40
Element Atomic Number Mass Number
Helium 2 4
Boron 5 11
Nitrogen 7 14
Neon 10 20
Silicon 14 28
Chlorine 17 35
Argon 18 40
5. Atoms are too small to be weighed. So, scientists focused on finding out a standard
atom and calculating the relative weight of atoms of other elements by comparing
their mass with the mass of the standard atom. Earlier hydrogen atom was chosen
as the standard atom for this purpose. As time passed, the scale of atomic weight
based on hydrogen was abandoned and the term atomic weight was also replaced by
another term called the relative atomic mass of an element.
The relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times by which the average
It is expressed in atomic mass unit (amu).
6.
Elements Electronic Configuration
K L M N
Beryllium 2 2
Oxygen 2 6
Neon 2 8
Magnesium 2 8 2
Silicon 2 8 4
Sulphur 2 8 6
Chlorine 2 8 7
Potassium 2 8 8 1
Calcium 2 8 8 2
7. The number of electrons that an atom needs to accept, donate or share so as to form
a complete outer octet (8 electrons) (except the first shell that forms a duplet) is called
valency. In other words, valency is the combining capacity of an atom of an element.
Elements with valency one are called monovalent elements, for example, sodium
and chlorine. Elements with valency two are called divalent elements, for example,
magnesium and calcium. Elements with valency three are called trivalent elements, for
example, aluminium and phosphorus.
Electropositive ions: When an atom donates electrons to acquire a stable electronic
8.
41
Formation of electropositive ions:
Examples:
• Sodium (Na) donates 1 electron to become sodium ion (Na+).
–1 electron
(11 electrons) Na Na+ (10 electrons)
Na → 2(K), 8(L), 1(M) Na+ → 2(K), 8(L)
unstable stable
• Magnesium (Mg) donates 2 electrons to become magnesium ion (Mg2+).
–2 electrons
(12 electrons) Mg Mg2+ (10 electrons)
Mg → 2(K), 8(L), 2(M) Mg2+ → 2(K), 8(L)
Electronegative Ions: When an atom accepts electrons to acquire a stable electronic
Formation of electronegative ions:
Examples:
• Chlorine (Cl) accepts 1 electron to become chlorine ion (Cl–1).
+1 electron
(17 electrons) Cl Cl– (18 electrons)
Cl → 2(K), 8(L), 7(M) Cl– → 2(K), 8(L), 8(M)
• Oxygen (O) accepts 2 electrons to become oxygen ion (O2–).
+2 electrons
(8 electrons) O O2– (10 electrons)
0 → 2(K), 6(L) O2– → 2(K), 8(L)
9. Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons in order to achieve stability. The bond
formed between two atoms when they combine is called chemical bond. Atoms can
combine either by transferring electrons or by sharing electrons.
The chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to the
other is called electrovalent or ionic bond and the compounds so formed are called
electrovalent or ionic compounds. Whereas, the chemical bond formed by the sharing of
electrons is covalent bond and the compounds so formed are called covalent compounds.
Cations are the particles having positive charge and anions are the particles having
negative charge. The opposite charges get attracted to each other due to the presence
of strong electrostatic force of attraction. The formation of the bond takes place
between an anion and a cation, and hence is also called ionic bond.
Project
42
5. Language of Chemistry
+
1. valency 2. Valence shell 3. cation 4. radical 5. NH 4 + 1
1. CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 2. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
3. 3H2 + N2 → 2NH3 4. Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
5. 3Fe + 4H2O → Fe3O4 + 4H2
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. False
Exercises
Be Prompt
A.
1. element 2. Valency 3. cation
4. reactants, products 5. balanced 6. electricity
B. 1. Symbols of most of the elements are denoted by the second letter of the name of the
element. (first)
2. The innermost shell of an element is called the valence shell. (outermost)
3. A compound is a charged particle which is formed when an atom or a group of atoms
gains or loses electrons. (ion)
4. A molecule of a compound is represented using a symbol. (chemical formula)
5. A cation is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
undergoing any change. (catalyst)
6. Some chemical reactions proceed in both the directions and are called double
reactions. (reversible)
C. Element Symbol Element Symbol
Carbon C Nitrogen N
Phosphorus P Sulphur S
Aluminium Al Calcium Ca
Germanium Ge Magnesium Mg
Platinum Pt Zinc Zn
D. Ion Symbol Ion Symbol
Calcium ion Ca 2+
Cupric ion Cu2+
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Sodium ion Na+
Zinc ion Zn2+ Bromide Br–
Fluoride F– Sulphide S2–
43
E. 1. (e) 2. (f ) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d)
F. 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d)
Short and Precise

A. 1. Valency of Elements
Monovalent Divalent Trivalent Tetravalent Pentavalent

elements elements elements elements elements
2. Ions
Cation Anion
3. Chemical Equation
Unbalanced equation Balanced equation
B. 1. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O 2. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

3. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO 4. H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
5. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
C. 1. A compound is a pure substance which is formed when two or more elements
chemically combine in a definite proportion by mass. A compound is represented using
a chemical formula which represents the number of the elements that a molecule of
a compound consists of. For example, carbon dioxide is represented by the chemical
formula CO2 which shows that one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen combine
to form a molecule of carbon dioxide.
2. The outermost shell of an atom is called the valence shell and the electrons present in
the valence shell are called valence electrons.
3. An anion is formed when an atom or a group of atoms accepts electron(s) by developing
a negative charge.
4. A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction using symbols and formulae.
A chemical equation consists of reactants present on the left-hand side (LHS) and
products present on the right-hand side (RHS). A plus sign ‘+’ is written between
the reactants. In the case of products, the plus sign is written if more than one more
product is formed. An arrow is placed that points towards the products.
5. The atomic theory states that atoms of the reacting molecules involved in a chemical
reaction do not change. They only share or transfer electrons forming new compounds.
Therefore, we can say that the number of atoms of each element must be equal on
both the sides of the chemical equation.
6. The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in
a chemical reaction.
44
At Length
A. 1. Element Compound
• An element is the simplest form of • A compound is a pure substance which
a pure substance which is made is formed when two or more elements
up of only one kind of atom. chemically combine in a definite
proportion by mass.
• It is represented by a chemical • A compound is represented using a
symbol. chemical formula which represents the
number of the elements that a molecule
of a compound consists of.
• For example, oxygen is • For example, carbon dioxide is
represented using the chemical represented by the chemical formula CO2
symbol O. which shows that one atom of carbon
and two atoms of oxygen combine to
form a molecule of carbon dioxide.
2. Cation Anion Radical
A cation is formed when An anion is formed when A radical refers to a group
an atom or a group of an atom or a group of of different atoms present
atoms loses electron(s) atoms accepts electron(s) as a single unit having
by developing a positive by developing a negative a positive or negative
charge. charge. charge on it.
3.
Balanced Equation Unbalanced Equation
A balanced equation has an equal number An unbalanced equation is a chemical
of atoms of one or more elements in the equation in which the number of
reactants and products. atoms of one or more reactants and
products is unequal.
B. Valency refers to the exchanging (combining) capacity of an atom of a compound (an
element). The valency of an element is always a whole number that varies from 0 to 6
(1 to 8). The outermost shell of an atom is called the electron (valence) shell and the
electrons present in the electron (valence) shell are called valent (valence) electrons.
Lithium and sodium are divalent (monovalent) elements. Oxygen and magnesium are
monovalent (divalent) elements. Boron and aluminium are trivalent elements. Silicon is
a pentavalent (tetravalent) element.
C. 1. The rules that are applied for representation of elements are:
• Symbols of most of the elements are denoted by first letter of the name of the
element. For example, symbol of nitrogen is N and that of carbon is C.
• In some cases, more than one element has a name starting with the same letter, for
example, carbon and chlorine. In such a case, carbon is represented by the letter C
and chlorine is represented by any two letters of its name, i.e., Cl. When a symbol is
represented using two letters of the name of an element, we write the first letter in
upper case followed by the second letter in lower case.
• Some elements are assigned symbols on either their scientific or Latin, Greek or
German name. For example, the symbol Na of sodium is derived from its Latin name
natrium.
45
2. The chemical formula of a compound is derived in the following way.
Step 1: The symbols of the elements forming the compound are written.
Step 2: The valency of each element is written below the symbols of the elements.
Step 3: The valencies are interchanged and are written as the subscripts next to the
symbols. The subscript is not required if the valency is 1.
Step 4: The valencies can be divided by any common number to simplify the formula.

However, if it is not possible, the valencies are written as they are.
Let’s understand the representation of compounds better with the help of the given
example.
A molecule of water is formed by combining the atoms of the elements hydrogen and
oxygen.
Step 1: Write the symbols of the elements hydrogen and oxygen.
H O
Step 2: Write the valencies of the elements.
H O
1 –2
Step 3: Interchange the valency and write as subscripts next to the elements.
H2O
Step 4: Since no further division of valency is possible, therefore the chemical formula
of water is H2O.
3. A balanced equation has an equal number of atoms of one or more elements in the
reactants and products. Such an equation conforms to the atomic theory and the law
of conservation of mass. An equation can be balanced in the following ways.
• By applying atomic theory
• By applying the law of conservation of mass
Applying atomic theory: The atomic theory states that atoms of the reacting molecules

involved in a chemical reaction do not change. These molecules only share or transfer
electrons and form new compounds. Therefore, we can say that the number of atoms
of each element must be equal on both the sides of the chemical equation. Using this
fact, we balance a chemical equation.
Example: Balance the chemical equation that represents the reaction between iron

and oxygen to form iron (III) oxide.
Step 1: Iron + Oxygen → Iron (III) oxide

Step 2: Fe + O2 → Fe2O3

Step 3: Count the number of various atoms in reactants and products.

In reactants In products
Number of Fe atoms: 1 2
Number of O atoms: 2 3
The number of iron atoms and oxygen atoms are not equal. There is one iron atom
on the left-hand side and two iron atoms on the right-hand side. Also, there are two
oxygen atoms on the left-hand side and three oxygen atoms on the right-hand side.
46
In order to have an equal number of iron and oxygen atoms on both the sides, we
multiply Fe by 4 and O2 by 3 on the left-hand side and we multiply Fe2O3 by 2 on the
right-hand side. By doing so, the equation changes in the given form.
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
The chemical equation 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 now contains an equal number of
various atoms in reactants and products. Therefore, we can say that it is a balanced
equation.
Applying law of conservation of mass: According to the law of conservation of mass,

matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. This law can be applied
to the atomic masses of reactants and products to balance the chemical equation.
Let’s understand this with the help of the following example.
Balance the following equation.
CaCO3 → + CaO + CO2
Solution: In this case we find out the molecular mass of compounds by using the
atomic mass of each element. The atomic masses of all the elements are shown below.
Ca = 40u, C = 12u, O = 16u
By using these atomic masses, we can find the atomic masses of the compounds
involved in the reaction.
CaCO3 = 40u + 12u + (3 × 16u) = 40u + 12u + 48u = 100u
Total mass of the reactant on LHS = 100u
CaO = 40u + 16u = 56u
CO2 = 12u + (2 × 16u) = 44u
Total mass of the products on RHS = 56u + 44u = 100u
Therefore, the total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products
which conforms to the law of conservation of mass.
4. A chemical equation provides us with only limited information about the chemical
reaction it represents. It tells us about the following.
• The name of the reactant(s)
• The name of the product(s)
• The number of molecules of each reactant participating in the reaction
• The number of molecules of each product participating in the reaction
• The proportion of reactants
• The proportion of products
• The mass of the reactant(s)
• The mass of the products
5. Given below are the limitations that a chemical reaction has.
• Pure state or solution: Some reactions occur only when they are present in a
solution form. Therefore, an equation must indicate the information about pure
state and solution forms of reactants and products.
• Physical states of reactants and products: A chemical equation does not tell us
about the physical state of the substance. A chemical equation should indicate the
physical states of the reactants and products; ‘s’ for solid, ‘l’ for liquid, ‘g’ for gas and
‘aq’ for aqueous.
47
Heat and temperature: There are some reactions that occur at high temperatures
•
and others that occur at low temperatures. The chemical reaction should indicate if
heat is necessary or not.
Light: Some chemical reactions take place in the presence of light. The chemical
•
reaction should indicate necessity of light, if any.
Electricity: Some chemical reactions need electricity to take place. The chemical
•
reaction should indicate electricity as a necessity.
Pressure: Some chemical reactions in which one or more reactants are in the
•
gaseous state occur when the pressure is applied. The chemical reaction should
indicate pressure as a necessity or not.
Catalyst: A substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
•
undergoing any change is known as a catalyst. Different reactions use different
catalysts because one catalyst cannot be same for all the reactions. The chemical
reaction in such cases should indicate the use of a catalyst.
Reversibility: Some chemical reactions proceed in both the directions and are
•
called reversible reactions. The chemical reaction should indicate the double arrow
( ) between the reactants and products.
Endothermic or exothermic: A reaction in which energy is absorbed is called an
•
endothermic reaction. A reaction in which energy is evolved or given out is called
an exothermic reaction. The absorption of energy in a chemical reaction can be
indicated by adding heat on the reactant(s) side and the evolution of energy can be
indicated by subtracting the heat on the product(s) side.
Observe and Perform

1. Nitrogen N, Phosphorus P, Chlorine Cl and Iodine I
2. Iron Fe, Cobalt Co and Manganese Mn
3. Sulphur S, Manganese Mn
4. Chlorine Cl and Iodine I
5. Manganese Mn
Apply Your Learning
A. Mg: Valency 2 (Divalent)
B. Latin name of the element represented using the symbol Cu: Cuprum. Cu is copper
C. Phosphate: Its chemical formula is PO43– and its valency is –3
Bisulphate: Its chemical formula HSO4– is and its valency is –1
Life Skills
Integrate with Mathematics:
A. CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
The atomic masses of all the elements are shown below.
C = 12u; H = 1u; O = 16u
By using these atomic masses, we can find the atomic masses of the compounds involved
in the reaction.
48
CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
CH4 = 12u + 1u × 4 = 16u O2 = 16u × 2 = 32u
CO2 = 12u + 16u × 2 = 44u H2O = 1u × 2 + 16u = 18u
16u + 32u → 44u + 18u
Total mass of the reactants on LHS = 48u Total mass of the products on RHS = 62u
2CH4 + 4O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
2 × 16u + 4 × 32u → 2 × 44u + 4 × 18u
Now, total mass of the reactants on LHS = 160u
Total mass of the products on RHS = 160u
B. H2 + Cl2 → HCl
H = 1u; Cl = 17u
By using these atomic masses, we can find the atomic masses of the compounds involved
in the reaction.
H2 = 1u × 2 = 2u Cl = 17u × 2 = 34u HCl = 17u + 1u = 18u
2u + 34u → 18u
Total mass of the reactants on LHS = 36u Total mass of the products on RHS = 18u
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
2u + 34u → 2 × 18u
Now, total mass of the reactants on LHS = 36u
Integrate with Physics:
Yes it does, as the law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.
A. 1. Element 2. Compound 3. Valence electrons
4. Anion 5. Radical
B. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False
C. 1. The simplest form of a pure substance which is made up of only one kind of atom.
2. A pure substance which is formed when two or more elements chemically combine in
a definite proportion by mass.
3. The combining capacity of an atom of an element.
4. An ion formed when an atom or a group of atoms loses electron(s) by developing a
positive charge.
5. A group of different atoms present as a single unit having a positive or negative charge
on it.
49
6. A chemical equation which has an equal number of atoms of one or more elements in
the reactants and products.
7. A catalyst which helps to increase the rate of a reaction.
8. A reaction in which energy is evolved or given out.
D. 1. CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (This reaction is already balanced)

2. Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
3. N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 4. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
5. Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH 6. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
E. 1. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 2. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
3. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O 4. H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
5. 3Fe + 2O2 → Fe3O4
F. 1. An ion is a charged particle which is formed when an atom or a group of atoms gains
or loses electrons.
A cation is formed when an atom or a group of atoms loses electron(s) and develops
a positive charge, whereas an anion is formed when an atom or a group of atoms
accepts electron(s) and develops a negative charge.
2. A molecule of a compound is represented using a chemical formula. The chemical
formula of a compound is derived in the following way.
Step 3: The valencies are changed and are written as the subscripts next to the symbols.
It is not required to write the subscript if the valency is 1.
However, in case it is not possible, the valencies are written as they are.
Calcium hydroxide is formed by combining calcium and hydroxide which is a radical.
Step 1: Calcium: Ca Hydroxide: OH
Step 2: Ca OH
2 –1
Step 3: Ca(OH)2
Sodium carbonate is formed by combining sodium and carbonate.
Step 1: Sodium: Na Carbonate: CO3
Step 2: Na CO3
1 –2
Step 3: Na2CO3
3. The atomic theory states that atoms of the reacting molecules involved in a chemical
reaction do not change. These molecules only share or transfer electrons and form
new compounds. Therefore, we can say that the number of atoms of each element
must be equal on both the sides of the chemical equation. The law of conservation of
mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. This
law can be applied to the atomic masses of reactants and products to balance the
chemical equation.
reaction that occurs. It tells us about the following.
50
• The name of the reactant(s)
• The name of the product(s)
• The number of molecules of each reactant participating in the reaction
• The number of molecules of each product participating in the reaction
• The proportion of reactants
• The proportion of products
• The mass of the reactant(s)
• The mass of the products
5. Given below are the limitations that a chemical reaction has.
• Pure state or solution: Some reactions occur only when they are present in a
solution form. For instance, sodium iodide solution is added to silver nitrate solution
and a reaction takes place. However, this reaction will not take place if silver nitrate
is in solid state and sodium nitrate is in a solution form. Therefore, an equation
must indicate the information about pure state and solution forms of reactants and
products.
• Physical states of reactants and products: A chemical equation should indicate
the physical states of the reactants and products; ‘s’ for solid, ‘l’ for liquid, ‘g’ for gas
and ‘aq’ for aqueous.
• Heat and temperature: There are some reactions that occur at high temperatures
and others that occur at low temperatures. The chemical reaction should indicate
heat as a necessity.
• Light: Some chemical reactions take place in the presence of light. Photosynthesis
is a chemical reaction that occurs in green plants in the presence of sunlight. The
chemical reaction should indicate light as a necessity.
• Electricity: Some chemical reactions need electricity to take place. Decomposition
of water into hydrogen and oxygen is one such example. The chemical reaction
should indicate electricity as a necessity.
• Pressure: Some chemical reactions in which one or more reactants are in the
gaseous state occur when the pressure is applied. The chemical reaction should
indicate pressure as a necessity.
• Catalyst: A substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without itself
reaction should indicate the use of a catalyst.
• Reversibility: Some chemical reactions proceed in both the directions and are
called reversible reactions. The chemical reaction should indicate the double arrow
between the reactants and products.
• Endothermic or exothermic: A reaction in which energy is absorbed is called an
endothermic reaction. A reaction in which energy is evolved or given out is called
an exothermic reaction. The absorption of energy in a chemical reaction can be
indicated by adding heat on the reactant(s) side and the evolution of energy can be
indicated by subtracting the heat on the product(s) side.
Project
51
6. Chemical Reactions
1. True
2. False
3. True
4. True
5. False
1. synthesis
2. thermal decomposition
3. displacement
4. precipitate, precipitation
5. Baking soda solution, calamine solution
6. oxidation
7. reducing agent
8. hydrogen chloride, sulphur
1. The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in the order of their decreasing
reactivity is called reactivity or activity series of metals.
2. An oxide is a compound which consists of oxygen as an anion. Oxygen forms oxides by
combining with metals and non-metals.
3. Thermal decomposition
4. • Non-metals react with oxygen to produce acidic oxides.
• Most of the acidic oxides turn moist blue litmus paper red.
• Acidic oxides are usually gases at room temperature.
• Acidic oxides dissolve in water to produce acids.
• Acidic oxides react with base and alkali to form salt and water.
5. The oxides which do not exhibit either acidic or basic properties are called neutral
oxides. Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (NO) are neutral in nature and do not
change the colour of indicators.
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. reactants, products
2. hydrogen gas
3. photochemical
4. positive
5. Carbohydrase
6. Calcination
52
B. 1. When solid lead nitrate is heated, green-coloured nitrogen gas is evolved with oxygen.
(reddish-brown)
2. When carbon and sulphur are heated, heat energy is evolved. (absorbed)
3. Chloroplast acts as a catalyst in the photosynthesis reaction in plants. (Chlorophyll)
4. Limestone is heated to form calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide. (oxide)
5. An atom or a group of atoms which accepts electrons during an oxidation reaction is
called a reducing agent. (oxidizing)
6. Roasting is a decomposition process in which carbon dioxide is produced with metal
oxide. (sulphur)
C. 1. Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2↑
heat
2. 2[Pb(NO3)2] → 2PbO + 4NO2↑ + O2↑
3. NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
4. Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
heat
5. 2FeSO4 → Fe2O3 + SO2↑ + SO3↑
6. Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2↑
D. 1. When solid sodium nitrate is heated, oxygen gas is evolved.
heat
2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2↑
sodium nitrate sodium nitrite oxygen
2. When an iron nail is dipped in blue-coloured copper sulphate solution, the blue colour
of the solution fades and eventually turns into light green.
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
iron copper sulphate iron sulphate copper
(blue) (green)
3. When ammonium hydroxide and iron sulphate solutions are mixed together, a
dirty‑green coloured precipitate of iron hydroxide is obtained.
2NH4OH + FeSO4 → Fe(OH)2↓ + (NH4)2SO4
ammonium hydroxide iron sulphate iron hydroxide ammonium sulphate
(dirty-green)
4. Calcium carbonate on heating gives carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
heat
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
calcium carbonate calcium oxide carbon dioxide
5. Potassium chlorate when heated in the presence of a catalyst (manganese dioxide)
gives potassium chloride and oxygen.
MnO
2KClO3 →
300°C
2
2KCl + 3O2↑
potassium chlorate potassium chloride oxygen
6. Zinc displaces copper from a solution of copper (II) sulphate.
Zn(s) + CuSO4 → ZnSO4 + Cu(s)
zinc copper sulphate zinc sulphate copper
(blue) (colourless) (reddish-brown)
E. 1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (e) 4. (b) 5. (c)
F. 1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (b) 6. (d)
53
Short and Precise
A. 1. Conditions Necessary for Chemical Reactions
Close Presence of Heat Light

Electricity Pressure Catalyst
contact solution energy energy
2. Chemical Reactions
Combination Double displacement Decomposition Displacement

Redox reactions
reactions reactions reactions reactions
Precipitation Neutralisation Thermal Electric Photolytic

reaction reaction decomposition decomposition decomposition
Oxidation Reduction
3. Oxides
Acidic oxides Basic oxides

Amphoteric oxides Neutral oxides
Examples: CO2, SO2 Examples: Na2O, CaO,
Examples: ZnO, Al2O3 Examples: CO, NO
Cu2O
B. 1. Chemical reactions are the processes in which new substances with new properties
are formed. During a chemical reaction, rearrangement of atoms takes place between
the reacting substances to form new substances having entirely different properties.
2. When zinc granules are added to dilute sulphuric acid, hydrogen gas is evolved as a
brisk effervescence. If a burning matchstick is brought near the mouth of the test tube,
it burns with a pop sound.
dil. H2SO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + H2↑
dilute sulphuric acid zinc zinc sulphate hydrogen
3. The chemical reactions that take place in the presence of light are called photochemical
reactions.
Examples:
• Photosynthesis, a process by which the leaves of green plants prepare glucose and
oxygen from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of chlorophyll and sunlight,
is a photochemical reaction.
sunlight
6CO2 + H2O → C6H12 O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
• The decomposition of silver chloride in the presence of light is also a photochemical
reaction.
Light
2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl2
54
4. When a pinch of manganese (IV) oxide is added to hydrogen peroxide in a test tube,
there is an immediate effervescence. A glowing splinter placed near the mouth of the
test tube will relight showing that oxygen is being evolved. Here manganese (IV) oxide
acts as a catalyst.
5. Following are the functions of the enzymes pepsin and maltase.
• Pepsin is present in the stomach and helps in the breakdown of proteins into amino
acids. The enzymes involved at different stages of protein digestion are collectively
known as proteases.
• Enzyme maltase, present in the living cells of yeast, helps in the conversion of
maltose (a carbohydrate) into glucose.
6. The decomposition brought about by heat is called thermal decomposition. Examples:
• Thermal decomposition of limestone: When (limestone) calcium carbonate is
heated, it decomposes to calcium oxide (quick lime) and carbon dioxide.
heat
• Thermal decomposition of potassium chloride : Potassium chlorate when heated in
the presence of catalyst gives potassium chloride and oxygen.
MnO
2KClO3 →
300°C 2KCl + 3O2↑
2
potassium chlorate potassium chloride oxygen

7. Hydrochloric acid also known as the gastric acid present in the stomach helps in the
digestion of food. However, excess of hydrochloric acid causes a painful condition
called acidity and indigestion. Such a condition can be overcome by taking antacids
like milk of magnesia, which is a mild base and contains magnesium hydroxide
[Mg(OH)2]. It thus neutralizes the excess of hydrochloric acid.
8. When an ant or a bee stings, formic acid is injected into the body which causes itching.
To neutralize the effect of an ant or a bee sting, baking soda solution or calamine
solution is applied on the affected area. Baking soda contains sodium hydrogen
carbonate and calamine solution contains zinc hydroxide. Both these solutions are
basic in nature and hence help to reduce the itching.
9. Farmers use fertilizers to improve crop yield. Due to excessive use of fertilizers, the soil
becomes either too acidic or too basic thus preventing the proper growth of plants. If
the soil is too acidic, it can be treated with bases like quicklime which contains calcium
oxide or slaked lime which contains calcium hydroxide to neutralize the acidic nature
of soil.
10. The wastes released from factories are acidic in nature. If they are allowed to flow as it
is into the water bodies, they can cause huge damage to aquatic plants and animals.
Therefore, basic substances are added to factory wastes to neutralize their acidic
nature. They are then released into water bodies.
11. Some metals are chemically very reactive whereas others are less reactive or unreactive.
On the basis of vigour of reaction of various metals with oxygen, water and acids,
metals have been arranged in a group or series. The arrangement of metals in a vertical
column in the order of their decreasing reactivity is called reactivity or activity series
of metals. In reactivity series, the most reactive metal is placed at the top whereas the
least reactive metal is placed at the bottom. Following is the reactivity series of metals.
55
(Most reactive metal)
Potassium K
Sodium Na
These metals Calcium Ca
are more Magnesium Mg
reactive than Aluminium Al
hydrogen. Zinc Zn
Iron Fe Decreasing chemical
Nickel Ni reactivity
Tin Sn
Lead Pb
Hydrogen H
These metals are Copper Cu
highly unreactive. Mercury Hg
Silver Ag
Gold Au
Platinum Pt (Least reactive metal)
12. Some basic oxides dissolve in water to form soluble bases called alkalis.
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
sodium oxide water sodium hydroxide
K2O + H2O → 2KOH
potassium oxide water potassium hydroxide
Both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are strong alkalis. They turn red
litmus paper blue.
At Length
A. 1.
Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions
The chemical reaction in which heat The chemical reaction in which
energy is evolved is called exothermic heat energy is absorbed is called
reaction. endothermic reaction.
2. Catalyst Enzyme
A catalyst is a substance that alters the When a substance acts as a catalyst in a
rate of a chemical reaction without biochemical reaction, then it is called a
itself undergoing any permanent biocatalyst or an enzyme.
chemical change during the reaction.
3. Positive Catalyst Negative Catalyst

A catalyst that increases the rate of a A catalyst that decreases the rate of a
chemical reaction is called a positive chemical reaction is called a negative
catalyst. catalyst.
56
4. Combination Reaction Decomposition Reaction
• The chemical reaction in which two • The chemical reaction in which a
or more substances combine to compound splits into two or more
form a single substance is called a simpler substances is called a
combination reaction. decomposition reaction.
• The general representation of such a • The general representation of such a
reaction is as shown. reaction is as shown.
A + B → AB AB → A + B
5. Displacement Reaction Double Displacement Reaction

• The chemical reaction in which an • The chemical reaction in which two
element takes the place of another compounds react by exchange of
element in a compound is called ions to form two new compounds is
displacement reaction. called double displacement reaction.
• The general representation of a • The general representation of such a
displacement reaction is as shown. reaction is as shown.
AB + C → CB + A AB + CD → AD ↓ + BC
6. Oxidation Reduction
The addition of oxygen or the removal The addition of hydrogen or the
of hydrogen from a substance is called removal of oxygen from a substance is
oxidation. called reduction.
7. Oxidising Agent Reducing Agent

• An atom or a group of atoms which • An atom or a group of atoms which
accepts electrons during an oxidation loses electrons during a chemical
reaction is called an oxidising agent. reaction is called a reducing agent.
• Some common oxidizing agents are • Some common reducing agents
oxygen, ozone, chlorine, bromine, are hydrogen, carbon and sulphur
nitric acid and sulphuric acid. dioxide.
8.
Calcination Roasting
• Calcination is a decomposition • Roasting is a decomposition process
process in which a metallic ore is in which a metallic ore is heated in
heated in the absence or limited the presence of air at a very high
supply of air. temperature.
• This method is employed for • This method is employed for
carbonate ores. sulphide ores.
• Carbon dioxide is produced along • Sulphur dioxide is produced along
with metal oxide. with metal oxide.
57
9. Acidic Oxides Basic Oxides
• Acidic oxides or non-metallic oxides • Basic oxides or metallic oxides are
are formed when non-metals are formed when metals react with oxygen
heated in the presence of oxygen. on heating or without heating.
• Acidic oxides are usually gases at • Most of the basic oxides often exist
room temperature. as solids at room temperature.
• Acidic oxides dissolve in water to • They are generally insoluble in water.
produce acids.
• Most of the acidic oxides turn moist • They turn red litmus paper blue.
blue litmus paper red.
• Acidic oxides react with base and • Basic oxides react with acids to
alkali to form salt and water. produce salts.
10. Amphoteric Oxides Neutral Oxides

• Some metallic oxides can react with • The oxides which do not exhibit
both acids and bases to form salt and either acidic or basic properties are
water. They are called amphoteric called neutral oxides.
oxides.
• Zinc oxide and aluminium oxide can • Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous
react with both acids and bases. oxide (NO) are neutral in natural
and do not change the colour of
indicators.
B. To show neutralization reaction
• Take about 100 (50) mL calcium (sodium) hydroxide in a conical flask.
• Add 9–10 (2–3) drops of phenolphthalein solution to it. The solution turns green
(pink).
• Now add dilute sulphuric (hydrochloric) acid dropwise with the help of a test tube
(glass dropper). Shake well each time you add a drop.
What do you observe after some time?
The solution becomes pink (colourless).
• Now add a drop of calcium (sodium) hydroxide solution.
The solution becomes colourless (again turns pink).
• Again add a drop of dilute sulphuric (hydrochloric) acid.
You will see that the solution becomes colourless.
The stage when the base is completely neutralized by the acid is the neutralization point,
i.e., when the solution becomes completely pink (colourless).
C. 1. In addition to the formation of new substances, a chemical reaction may be
accompanied by one or more of the following characteristics.
(a) Evolution of gas: Some chemical reactions are characterized by evolution of gas.
The gas released is indicated by an upward direction.
(b) Change of colour: Some reactions are characterized by change of colour. The
reactants are of a different colour and the products formed are different in colour.
58
(c) Formation of precipitate: Some reactions are characterized by the formation of
precipitate. It is indicated by a downward arrow(↓)
(d) Change of state: In many chemical reactions, a change of physical state is
observed.
(e) Change in energy: Some reactions are characterized by absorption or evolution
of heat, light or any other radiation.
• Absorption of light: Plants prepare food from carbon dioxide by absorption of
sunlight.
• Depending upon the absorption or evolution of heat, chemical reactions are
of two types.
 Exothermic reaction: The chemical reaction in which heat energy is
evolved is called exothermic reaction.
 Endothermic reaction: The chemical reaction in which heat energy is
absorbed is called endothermic reaction.
2. Activity 6.3 given on page 110 in the textbook shows the formation of a precipitate
during a chemical reaction.
3. Chemical reactions take place when the necessary conditions are met. Some chemical
reactions occur on their own while some chemical reactions take place in the presence
of heat, light and electricity. Some reactions take place when reactants are subjected
to high pressure. Let’s see certain conditions required for chemical reactions to take
place.
(a) Close contact: The reactants must be in direct contact with each other for a
chemical reaction to occur and there should be attraction between the physical
states of the reactants.
(b) Presence of solution: Some chemical reactions take place only when the reactants
are mixed in a solution form. This results in bringing the reactants into contact at
a faster rate.
(c) Heat energy: Some chemical reactions take place only in the presence of heat.
(d) Light energy: Some chemical reactions can take place in the presence of light.
Such reactions are called photochemical reactions.
(e) Electricity: Some chemical reactions occur when the electricity is passed through
the reactants. Such reactions are called electrochemical reactions.
(f ) Pressure: Some chemical reactions occur when the reactants are subjected to
high pressure.
(g) Catalyst: Some reactions take place in the presence of a catalyst.
The rate of a chemical reaction can be controlled by the concentration of reactants,
temperature, pressure and the presence of catalyst that is capable of altering the rate
of a chemical reaction.
4. According to the nature of chemical change, chemical reactions can be classified into
the following types.
• Combination reactions: The chemical reaction in which two or more substances
combine to form a single substance is called a combination reaction. Such a reaction
is also called synthesis reaction.
59
• Decomposition reactions: The chemical reaction in which a compound splits into
two or more simpler substances is called a decomposition reaction. A decomposition
reaction is just the opposite of a combination reaction. The decomposition brought
about by heat is called thermal decomposition. The decomposition brought about
by electricity is called electric decomposition. The decomposition brought about
by light is called photolytic decomposition.
• Displacement reactions: The chemical reaction in which an element takes the place
of another element in a compound is called displacement reaction. In general, a
more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound. Also a more
reactive metal than hydrogen displaces hydrogen from an acid, an alkali or water.
• Double displacement reactions: The chemical reaction in which two compounds
react by exchange of ions to form two new compounds is called double displacement
reaction. Double displacement reactions are of two types: (a) Precipitation reaction;
(b) Neutralization reaction.
• Redox reactions (Oxidation-reduction reactions): The chemical reaction in which
oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously is called redox reaction.
5. Activity 6.5 given on page 116 and 117 in the textbook discusses the thermal
decomposition of ammonium chloride.
6. Precipitation Reaction Neutralization Reaction
• The chemical reaction in which an • The chemical reaction in which an
insoluble solid called precipitate acid reacts with a base to form salt
separates from the solution is called a and water is called neutralization
precipitation reaction. reaction.
• Barium chloride and copper sulphate • Sodium hydroxide and dilute
in solution form react to form a white hydrochloric acid react in solution
precipitate of barium sulphate. form to form sodium chloride salt
and water.
7. The chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously is
called redox reaction.
• The addition of oxygen or the removal of hydrogen from a substance is called
oxidation.
Addition of oxygen: Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
heat
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
magnesium oxygen magnesium oxide
We can see that magnesium gets oxidized with the addition of oxygen.
Removal of hydrogen: Hydrogen sulphide reacts with chlorine and gets oxidized
to sulphur due to loss of hydrogen.
H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
hydrogen sulphide chlorine hydrochloric acid sulphur
• The addition of hydrogen or the removal of oxygen from a substance is called
reduction.
Removal of oxygen: Copper oxide reacts with hydrogen to form copper by the
removal of oxygen from copper.
60
heat
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
copper oxide hydrogen copper water
Copper oxide is reduced to copper.
Addition of hydrogen: Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
hydrogen chlorine hydrogen chloride
Since hydrogen is added to chlorine, it is a reduction reaction.
Oxidising and Reducing Agents

• Oxidising agent: An atom or a group of atoms which accepts electrons during an
oxidation reaction is called an oxidising agent. Some common oxidising agents are
oxygen, ozone, chlorine, bromine, nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
• Reducing agent: An atom or a group of atoms which loses electrons during a
chemical reaction is called a reducing agent. Some common reducing agents are
hydrogen, carbon and sulphur dioxide.
Examples:

• Reaction between copper oxide and hydrogen: Copper oxide reacts with
hydrogen to form copper and water. Removal of oxygen takes place from copper
oxide to form copper (reduction) and addition of oxygen to hydrogen takes place
to form water (oxidation).
reduction
removal of oxygen
heat
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
addition of oxygen
oxidation
Substance oxidized: H2 Oxidizing agent: CuO
Substance reduced: CuO Reducing agent: H2
• Reaction between chlorine and hydrogen sulphide: Chlorine reacts with hydrogen
sulphide to form hydrogen chloride and sulphur. Hydrogen is added to chlorine to
form hydrogen chloride (reduction).
reduction
addition of hydrogen
Cl2 + H2S → 2HCl + S

removal of hydrogen
oxidation
Substance oxidized: H2S Oxidizing agent: Cl2
Substance reduced: Cl2 Reducing agent: H2S
8. Acidic oxides: Acidic oxides or non-metallic oxides are formed when non-metals are
heated in the presence of oxygen.
• Non-metals react with oxygen to produce acidic oxides.
61
Non-metals like carbon, sulphur, nitrogen and hydrogen combine with oxygen to
produce their oxides.
heat
C + O2 → CO2
carbon oxygen carbon dioxide
• Acidic oxides dissolve in water to produce acids.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
carbon dioxide water carbonic acid
• Acidic oxides react with base and alkali to form salt and water.
CO2 + 2NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O
carbon dioxide sodium hydroxide sodium carbonate water
Basic oxides: Basic oxides or metallic oxides are formed when metals react with
oxygen on heating or without heating.
• Most of the basic oxides often exist as solids at room temperature.
• They are generally insoluble in water.
• Some of these basic oxides dissolve in water to form soluble bases called alkalis.
Na2O + H2O → 2NaOH
sodium oxide water sodium hydroxide
Observe and Perform

1. This image represents the evolution of gas when zinc granules are added to dilute
sulphuric acid.
2. On adding the dilute sulphuric acid over zinc granules you will observe that bubbles
of hydrogen gas will be formed around the zinc granules.
Apply Your Learning
A. When substance X is heated, carbon dioxide gas is evolved. If this gas is passed through
lime water, lime water turns milky. Substance X here is calcium carbonate.
B. When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through blue-coloured copper sulphate solution,
a solid substance is formed. This substance is called precipitate. The solid substance
formed in this reaction is copper sulphide (black ppt).
C. Enzyme X present in the living cells of yeast that helps in the fermentation of glucose in
alcohol is zymase.
Life Skills
Integrate with Mathematics
CH4(s) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Integrate with Physics
One of the main differences between nuclear reaction and chemical reaction is related to
how the reaction takes place in the atom. While nuclear reaction takes place in the atom’s
nucleus, the electrons in the atom are responsible for chemical reactions.
62
The chemical reactions involve the transfer, loss, gain and sharing of electrons and nothing
takes place in the nucleus. Nuclear reactions involve the decomposition of the nucleus and
have nothing to do with the electrons. When the nucleus decomposes, it may change to
another atom because of the loss of neutrons or protons. In a nuclear reaction, the protons
and neutrons react inside the nucleus and in chemical reactions the electrons react outside
the nucleus.

A. 1. Exothermic reaction 2. Electrochemical reaction 3. Catalyst
4. Biocatalyst or enzyme 5. Reducing agent
B. 1. False 2. True 3. True 4. False 5. True
C. 1. The chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is called endothermic reaction.
2. A catalyst that increases the rate of a chemical reaction is called a positive catalyst.
3. The enzymes involved at different stages of protein digestion are collectively known
as proteases.
4. A chemical reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a single
substance is called a synthesis reaction.
5. A decomposition reaction brought about by light is called photodecomposition.
6. The addition of hydrogen or the removal of oxygen from a substance is known as
reduction.
7. An atom or a group of atoms which accepts electrons during an oxidation reaction is
known as oxidizing agent.
8. A decomposition process in which a metallic ore is heated in the absence or limited
supply of air is called calcination.
D. 1. 2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2 2. Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
3. 2NH4OH + FeSO4 → Fe(OH)2↓ + (NH4)2SO4
4. 2[Pb(NO3)2] 
→ 2PbO + 4NO2↑ + O2↑
5. Cl2 + 2KBr → 2KCl + Br2
6. Na2CO3 + Pb(NO3)2 
→ PbCO3↓ + 2NaNO3
E. 1. Following are the examples of chemical reactions that are characterized by change of
colour:
• When solid lead nitrate is heated, reddish-brown nitrogen gas is evolved with
oxygen. Also, a yellow-coloured lead monoxide is formed.
heat
2[Pb(NO3)2] → 2PbO + 4NO2↑ + O2↑
lead nitrate lead oxide nitrogen dioxide oxygen
(yellow) (reddish-brown)
• When an iron nail is dropped in blue-coloured copper sulphate solution, the blue
colour of the solution on fades and eventually turns into light green.
(blue) (green)
63
• When green-coloured copper (II) carbonate is heated strongly, it decomposes to
form black-coloured copper (II) oxide and carbon dioxide gas is evolved.
heat
CuCO3 → CuO + CO2↑
copper (II) carbonate copper (II) oxide carbon dioxide
(green) (black)
2. Following are the difference between endothermic reactions and exothermic

reactions.
Exothermic reaction: The chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved is called
exothermic reaction.
Examples:
• When water is added to quicklime, heat energy is evolved.
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + Heat
quicklime water calcium hydroxide
• When carbon burns in oxygen, heat energy is evolved.
C + O2 → CO2↑ + Heat
Endothermic reaction: The chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is

called endothermic reaction.
Examples:
• When carbon and sulphur are heated, heat energy is absorbed.
C + 2S + Heat → CS2
carbon sulphur carbon sulphide
• When carbon burns in oxygen, heat energy is evolved.
3000°C
N2 + O2 + Heat → 2NO↑
nitrogen oxygen nitric oxide
3. Chemical reactions take place when the necessary conditions are met. Some chemical
reactions occur on their own while some chemical reactions take place in the presence
of heat, light and electricity. Some reactions take place when reactants are subjected
to high pressure. Let’s see certain conditions required for chemical reactions to take
place.
Example: Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water.
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2↑
sodium water sodium hydroxide hydrogen
a faster rate.
Example: When sodium sulphate and barium chloride are mixed in an aqueous
solution, a white precipitate of barium chloride is formed.
64
Na2SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl
sodium sulphate barium chloride barium sulphate sodium chloride
(white ppt)
Example: Calcium carbonate on heating gives carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
heat

Example:
• Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.
6CO2 + 6H2O sunlight
→ C6H12O6 + 6CO2
carbon dioxide chlorophyll
water glucose oxygen
Example: Water dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen when electric current is
passed through it.
2H2O electricity
→ 2H2 + O2
water current hydrogen oxygen
high pressure.
Example: Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen under high pressure to form ammonia.
N2 + 3H2 450oC
→ 2NH3
200
nitrogen hydrogen atm ammonia
(g) Catalyst: Some reactions take place in the presence of a catalyst. A catalyst is a
substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any
permanent chemical change.
4. Enzymes and catalysts both affect the rate of a reaction. In fact, all known enzymes
are catalysts, but not all catalysts are enzymes. The difference between catalysts and
enzymes is that a catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction
without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change during the reaction
whereas when a substance acts as a catalyst in a biochemical reaction, then it is called
a biocatalyst or an enzyme.
5. Following are the points that elaborate the importance of neutralization reactions in
our daily life:
• Acidity: Hydrochloric acid present in the stomach helps in the digestion of food.
However, excess of hydrochloric acid causes acidity and indigestion. This condition
can be overcome by taking antacids like milk of magnesia, which is a mild base
and contains magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]. It thus neutralizes the excess of
hydrochloric acid.
• Ant and bee sting: When an ant or a bee stings, formic acid is injected into the body
which causes itching. To neutralize the effect of an ant or a bee sting, baking soda
solution or calamine solution is applied on the affected area. Baking soda contains
65
sodium hydrogen carbonate and calamine solution contains zinc hydroxide. Both
these solutions are basic in nature and hence help to reduce the itching.
Soil treatment: Due to excessive use of fertilizers, soil becomes either too acidic or
•
too basic thus preventing the proper growth of plants. If the soil is too acidic, it can
be treated with bases like quicklime which contains calcium oxide or slaked lime
which contains calcium hydroxide to neutralize the acidic nature of soil.
Disposal of factory wastes: The wastes released from factories are acidic in nature.
•
If they are allowed to flow as it is into water bodies, they can cause huge damage to
aquatic plants and animals. Therefore, basic substances are added to factory wastes
to neutralize their acidic nature.
Toothpastes: The toothpastes that we use today contain bases to neutralize the
•
acids formed in the mouth.
6. An oxide is a chemical compound containing oxygen in its molecule, chemically
combined with a metal or a non-metal. Oxides are of four types depending upon the
nature and properties of the compounds.
• Acidic oxides: Acidic oxides or non-metallic oxides are formed when non-metals
are heated in the presence of oxygen.
• Basic oxides: Basic oxides or metallic oxides are formed when metals react with
• Neutral oxides: The oxides which do not exhibit either acidic or basic properties are
called neutral oxides. Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (NO) are neutral in
natural and do not change the colour of indicators.
• Amphoteric oxides: Some metallic oxides like zinc oxide and aluminium oxide can
react with both acids and bases to form salt and water. They are called amphoteric
oxides.
Project
66
7. Hydrogen
1. False
2. proton, electron
3. Henry Cavendish
4. Potassium when treated with cold water liberates hydrogen and forms potassium
hydroxide. Potassium reacts with cold water so violently that hydrogen evolved could
immediately catch fire.
5. False
6. hydrogen, oxygen
7. Bosch’s
8. Water gas
1. True
2. pale blue
3. False
4. exothermic
5. When hydrogen gas is passed through molten sulphur, hydrogen sulphide gas is
formed which gives a rotten egg smell.
6. reducing, oxides
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. water
2. Bosch’s
3. carbon monoxide, hydrogen
4. exothermic
5. hydrocarbons
6. pale blue
B. 1. Acidulated water is made by adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid to make it a
better conductor of electricity. (dilute sulphuric acid to pure water)
2. Hydrogen is a basic gas. (neutral)
3. Hydrogen is used extensively in the production of hydrogen carbonate by Haber’s
process. (ammonia (NH3))
4. The process of removing oxygen on adding hydrogen to an element or a compound is
called oxidation. (reduction)
5. A substance that brings about reduction is called an oxidizing agent. (a reducing)
6. In a displacement reaction, both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
(redox)
67
C. 1. Hydrogen is a neutral gas. It is neither acidic nor basic, hence no change occurs in the
colour of litmus.
2. The reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is highly exothermic. Hydrogen burns in oxygen
with a pale blue flame to form steam which on condensation forms water. The energy
released in this process is harnessed to propel space rockets.
3. Hydrogen and chlorine combine slowly in diffused sunlight and explosively in bright
sunlight to form hydrogen chloride gas.
H2 + Cl2 → HCl↑
hydrogen chlorine hydrogen chloride gas
4. Hydrogen does not combine with nitrogen under ordinary conditions. In the presence
of iron as a catalyst and at 450°C temperature and 200 atmospheric pressure, hydrogen
reacts with nitrogen in the ratio 3:1 by volume to produce ammonia gas. This reaction
is reversible and exothermic, and is known as the Haber’s process.
iron
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + Heat
400°, 200 atm
5. Hydrogen combines with carbon to form compounds called hydrocarbons. This
reaction occurs at a temperature above 520°C in the presence of nickel or cobalt acting
as a catalyst.
2H2 + C → CH4
hydrogen carbon methane
6. When hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide at a temperature of 300–400°C under
high pressure in the presence of nickel acting as a catalyst, methane and water are
produced. This reaction is known as Sabatier reaction. The requirement of water for
astronauts inside the International Space Station is fulfilled using this reaction.
CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + H2O + Energy
7. When hydrogen gas is passed through molten sulphur, hydrogen sulphide gas is
formed which gives a pungent smell.
H2 + S → H2S
8. Hydrogen reacts with certain highly reactive metals at a high temperature to form salt-
like compounds called metal hydrides.
2Na + H2 → 2NaH
D. 1. (d) 2. (e) 3. (f ) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c)
E. 1. 2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2↑
2. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2↑
3. 2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2↑
4. Fe2O3 + 3H2 → 2Fe + 3H2O
5. Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2↑
6. Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2↑
F. 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (d) 6. (a)
7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (d)
68
Short and Precise
A. 1. Bosch’s Process
Production of water gas
Conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
Separation of hydrogen from the mixture
2. Hydrogen
Physical Properties Chemical Properties
• Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, • Hydrogen is a neutral gas. It is neither acidic nor

tasteless and non-poisonous gas. basic, hence no change occurs in the colour of
• It is the lightest of all the gases. litmus.
• It is almost insoluble in water. • It is combustible in air but it does not support
• Hydrogen gas cannot be liquefied easily. combustion. Pure hydrogen burns in air with a
• The melting point of hydrogen is –259°C pale blue flame producing water vapour and heat
and its boiling point is –253°C. energy.
• It is a highly inflammable gas and burns • The reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is highly
with a pop sound. It has a pale blue exothermic.
flame. • Hydrogen and chlorine combine slowly in diffused
sunlight and explosively in bright sunlight to form
hydrogen chloride gas.
• Hydrogen does not combine with nitrogen under
ordinary conditions.
• When hydrogen gas is passed through molten
sulphur, hydrogen sulphide gas is formed which
gives a pungent smell.
• When hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide at
a temperature of 300–400°C under high pressure
in the presence of nickel acting as a catalyst,
methane and water are produced.
• Hydrogen combines with carbon to form
compounds called hydrocarbons.
• Hydrogen reacts with certain highly reactive
metals at a high temperature to form salt-like
compounds called metal hydrides.
B. 1. Metals like copper and silver cannot displace hydrogen from acids or water because
these metals are placed below hydrogen in the activity series and are less reactive. The
metals below hydrogen in the activity series do not displace hydrogen from water and
dilute acids.
2. Dilute nitric acid is not used to prepare hydrogen because it is a strong oxidizing agent
and liberates nitric oxide or nitrogen dioxide.
3. The first few bubbles of hydrogen gas are not collected during the laboratory
preparation of Hydrogen because they contain air.
69
C. 1. The chemical reaction in which an element takes the place of another element in a
compound is called displacement reaction.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
zinc sulphuric acid zinc sulphate hydrogen
2. Dilute sulphuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid liberate hydrogen when they are
treated with metals placed above hydrogen in the activity series of metals.
3. Metals like aluminium, zinc and lead react with hot alkali solution and liberate
hydrogen.
2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2↑
aluminium sodium hydroxide water sodium aluminate hydrogen
Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2↑
zinc sodium hydroxide sodium zincate hydrogen
Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2↑
lead sodium hydroxide sodium plumbate hydrogen
4. Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Water gas is formed when
water in the form of superheated steam reacts with carbon (white-hot coke) at a
temperature of about 1000°C.
C + H2O → CO + H2 + Heat
5. Activity 7.2 given on page 143 in the textbook shows that hydrogen gas is combustible.
6. Hydrogen combines with carbon to form compounds called hydrocarbons. This
reaction occurs at a temperature above 520°C in the presence of nickel or cobalt acting
as a catalyst.
2H2 + C → CH4
hydrogen carbon methane
The reaction can be reversed on further raising the temperature.
7. Tests for the presence of hydrogen are as follows.
• Pure hydrogen burns with a pale blue flame in air. But impure hydrogen burns in air
with a characteristic pop sound.
• When hydrogen is burnt in air, water is formed. When a few drops of water so
formed are sprinkled on white anhydrous copper sulphate, the latter turns into blue
anhydrous copper sulphate.
8. Hydrogen gas is used in the preparation of solid vanaspati ghee from liquid vegetable
oils such as palm oil, groundnut oil and coconut oil. In this process, liquid vegetable
oils are treated with hydrogen under pressure in the presence of finely divided nickel,
platinum or palladium as a catalyst. This process is thus called catalytic hydrogenation
of oils.
At Length
A. To show the formation of hydrogen chloride gas
• Take two jars. Fill both the jars with hydrogen gas (a jar with hydrogen gas and the
other with chlorine gas).
• Invert the jar filled with hydrogen (chlorine) over the jar filled with chlorine
(hydrogen) gas.
70
• Remove the lids of both jars to mix the two gases.
• Expose the two jars to sunlight.
What do you observe after some time?
The bluish (greenish) yellow colour of hydrogen (chlorine) gas disappears and a red-
coloured (colourless) gas is formed.
• Now bring a glass rod dipped sodium chloride (in ammonia chloride) solution near
the mouth of the gas jar.
What do you observe?
Dense green (white) fumes of sodium (ammonium) chloride are produced.
This shows the formation of sodium (hydrogen) chloride gas when hydrogen gas
reacts with chlorine in the presence of diffused sunlight.
B. 1. Occurrence of hydrogen in nature: Hydrogen makes up almost 90% of the matter in
the universe. It makes up only 1.0% of the earth’s crust, oceans and atmosphere. There
is practically no hydrogen in the earth’s atmosphere. This is because the free hydrogen
is so light that it has escaped far above the earth into the outer atmosphere.
On earth, hydrogen occurs in a free state in very small quantities, mainly in volcanic
gases. The most important compound of hydrogen is water (H2O) that covers 70% of
the earth’s surface.
Hydrogen combines with other elements to form compounds such as acids, bases,
hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The occurrence of hydrogen on the
earth in various forms of compound is shown in the given table.
Compounds of hydrogen on the earth
Combination of hydrogen Compounds Occurrence
with
Oxygen Water (H2O) Oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,
ponds, water vapour in air,
underground water, etc.
Carbon Hydrocarbons Oil, petroleum and natural gas
Carbon, oxygen and Organic compounds Animal and vegetable matter
nitrogen
Chlorine, sulphur, nitrogen Acids, alkalis Prepared in laboratory
and oxygen
2. The preparation of hydrogen by the action of water on metals is as follows.

• From cold water: Metals like potassium, sodium and calcium when treated with
cold water liberate hydrogen and form corresponding hydroxides.
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2↑
potassium water potassium hydroxide hydrogen
Potassium and sodium react with cold water so violently that hydrogen evolved
could immediately catch fire.
• From hot water: Magnesium reacts with hot water, liberating hydrogen and
forming magnesium hydroxide.
71
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2↑
magnesium hot water magnesium hydroxide hydrogen
From steam: Metals like aluminium, zinc and iron react with steam to liberate
•
hydrogen gas and form corresponding oxides.
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2↑
aluminium water aluminium oxide hydrogen
(steam)
3. Preparation of hydrogen by the action of dilute acids on metals: Dilute sulphuric
acid and dilute hydrochloric acid liberate hydrogen when they are treated with metals
placed above hydrogen in the activity series of metals.
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2↑
magnesium sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate hydrogen
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2↑
zinc hydrochloric acid zinc chloride hydrogen
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2↑
iron hydrochloric acid iron chloride hydrogen
4. Preparation of hydrogen by electrolysis of water: When electric current is passed
through acidulated water, it dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is
called electrolysis. Acidulated water is made by adding a few drops of dilute sulphuric
acid to pure water to make it a better conductor of electricity.
electric current
2H2O → 2H2↑ + O2↑
(acidulated water) hydrogen gas oxygen gas
Hydrogen produced is collected at the cathode (negative electrode) and oxygen is
collected at the positive electrode (anode) in the ratio 2:1 by volume.
hydrogen oxygen
platinum
electrodes
acidulated
water
(electrolyte)
Hydrogen preparation by electrolysis
72
5. Laboratory preparation of hydrogen: In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by the
action of dilute sulphuric acid or dilute hydrochloric acid on zinc granules.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
hydrogen gas
dilute hydrochloric acid

water
beehive shelf
zinc granules
Laboratory preparation of hydrogen
A few zinc granules are placed in a flat-bottom flask and the mouth of the flask is
closed with a two-holed rubber stopper. A thistle funnel is passed through one hole
and a delivery tube is introduced through the other hole. The other end of the delivery
tube is placed inside a beehive shelf kept in a trough containing water. A gas jar is
inverted over the beehive shelf.
Dilute sulphuric acid is poured through the thistle funnel into the flask until all the
granules are completely covered with the acid. A vigorous reaction takes place and
hydrogen bubbles rise up from the surface of the zinc granules. The first few bubbles
of gas are allowed to escape. The bubbles of hydrogen gas are transferred through the
delivery tube and collected in the gas jar by the downward displacement of water. In
this method, hydrogen displaces water and gets collected in the gas jar.
6. Safety precautions to be taken during laboratory preparation of hydrogen are as
follows.
• The apparatus must be airtight so that any leakage of gas does not take place. This
is necessary as hydrogen forms an explosive mixture with air.
• No flame should be brought near the apparatus because if the gas leaks, it will be
inflammable.
• The lower end of the thistle funnel should be completely covered with dilute acid.
• The first few bubbles of hydrogen gas should not be collected as they contain air.
7. The process of adding oxygen to an element or a compound is called oxidation and
a substance that brings about oxidation is called an oxidizing agent. The process of
removing oxygen or adding hydrogen to an element or a compound is called reduction
and a substance that brings about reduction is called a reducing agent.
73
In a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously. When
hydrogen gas is passed over hot oxides of metals like copper, lead, iron and zinc,
removal of oxygen from metal oxides takes place. In this process, hydrogen itself gets
oxidized into water.
reduction
CuO + H2 → Cu + H O
2
oxidation
PbO + H2 → Pb + H2O
lead(II) oxide hydrogen lead water
8. Following are the uses of hydrogen.
• Hydrogen is used extensively in the production of ammonia (NH3) by Haber’s
process. Ammonia is widely used to manufacture fertilizers and nitric acid.
• Hydrogen gas is also used in the manufacturing of hydrochloric acid and methanol.
• Hydrogen gas is used in the preparation of solid vanaspati ghee from liquid
vegetable oils such as palm oil, groundnut oil and coconut oil.
• It is used in the production of oxy-hydrogen flame which is a high temperature
flame used for cutting and welding of metals.
• Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets and guided missiles. This is because it
has high heat of combustion. Coal gas and water gas are some hydrogen-based
fuels.
• Hydrogen is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy to extract pure metals from
their oxides.
• It is used to produce hydrogen chloride gas.
• Hydrogen is seen as an alternate source of energy for the future. It can even
replace hydrocarbons as it forms water rather than harmful gases on burning. It is a
pollution-free fuel (clean fuel).
Observe and Perform

1. The most reactive metal: Potassium
The least reactive metal: Platinum
2. The metals that react with cold water, steam and acids to produce hydrogen gas and
hydroxides are Potassium, Sodium and Calcium
3. The metals that cannot react with cold water and react only with steam and acids to
produce hydrogen gas and metal oxides are Magnesium, Aluminium, Zinc and Iron
4. The metals that react only with dilute acids to produce hydrogen gas are Tin and Lead
5. The metals that do not react with water, steam or dilute acids are Copper, Mercury,
Silver, Gold and Platinum
Apply Your Learning

A. Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets and guided missiles because it has high heat
of combustion. Coal gas and water gas are some hydrogen-based fuels.
74
B. Hydrogen is seen as an alternate source of energy for the future because it forms water
rather than harmful gases on burning. It is a pollution-free fuel (clean fuel).
Life Skills
Integrate with Mathematics
H2O
Mass of oxygen atom = 16 a.m.u
Mass of hydrogen atom = 1 a.m.u
Mass of hydrogen atom in water = 2 × 1 = 2 a.m.u
Total mass of water = 2 + 16 = 18 a.m.u.
Percentage of hydrogen in water = 2 × 100
18
1
= × 100 = 11.11%
9
\ Percentage of hydrogen in water is 11.11%.
H2SO4
Mass of oxygen atom = 16 a.m.u
Mass of hydrogen atom = 1 a.m.u
Mass of sulphur atom = 32 a.m.u
Mass of oxygen in sulphuric acid = 16 × 4 = 64 a.m.u.
Mass of sulphur in sulphuric acid = 32 × 1 = 32 a.m.u.
Mass of hydrogen in sulphuric acid = 1 × 2 = 2 a.m.u.
Total mass of sulphuric acid = 98 a.m.u.
Percentage of hydrogen in sulphuric acid = 2 × 100
98
= 2.04%
\ Percentage of hydrogen in sulphuric acid is 2.04%.
Integrate with Physics
A. 1. 90% 2. Henry Cavendish

3. hydrogen, sodium hydroxide
4. Acidulated water 5. –259°C, –253°C 6. –240°C, 20
B. 1. False 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. True
C. 1. ( ) 2. ( ) 3. ( ) 4. ( ) 5. ( )
75
D. 1. Discovery of hydrogen: In 1766, Henry Cavendish discovered the element hydrogen.
He then called it ‘inflammable air’ or ‘phlogiston’. He observed that it is distinct from
other combustible gases. He studied the properties of hydrogen and found that the
only product we get on burning hydrogen is water. In 1781, Antoine Lavoisier, a French
chemist named this gas as hydrogen. In Greek hydro means water and genes means
forming. So hydrogen means forming water.
2. The chemical reaction in which an element takes the place of another element in a
compound is called displacement reaction. In laboratories and industries, hydrogen is
prepared from its compound as it is not available in free state. Hydrogen is obtained by
its displacement from compounds like water, dilute acids and alkalis by more reactive
metals. Such reactions are called displacement reactions.
3. Preparation of hydrogen by electrolysis of water: First, acidulated water is made by
adding a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to pure water to make it a better conductor
of electricity. Then, electric current is passed through acidulated water because of
which it dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen. This process is called electrolysis.
electric current
2H2O → 2H2↑ + O2↑
4. In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by the action of dilute sulphuric acid or dilute
hydrochloric acid on zinc granules as shown.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
5. Following are the physical and chemical properties of hydrogen.
Physical Properties of Hydrogen:
• Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-poisonous gas.
• It is the lightest of all the gases. One litre of hydrogen gas weighs 0.09 g at 1
atmospheric pressure and 0°C. It is about 20 times lighter than air.
• It is almost insoluble in water. One litre (1000 cm3) of water dissolves about
21.4 cm3 of hydrogen gas at ordinary temperature and pressure.
76
• Hydrogen gas cannot be liquefied easily. It liquefies into a colourless liquid at
–240°C and 20 atmospheric pressure.
• The melting point of hydrogen is –259°C and its boiling point is –253°C.
• It is a highly inflammable gas and burns with a pop sound. It has a pale blue flame.
Chemical Properties of Hydrogen:

• Action with litmus: Hydrogen is a neutral gas. It is neither acidic nor basic, hence no
change occurs in the colour of litmus.
• Combustibility: Hydrogen is combustible in air but it does not support combustion.
Pure hydrogen burns in air with a pale blue flame producing water vapour and heat
energy.
• Reaction with oxygen: The reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is highly exothermic.
Hydrogen burns in oxygen with a pale blue flame to form steam which on
condensation forms water. The energy released in this process is harnessed to
propel space rockets.
• Reaction with chlorine: Hydrogen and chlorine combine slowly in diffused sunlight
and explosively in bright sunlight to form hydrogen chloride gas.
• Reaction with nitrogen: Hydrogen does not combine with nitrogen under ordinary
conditions. In the presence of iron as a catalyst and at 450°C temperature and 200
atmospheric pressure, hydrogen reacts with nitrogen in the ratio 3:1 by volume to
produce ammonia gas. This reaction is reversible and exothermic, and is known as
the Haber’s process.
• Reaction with sulphur: When hydrogen gas is passed through molten sulphur,
hydrogen sulphide gas is formed which gives a pungent smell.
• Reaction with carbon dioxide: When hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide at a
temperature of 300–400°C under high pressure in the presence of nickel acting as a
catalyst, methane and water are produced.
• Reaction with carbon: Hydrogen combines with carbon to form compounds called
hydrocarbons. This reaction occurs at a temperature above 520°C in the presence of
nickel or cobalt acting as a catalyst. The reaction can be reversed on further raising
the temperature.
• Reaction with metals: Hydrogen reacts with certain highly reactive metals at a high
temperature to form salt-like compounds called metal hydrides.
6. Presence of hydrogen can be tested in two ways.
(i) Pure hydrogen burns with a pale blue flame in air. But impure hydrogen burns in
air with a characteristic pop sound.
(ii) When hydrogen is burnt in air, water is formed. When a few drops of water so
formed are sprinkled on white anhydrous copper sulphate, the latter turns into
blue anhydrous copper sulphate.
7. The process of adding oxygen to an element or a compound is called oxidation and
a substance that brings about oxidation is called an oxidizing agent. The process of
removing oxygen or adding hydrogen to an element or a compound is called reduction
and a substance that brings about reduction is called a reducing agent.
77
• Hydrogen gas is also used in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid and methanol.
• It is used in the preparation of solid vanaspati ghee from liquid vegetable oils such
as palm oil, groundnut oil and coconut oil.
• Hydrogen is used in the production of oxy-hydrogen flame which is a high
temperature flame used for cutting and welding of metals.
• Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets and guided missiles. This is because it
has high heat of combustion. Coal gas and water gas are some hydrogen-based
fuels.
• Hydrogen is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy to extract pure metals from
their oxides.
• It is used to produce hydrogen chloride gas.
• Hydrogen is seen as an alternate source of energy for the future. It can even
replace hydrocarbons as it forms water rather than harmful gases on burning. It is a
Project
78
8. Water
1. Rainwater 2. water table 3. water cycle 4. Water cycle 5. Transpiration
1. True
2. The water present in rivers, lakes and ponds comes from melting of snow on mountains
and from rain.
3. False
4. False
5. The survival of aquatic animals in cold countries is attributed to anomalous expansion
of water.
1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (e) 4. (b) 5. (c)
1. Magnesium reacts slowly with hot water to form white sparsely soluble magnesium
oxide and hydrogen gas.
2. If some soap solution is added to an aqueous solution of calcium or magnesium salt
then instead of lather an insoluble substance called scum is formed.
3. The water that forms lather easily with soap is called soft water. The water that does
not form lather with soap is called hard water.
4. Following are the disadvantages of hard water.
• Hard water is not suitable for drinking and cooking purposes.
• It is unfit for washing as it results in wastage of soap. The scum formed is difficult to
remove and leaves dirty stains on clothes.
• The scum deposits as scales on metals and they soon lose their shine in hard water.
• Hard water is also unfit for use in factories and industries as it forms scales that
damage machines and also causes wastage of fuel.
5. Permanent hardness of water can be removed by adding chemicals such as washing
soda (sodium carbonate). Sodium carbonate converts soluble calcium sulphate and
magnesium sulphate to insoluble carbonates that can be removed by filtration.
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. Rainwater 2. ultraviolet rays, reverse osmosis
3. minerals, nutrients 4. hydrated salts 5. magnesium 6. boiling
79
B. 1. Filtered water is sterilized to remove harmful bacteria by adding sulphur. (chlorine)
2. Muddy water can be cleaned by adding a crystal of copper sulphate. (alum)
3. A solution that contains more dissolved substance than could normally be dissolved at
a specific temperature is called saturated solution. (supersaturated solution)
4. A true solution is a heterogeneous solution which consists of solid particles having
particle size of above 10,000 Angstrom. (suspension)
5. Efflorescence refers to the process of absorbing moisture from air which is not sufficient
to transform the state of a substance. (Hygroscopy)
6. The chemical name of blue vitriol is zinc sulphate heptahydrate. (white)
C. 1. (b); (iv) 2. (e); (vi) 3. (d); (i) 4. (a); (ii) 5. (c); (v) 6. (f ); (iii)
D. 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (c) 6. (c)
E. 1. Following are the three uses of water.
(a) A large amount of water is needed by plants during photosynthesis.
(b) It helps in transportation of minerals in various parts of the plants.
(c) It is used for transportation and sanitation purposes.
2. The major sources of water are rainwater, surface water and groundwater.
3. Water is added to the atmosphere by the following processes.
• Water present on earth in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies
evaporates due to the heat of the sun and rises upwards into the atmosphere.
• Transpiration by plants releases water to the atmosphere.
• Respiration by living organisms also releases water to the atmosphere.
4. The main processes involved in purification of water obtained from lakes or rivers are
sedimentation, filtration and chlorination.
5. Following are the uses of distilled water.
• Distilled water is used in batteries of cars and inverters.
• It is used in the preparation of medicines.
• It is used for conducting experiments in laboratories.
6. Water can be purified at home using the following processes:
• Boiling
• Chlorination
• Water purifiers (UV and RO)
• Addition of alum
7. Solution can be of three types on the basis of the amount of solute dissolved in the
solvent.
(a) Unsaturated solution
(b) Saturated solution
(c) Supersaturated solution
8. Following factors affect the formation of a solution.
• Size of the particles
80
• Stirring
• Increase in temperature
9. We classify solutions into three types on the basis of the size of the solute present in
them.
• True solution
• Suspension
• Colloid
10. Three hygroscopic substances are as follows.
• Calcium oxide (CaO)
• Calcium chloride (CaCl2)
• Phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10)
Short and Precise
A. 1. Sources of Water
Rainwater Surface Water Groundwater
2. Purification of Water
Sedimentation
Filtration
Chlorination
3. Solution
True solution Suspension Colloid
Saline Water Oil in Water Smoke, Fog
4. Hardness
Salts of Calcium Salts of Magnesium
B. 1. Water is essential for survival and existence of all living organisms because most life
processes in living beings are carried out in the presence of water.
2. Water present in oceans and seas is unfit for consumption and other uses like washing,
irrigation and industrial purposes because it contains a large amount of dissolved salts
and is saline or salty water.
81
3. A crystal of alum is used for cleaning muddy water as it makes the impurities settle
down in the container and the water can be filtered and used.
4. With decrease in pressure, the boiling point of water decreases. This is because when
less pressure is acting on the surface of a liquid, the liquid can escape as water vapour
more easily.
5. With increase in pressure, the boiling point of water increases. This is because when
more pressure is acting on the surface of a liquid, the liquid cannot escape as water
vapour easily.
6. The survival of aquatic animals in cold countries is attributed to anomalous expansion
of water because due to expansion of water the surface water cools faster and gets
converted into ice. This layer of ice floats on the surface since it is lighter in density and
acts as an insulator thereby preventing heat loss from lower layers. Therefore, water in
the lower layers remains liquid and provides shelter to the aquatic animals. The bottom
most layer of a water body consists of water at 4°C because it is the heaviest. Thus,
aquatic life tends to remain near the bottom where the conditions are favourable for
their survival.
7. Water is used as a coolant in car engines, factories, nuclear reactors, etc. because water
absorbs large amount of heat energy before it begins to heat up and also it releases
heat energy slowly when it cools down. In other words, water neither heats up nor
cools down quickly.
8. Water is a universal solvent because it dissolves most of the solids, liquids and gases.
9. Hygroscopic substances are used as drying agents to remove moisture from other
substances without reacting with them chemically. Due to this reason, small silica gel
packets are kept in bottles to kept them dry as they absorb moisture.
10. Permanent hardness of water cannot be removed by simple means such as boiling
because soluble chlorides and sulphates are stable to heat.
C. 1. Groundwater is the rainwater that gets collected under the ground.
2. Water which is fit for consumption is known as potable water.
3. Water can be purified at home using the following processes.
• Boiling: It is the simplest way of purifying water. Boiling water ensures that most of
the germs in it are destroyed and water is safe for drinking.
• Chlorination: In this process, chlorine tablets are added to water to kill germs and
make water safe for consumption.
• Water purifiers: Water purifiers make water fit for consumption by using either
ultraviolet rays or reverse osmosis or a combination of both to kill germs.
• Addition of alum: Muddy water can be cleaned by adding a crystal of alum. This
makes the impurities settle down in the container and the water can be filtered and
used.
4. Most liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling. However, water shows an
unusual property. It contracts on cooling till the temperature reaches 4°C. Thereafter it
expands when cooled below 4°C. This property is known as anomalous expansion of
water.
5. Solubility refers to the amount of solute that dissolves in a particular solvent at a given
temperature to form a saturated solution.
82
6. Tyndall effect is the scattering of light when a light beam passes through a colloid.
When the light beam falls on the colloidal solution, the particles scatter and reflect
thus making the light beam visible. Due to this phenomenon, the substance appears
opaque. Tyndall effect makes it difficult to see through smoke or fog.
7. The water present in the crystals of certain compounds is called water of crystallization.
It is the definite amount of water which forms the crystal and gives shape and colour to
the crystal. Water is required during the formation of crystals. Water of crystallization
can also be defined as the fixed amount of water which is found in the crystalline
structure of a compound, generally a salt.
8. There are certain substances that absorb moisture from air but the amount is not
sufficient to form solutions. Such substances are called hygroscopic substances. Some
hygroscopic substances are calcium oxide (CaO), calcium chloride (CaCl2), phosphorus
pentoxide (P4O10).
9. Different metals react with steam in different manner.
• Metals like Pb, Cu, Hg, Ni, Ag and Au do not react with water in any form.
• Magnesium reacts with steam vigorously and forms a white solid of magnesium
oxide and hydrogen gas. An intense white light is seen when the reaction occurs.
• Zinc and iron also react similarly with steam but the reaction is less vigorous.
• Aluminium also reacts with steam readily to give aluminium oxide and hydrogen
gas. This reaction however stops after a short while.
10. Following are the disadvantages of hard water.
• It is unfit for washing as it results in wastage of soap. The scum formed is difficult to
remove and leaves dirty stains on clothes.
At Length
A. 1.
Sedimentation Filtration
Water collected from sources like rivers Water containing suspended impurities
or lakes consists of dirt. It is first taken is passed through a filter. The
to sedimentation tanks and allowed impurities are retained on the filter,
to stand for a few hours. Here, heavy while clear water is collected as filtrate
impurities settle at the bottom as in another container.
sediments.
2. Saturated Solution Unsaturated Solution Supersaturated Solution
A solution in which A solution in which A solution that contains
no more solute can be some more solute can more dissolved substance
dissolved at a specific be dissolved at a specific than could normally be
temperature is called temperature is called dissolved at a specific
saturated solution. unsaturated solution. temperature is called
supersaturated solution.
83
3.
True Solution Suspension Colloid
Size of particles The particles are The particles are The size of
molecular in size, larger than 10,000 particles ranges
i.e., less than 10 Angstrom. between 10–1000
Angstrom. Angstrom.
Appearance The solution is The solution The solution
clear, transparent is cloudy and is opaque but
and homogeneous. heterogeneous. homogeneous.
Tyndall effect, i.e., There is no effect The effect of light The dispersion/
effect of light of light. varies. scattering of
light by colloidal
particles takes
place.
Effect of There is no effect The particles of There is no effect
sedimentation of sedimentation. the solution settle of sedimentation.
down.
4. Hydrated Salts Anhydrous Salts

The salts containing water of When on heating hydrated salts salts
crystallization are called hydrated salts. lose the water of crystallization, they
are called anhydrous salts.
5. Hard Water Soft Water

The water that does not form lather The water that forms lather easily with
with soap is called hard water. soap is called soft water.
B. To observe the formation of scum in hard water and soft water

• Pour 1 cup of tap (distilled) water in a bottle and add a teaspoon of copper sulphate
(epsom) salt to it. Then add a few drops of liquid detergent.
• Screw the bottle cap tightly. Hold (Shake) the bottle vigorously for 10 minutes
(seconds).
The addition of copper sulphate (epsom) to distilled water converts it to soft (hard)
water. As a result of this, you will observe the formation of scum.
• In the other bottle, pour 2 cups (1 cup) of tap (distilled) water and add a few drops
of liquid detergent in it.
• Screw the bottle cap tightly and shake the bottle well for 10 minutes (seconds).
You will observe the formation of lather on the surface of water.
This indicates that the water is soft water.
C. 1. Activity 8.1 given on page 156 in the textbook shows that rainwater does not contain
any dissolved impurities but well water contains them.
84
2. The continuous circulation of water between land, water bodies and atmosphere is
called water cycle.
condensation
precipitation
evaporation
Water is added to the atmosphere by the following processes.

• Water present on earth in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies
evaporates due to the heat of the sun and rises upwards into the atmosphere.
• Transpiration by plants releases water to the atmosphere.
• Respiration by living organisms also releases water to the atmosphere.
• Burning of various fuels, especially fossil fuels, adds water to the atmosphere.
When it reaches at a sufficient height, air becomes so cool that the water vapour
present in it gets condensed on dust particles to form tiny water droplets. Many water
drops, under suitable conditions, come together to form large-sized water drops.
Some water drops become so heavy that they begin to fall on the earth’s surface as
rain, hail or snow.
This ensures the continuous exchange of water between land and atmosphere. It also
controls weather patterns, and sustains plant and animal life on the earth.
3. The process of removal of undesirable chemicals, impurities and biological
contaminants from water is called purification of water.
The main processes involved in purification of water obtained from lakes or rivers are
sedimentation, filtration and chlorination.
• Sedimentation: Water collected from sources like rivers or lakes consists of dirt.
It is first taken to sedimentation tanks and allowed to stand for a few hours. Here,
heavy impurities settle at the bottom as sediments. Potash alum (potassium
aluminium sulphate) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) are used to speed up the
process of sedimentation. Following sedimentation, water is run-off at the top of
the sedimentation tank without disturbing the sediments at the bottom. Now the
water is transferred to filter beds.
• Filtration: Water containing suspended impurities is passed through a filter. The
impurities are retained on the filter, while clear water is collected as filtrate in another
container. When water has to be treated on a large scale, it is filtered through layers
of sand, gravel, activated charcoal, etc. This process removes suspended impurities.
85
Chlorination: The filtered water may still contain some harmful bacteria which
•
can cause diseases. So, filtered water is sterilized to remove such harmful bacteria.
Sterilization is done by adding chlorine. The addition of chlorine kills bacteria and
other harmful substances present in water.
4. A molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Its
molecular formula is H2O. Some of the properties of water are as follows.
• Nature: Pure water is transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless at ordinary
temperature. Water contains dissolved minerals and gases that give it a pleasant
taste. Pure water being transparent allows light to pass through and helps aquatic
plants to carry out photosynthesis. This feature also helps aquatic animals to see
under water.
• Boiling point: Under normal pressure, pure water boils at 100°C and changes into
steam. The temperature remains constant till all the water has boiled and changed
into steam. This constant temperature is called boiling point. The boiling point of
water varies with the pressure in the following manner.
 With decrease in pressure, the boiling point of water decreases.
 With increase in pressure, the boiling point of water increases.
• Freezing point: Under normal pressure pure water freezes at 0°C and changes into
ice. The temperature remains constant till all the water has changed into ice. This
constant temperature is called freezing point. With increase in pressure, freezing
point of water decreases.
• Density: Most liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling. However, water
shows an unusual property. It contracts on cooling till the temperature reaches 4°C.
Thereafter, it expands when cooled below 4°C. This property is known as anomalous
expansion of water. Due to this property, the density of water is maximum at 4°C.
But if it is cooled further water expands to become less dense. At 0°C water freezes
to form ice.
• Heat and electrical conductivity: Pure water is a bad conductor of heat and
electricity.
• Specific heat: Water has high specific heat. It means water absorbs large amount of
heat energy before it begins to heat up and also it releases heat energy slowly when
it cools down. In other words, water neither heats up nor cools down quickly. This
feature makes water an excellent cooling agent.
5. A salt consists of positive and negative parts. When salt is dissolved in water, the
positive part of salt gets attracted to the negative part of water and the negative
part of salt gets attracted to the positive part of water. As a result, the disappearance
of salt occurs. This process can be physical or chemical depending upon the salt or
compound taken with water.
Dissolution of sodium chloride in water is represented as shown.
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
This is considered as a chemical change as sodium chloride dissociates into Na+ and
Cl– ions. Hence, the water contains these ions and conducts electricity. It can also be
called a chemical change because the reactant which is sodium chloride is different
from the products formed which are sodium cation and chlorine anion.
86
On the contrary, dissolving a covalent compound like glucose doesn’t result in a
chemical change as these is no formation of any new substance and the solution
retains the properties of both glucose and water.
6. Activity 8.6 given on page 167 in the textbook shows that copper sulphate crystals
contain water of crystallization.
7. Metals react differently with water based on their position in the metal activity
(reactivity) series.
• Reaction of metals with cold water: Metals positioned above magnesium in the
reactivity series react vigorously with cold water and often catch fire. Metals such
as potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) react with cold water to form metal
hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag and
Au do not react with cold water.
• Reaction of metals with hot water: Magnesium reacts slowly with hot water to
form white sparsely soluble magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas.
• Reaction of metals with steam: Magnesium reacts with steam vigorously and
forms a white solid of magnesium oxide and hydrogen gas. An intense white light
is seen when the reaction occurs. Zinc and iron also react similarly with steam but
the reaction is less vigorous.
Aluminium also reacts with steam readily to give aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas.
This reaction however stops after a short while. This happens because a thin but strong
layer of aluminium oxide covers the metal and does not allow the reaction to proceed
further. Metals like Pb, Cu, Hg, Ni, Ag and Au do not react with water in any form.
8. Hardness of water can be removed by the following methods.
• Temporary hardness of water can be removed by boiling. On heating, the soluble
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium decompose to insoluble carbonates
which are precipitated and removed by filtration.
heat
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3↓ + H2O + CO2↑
calcium bicarbonate calcium carbonate water carbon dioxide
heat
Mg(HCO3)2 → MgCO3↓ + H2O + CO2↑
magnesium magnesium water carbon dioxide
bicarbonate carbonate
• Permanent hardness of water can be removed by adding chemicals such as washing
CaSO4 + Na2CO3 → CaCO3↓ + Na2SO4
calcium sulphate sodium carbonate calcium carbonate sodium sulphate
MgSO4 + Na2CO3 → MgCO3↓ + Na2SO4
magnesium sulphate sodium carbonate magnesium sodium sulphate
Observe and Perform

1. (a) Ocean (b) Lake (c) Well
(d) Spring (e) Tube well (f ) Handpump
2. Surface water: Ocean; Lake
Groundwater: Well; Spring; Tube well; Handpump
87
3. The level of water under the ground is called water table. Water table varies according
to the place and season.
4. Groundwater can be obtained from wells, tube wells and handpumps.
Apply Your Learning
A. Water present on earth in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies evaporates
due to the heat of the sun and rises upwards into the atmosphere. When it reaches at a
sufficient height, air becomes so cool that the water vapour present in it gets condensed
on dust particles to form tiny water droplets. Many water drops, under suitable
conditions, come together to form large-sized water drops. Some water drops become
so heavy that they begin to fall on the earth’s surface as rain, hail or snow. This is how the
continuous exchange of water between land and atmosphere is ensured.
B. The survival of aquatic animals in cold countries is attributed to anomalous expansion of
water. The surface water cools faster and gets converted into ice. This layer of ice floats
on the surface since it is lighter in density and acts as an insulator thereby preventing
heat loss from lower layers. Therefore, water in the lower layers remains liquid and
provides shelter to the aquatic animals. The bottom most layer of a water body consists
of water at 4°C because it is the heaviest. Thus, aquatic life tends to remain near the
bottom where the conditions are favourable for their survival.
C. Permanent hardness of water can be removed by adding chemicals such as washing
soda (sodium carbonate) as sodium carbonate converts soluble calcium sulphate and
Life Skills


A.
1. Groundwater 2. Water cycle 3. Solvent
4. Solubility 5. Colloid 6. Water of crystallization
B. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. True 5. False 6. True
C. 1. The level of water under the ground is called water table.
2. The process in which chlorine tablets are added to water to kill germs and make water
safe for consumption is called chlorination.
3. The process of converting a liquid into vapour by heating and then condensing the
vapour back into the liquid is called distillation.
88
4. Water contracts on cooling till the temperature reaches 4°C. Thereafter it expands
when cooled below 4°C. This property is known as anomalous expansion of water.
5. A solution that contains more dissolved substance than could normally be dissolved at
a specific temperature is called supersaturated solution.
6. A true solution is a solution in which the solute size is comparable to molecular size
less than 10 angstrom.
7. A suspension is a heterogeneous solution which consists of solid particles having
particle size above 10,000 Angstrom.
8. Tyndall effect can be explained as the scattering of light when a light beam passes
through a colloid. When the light beam falls on the colloidal solution, the particles
scatter and reflect thus making the light beam visible.
9. There are certain substances that absorb moisture from air but the amount is not
sufficient to form solutions. Such substances are called hygroscopic substances.
10. At times, it may happen that a hygroscopic substance absorbs the required amount of
moisture and forms an aqueous solution. This phenomenon is known as deliquescence.
D. 1. Water is essential for survival and existence of all living organisms. Most life processes
in living beings are carried out in the presence of water. About 70% of human body is
composed of water. It helps to regulate the body temperature by eliminating wastes
from our body. Water helps in absorption of digested food and transports nutrients
to the various parts of the body. Water is extensively used at home to meet our
daily requirements like bathing, cleaning, washing, etc. It is also required for various
agricultural and industrial practices. It also helps in generating electricity by rotating
turbines and the electricity so produced is termed as hydroelectricity.
2. The process of removal of undesirable chemicals, impurities and biological
contaminants from water is called purification of water. The main processes involved
in purification of water obtained from lakes or rivers are sedimentation, filtration and
chlorination.
• Sedimentation: Water collected from sources like rivers or lakes consists of dirt.
It is first taken to sedimentation tanks and allowed to stand for a few hours. Here,
heavy impurities settle at the bottom as sediments. Potash alum (potassium
aluminium sulphate) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) are used to speed up the
process of sedimentation. Following sedimentation, water is run-off at the top of
the sedimentation tank without disturbing the sediments at the bottom. Now the
water is transferred to filter beds.
• Filtration: Water containing suspended impurities is passed through a filter. The
impurities are retained on the filter, while clear water is collected as filtrate in another
container. When water has to be treated on a large scale, it is filtered through layers
of sand, gravel, activated charcoal, etc. This process removes suspended impurities.
• Chlorination: The filtered water may still contain some harmful bacteria which
can cause diseases. So, filtered water is sterilized to remove such harmful bacteria.
Sterilization is done by adding chlorine. The addition of chlorine kills bacteria and
other harmful substances present in water.
89
Property True solution Suspension Colloid
3.
Size of particles The particles are The particles are The size of
molecular in size, larger than 10,000 particles ranges
i.e., less than 10 Angstrom. between 10–1000
Angstrom. Angstrom.
Appearance The solution is The solution The solution
clear, transparent is cloudy and is opaque but
and homogeneous. heterogeneous. homogeneous.
Tyndall effect, i.e., There is no effect The effect of light The dispersion/
effect of light of light. varies. scattering of
light by colloidal
particles takes
place.
Effect of There is no effect The particles of There is no effect
sedimentation of sedimentation. the solution settle of sedimentation.
down.
4. Hygroscopy Deliquescence Efflorescence
Hygroscopy refers to the When a hygroscopic When some substances
process of absorbing substance absorbs the on being exposed to
moisture from air but the required amount of air lose the water of
amount is not sufficient moisture and forms an crystallization, thereby
to transform the state of a aqueous solution. This reducing in weight and
substance. phenomenon is known as becoming amorphous.
deliquescence. This phenomenon is
called efflorescence.
5. Metals react differently with water based on their position in the metal activity
(reactivity) series.
Reaction of metals with cold water: Metals positioned above magnesium in the
hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag and Au
do not react with cold water.
is seen when the reaction occurs. Zinc and iron also react similarly with steam
but the reaction is less vigorous. Aluminium also reacts with steam readily to give
aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas. This reaction however stops after a short while.
This happens because a thin but strong layer of aluminium oxide covers the metal
and does not allow the reaction to proceed further. Metals like Pb, Cu, Hg, Ni, Ag
and Au do not react with water in any form.
90
6. Hardness of water is caused by the presence of dissolved salts of calcium and
magnesium such as calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium sulphate (CaSO4), calcium
bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2], magnesium chloride (MgCl2), magnesium sulphate (MgSO4)
and magnesium bicarbonate [Mg(HCO3)2]. Hardness is of two types—temporary and
permanent.
• Temporary hardness of water: Water which contains bicarbonates of calcium and
magnesium is called temporary hard water.
• Permanent hardness of water: Water which contains chlorides and sulphates of
calcium and magnesium is called permanent hard water.
Hardness of water can be removed by the following methods
Project
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9. Carbon and Its Compounds
1. diamond, graphite 2. allotropes 3. insoluble
4. Graphite 5. Buckminster Fuller
1. True 2. False 3. False 4. True 5. True
1. (c) 2. (e) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b)
1. Coal is formed by the decomposition of ancient plants that were buried under the
earth millions of years ago.
2. The four varieties of coal are as follows.
(a) Peat (b) Lignite (c) Bituminous (d) Anthracite
3. The first step of coal formation begins with peat. Peat is not coal. It is an accumulation
of partially decayed leaves, twigs and branches whereas, anthracite is the final stage
of coal formation. This is formed when bituminous coal remains in the earth for a long
time and is subjected to extreme pressure.
4. Following are the uses of coal.
• Coal is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.
• Destructive distillation of coal produces coke, coal gas, coal tar and ammonia
solution.
• It is used to manufacture synthetic petroleum.
• It is a source of various organic compounds like benzene, naphthalene, aniline and
phenol.
• It is used to manufacture some fertilizers, drugs, synthetic textile and perfumes.
5. Coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and methane. It burns with a
bluish flame when ignited. It is used as a household and industrial fuel. Coal tar is a
foul-smelling, thick black liquid. It is used for making dyes, drugs, explosives, etc.
1. Carbon dioxide 2. Jan Baptista van Helmont 3. Carbogen
4. Carbon monoxide 5. Carboxyhaemoglobin
Exercises
Be Prompt
A. 1. organic compounds 2. Allotropy 3. Diamond
4. Activated 5. Soft coke 6. dry ice
B. 1. Carbon has atomic number 8 and its electronic configuration is (2,4). (6)
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2. Carbon is soluble in all solvents. (insoluble)
3. Carbon exists in four allotropic forms. (two)
4. Fractional distillation is the process in which breakdown of an organic substance takes
place on strongly heating in the absence of air. (Destructive)
5. The higher the carbon content of coal, the lower is its calorific value. (higher)
6. Carbon dioxide is lighter than air. (heavier)
C. 1. (d) 2. (e) 3. (a) 4. (f ) 5. (b) 6. (c)
D. 1. ZnO + C → Zn + CO↑
2. C + 2H2SO4 → CO2↑ + 2SO2 + 2H2O
3. C + 4HNO3 → CO2↑ + 4NO2 + 2H2O
4. 3C + SiO2 → SiC↑ + 2CO
5. 2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
heat
6. 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
7. 2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O
8. CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
9. MgO + CO2 → MgCO3
10. Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2↑
E. 1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (c)
F. 1. Two carbonates are sodium carbonate and magnesium carbonate.
2. Two fossil fuels that contain carbon are coal and wood gas.
3. The allotropic forms of carbon are crystalline form and amorphous form.
4. The amorphous forms of carbon are charcoals (namely wood charcoal, bone or animal
charcoal and sugar charcoal), coke, gas carbon, lampblack and coal.
5. Graphite occurs naturally in both Sri Lanka and Siberia. It also occurs in Russia,
Southern Hemisphere in New Zealand, Northern Hemisphere in California, United
States of America and India.
6. There are three types of charcoals—wood charcoal, bone or animal charcoal, and
sugar charcoal.
7. Coke is of two types: hard coke and soft coke.
8. There are four varieties of coal: 1. Peat 2. Lignite 3. Bituminous 4. Anthracite.
Short and Precise
A. 1. Carbon Products
PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) Bakelite Polythene
Used for making pipes Used to make electrical switches Used to make carry
and handles of various utensils bags, pipes, household
Also used to make telephones, articles, etc.
cameras, etc.
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2. Carbon
Crystalline form Amorphous form
Diamond, graphite and fullerenes Charcoals, coke, gas carbon,

lampblack and coal
3. Crystalline Form
Diamond Graphite Fullerenes
4. Amorphous Form
Gas carbon Coke Charcoal Lampblack Coal
Wood charcoal Bone charcoal or Sugar charcoal

Animal charcoal
5. Charcoal
Wood charcoal Bone or Animal charcoal Sugar charcoal
6. Coke
Hard coke Soft coke
7. Coal
Peat Lignite Bituminous Anthracite
8. Tests for Carbon Dioxide
Passing carbon dioxide through lime Putting a burning candle or a burning

water splinter in a jar that contains carbon dioxide
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B. 1. Bakelite is used to make electrical switches and handles of various utensils because it
is a sturdy plastic having high resistance. It can be moulded into different shapes. It is
also an insulator.
2. Carbon forms carbon dioxide when heated with excess supply of oxygen because it
has a great affinity for oxygen and combines easily with it.
3. Wood charcoal is a better fuel than wood due to the following reasons.
(i) Its ignition temperature is lower than that of wood.
(ii) It has higher calorific value than that of wood.
(iii) It produces no smoke, i.e., causes less air pollution than wood.
4. Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice because on heating, it directly changes from a
solid to a gas (sublimes) without passing through the liquid phase to form gaseous
carbon dioxide.
5. Lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed through it. This happens due to
the formation of calcium carbonate which is insoluble in water.
6. Soda water has a sharp and sour taste because of the formation of carbonic acid.
7. Carbon dioxide is used in making fire extinguishers because it is neither combustible
nor supports combustion.
8. It is dangerous to sleep in a closed room with a coal fire burning as incomplete burning
of coal leads to the formation of carbon monoxide. When carbon monoxide enters the
human blood stream, it combines with haemoglobin present in the blood to form a
compound called carboxyhaemoglobin. Carboxyhaemoglobin does not allow oxygen
to bind with haemoglobin. So haemoglobin is not able to carry oxygen to various
parts of the body. The lack of oxygen results in death.
C. 1. The compounds of carbon of biological origin are known as organic compounds.
Such compounds are found in all living things. Organic compounds also include
hydrocarbons and their derivatives.
Examples of organic compounds:
• Hydrocarbons: Methane; Ethane; Ethyne; Benzene; Naphthalene
• Alcohols: Methyl alcohol; Ethyl alcohol
• Acids: Ethanoic acid; Oxalic acid
• Sugar: Glucose
2. The reason for the presence of such a large number of carbon compounds is its valency.
Carbon has atomic number 6 and its electronic configuration is (2, 4). The valency of
carbon is 4 due to which it can form covalent bonds with a number of carbon atoms as
well as other atoms like hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and chlorine.
3. The various physical forms in which an element can exist are called allotropes of
that element. Allotropes have the same chemical properties but different physical
properties. The phenomenon of existence of an element in more than one form in
the same physical state is called allotropy. The two allotropic forms of carbon are —
crystalline form and amorphous form.
4. Following are the two uses of diamond.
• Diamonds are used in instruments like glass cutters and rock drilling equipments.
• Diamonds are used for making jewellery because of their extraordinary brilliance.
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5. Following are the two uses of buckminsterfullerene.
• Some compounds of buckminsterfullerene act as superconductors.
• Since it is a bad conductor of electricity, it is used as an insulator.
6. Activated charcoal is formed by heating wood charcoal at around 900°C in limited
supply of air. In powdered form, activated charcoal has more surface area than that of
wood charcoal. It is therefore more effective and more widely used as an adsorbent.
Activated charcoal is used as a catalyst in various chemical reactions. It is also used to
separate a mixture of noble gases.
7. Anthracite is the final stage of coal formation. This is formed when bituminous coal
remains in the earth for a long time and is subjected to extreme pressure. This is also
called hard coal and contains over 90 – 95% of carbon. Anthracite burns with very little
smoke and up to a longer time than bituminous coal.
8. Carbon dioxide can be prepared in the following ways.
• By the reaction of dilute acids with metal carbonates
• By burning carbon
• By heating metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates
9. Global warming is defined as the increase in the average temperature of the earth’s
atmosphere. Global warming affects the weather patterns on earth and causes climate
change.
Following are the effects of global warming.
Melting of glaciers: The increased global warming has resulted in the rise of sea
•
level which causes floods.
Climate change: Global warming has resulted in irregular weather patterns.
•
Increased precipitation in the form of rain makes it difficult for plants and animals
to survive. This may cause plants to die and animals migrating to other areas which
results in an imbalance in the ecosystem.
Droughts: Increase in global warming causes large scale evaporation which is the
•
major cause of droughts in several areas.
Crops: Due to change in seasons, weather patterns are affected thus resulting in
•
change in the pattern of crop cultivation (crop cycle).
Agriculture: Global warming can affect agriculture. Due to an increase in the global
•
temperature, plants will find it harder to survive and will eventually die. This may
result in shortage of food as plants are the major source of food.
10. Carbon monoxide is added to the atmosphere in the following ways.
Incomplete burning of fuels: The burning of fuels such as coal, coke and charcoal
•
in a limited supply of air or oxygen leads to the formation of carbon monoxide. Air
or oxygen reacts with carbon and forms carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide formed
on passing through red-hot coal or coke converts to carbon monoxide.
Exhaust fumes: The complete combustion of fuels consisting of hydrocarbons leads
•
to the formation of water and carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide is formed when
hydrocarbon fuels are burnt in a limited supply of air. This takes place generally in
the engines of automobiles and therefore the automobile exhaust gases contain
carbon monoxide.
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At Length
A. 1. Natural Diamonds Artificial Diamonds

Natural diamonds are formed by When pure carbon is subjected to a
the action of high pressure and very high pressure and temperature
temperature on carbon present in the (about 3000°C), it compresses to give
earth, at a depth of about 150 km. small diamonds.
Diamonds are brought to the surface,
mostly by volcanic eruptions.
2. Diamond Graphite
• Pure diamond is transparent and • Graphite is greyish-black, opaque
colourless. solid with shiny texture.
• Diamond is the hardest known • Graphite is soft and slippery (greasy)
naturally occurring substance. to touch.
• The density of diamond is 3.5 g/cm3. • The density of graphite is between
1.9 to 2.3 g/cm3.
• Diamond is a bad conductor of • Graphite is a good conductor of
electricity. electricity.
• Diamond burns at about 800°C. • Graphite burns at about 700°C.
3. Wood Charcoal Activated Charcoal

Wood charcoal is black, porous Activated charcoal is formed by
and brittle solid. It is obtained by heating wood charcoal at around
destructive distillation of wood. During 900°C in limited supply of air. In
this process a mixture of gases like powdered form, activated charcoal has
carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide more surface area than that of wood
(CO), methane (CH4) and hydrogen (H2) charcoal.
is also formed.
4. Bone Charcoal Sugar Charcoal

• Bone charcoal is a granular black • Sugar charcoal is the purest available
substance that contains only 10% amorphous form of carbon.
carbon and a high percentage of
impurities like calcium phosphate
and calcium carbonate.
• It is obtained by first boiling bones in • It is prepared by destructive
water to remove fatty substances and distillation of cane sugar or
then subjecting them to destructive glucose. It can also be prepared by
distillation. dehydrating cane sugar or glucose
with concentrated sulphuric acid. In
this process, a residual black mass is
obtained that is washed and dried.
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5. Coke Gas Carbon
• Coke is a greyish-black, solid • Gas carbon is a greyish substance
substance that burns without obtained by destructive distillation
smoke. It is obtained by destructive of coal. It is also obtained by
distillation of coal. It contains about heating petroleum products (or
95–98% carbon. hydrocarbons) at a high temperature
in a closed vessel. During this
process, carbon particles deposit on
the walls of the container and are
collected to form gas carbon.
• Coke is a very important household • Gas carbon is a good conductor of
and industrial fuel. It is used as a electricity. Therefore, it is used for
reducing agent in the extraction of making electrodes of dry cells and
some metals like zinc and iron from carbon rods for arc lamps.
their ores. It is used to prepare carbon
monoxide which is also a very good
reducing agent. Coke is also used to
manufacture metallic carbides, for
example, calcium carbide.
6. Lignite Bituminous
Peat converts into brown coal called Lignite transforms into bituminous
lignite. It is composed of compressed coal. It is dense, dark and brittle variety
woody matter that has lost most of its of coal. The carbon content in this
moisture. Therefore, the carbon content variety is 75–80% and it is therefore
increases up to 60 – 70%. It is more an efficient fuel. But when it burns, it
solid than peat but still soft enough to produces ash and sulphur compounds
crumble. which pollute the air.
B. To show that charcoal is a good reducing agent
• Take some black calcium (copper) (II) oxide in a test tube. Heat it with powdered
copper oxide (charcoal).
• Pass the gas evolved through nickel (palladium chloride solution).
The nickel (palladium) chloride solution turns pink with the evolution of a colourless
gas. The bluish (reddish) particles of copper metal are formed in the test tube.
This shows that copper oxide (charcoal) consisting of carbon reduces copper (II) oxide
to copper metal and carbon dioxide (monoxide) gas is evolved.
CuO + C → Cu + CO↑
C. 1. Carbon occurs in both free and combined states in nature. In free state, carbon occurs
as diamond and graphite. Another naturally occurring form of carbon called fullerene
has been discovered recently. In the combined state, carbon occurs in the form of the
following compounds.
• Carbon dioxide which is the main gaseous compound of carbon
• Carbonates like chalk, limestone (CaCO3), marble (CaCO3), dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3)
and calamine (ZnCO3)
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• Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and natural gas
• Organic compounds like carbohydrates, fats and proteins
• Clothing material like cotton, wool and silk
2. Following are the chemical properties of carbon.
• Carbon is insoluble in all solvents.
• When carbon is heated with excess supply of oxygen, it forms carbon dioxide. This
is because it has a great affinity for oxygen.
• When carbon is heated with hydrogen at 500°C and 250 atmospheric pressure, a
mixture of hydrocarbon containing methane, ethane, etc. is obtained.
• Carbon is a good reducing agent. It reduces oxides of metals placed below zinc in
the metal activity series to their corresponding metals.
• Carbon reduces concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid to form sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide, respectively. Carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide in these
reactions.
• Carbon in the form of wood charcoal reacts with sulphur vapours to form carbon
disulphide when heated strongly.
• Carbon reacts with calcium at a very high temperature (1000°C – 2800°C) to form its
carbide.
• When water in the form of steam is passed over red hot coke, it gets reduced to a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which is also called water gas.
• Carbon in the form of finely ground coke when heated strongly in the presence of
electric arc reduces silicon dioxide to silicon carbide.
3. The crystalline forms of carbon are diamond, graphite and fullerenes.
Diamond: Diamond is the purest form of carbon. It is the hardest known naturally

occurring substance. It can therefore be cut only by another diamond. Natural diamonds
are formed by the action of high pressure and temperature on carbon present in the
earth, at a depth of about 150 km. Each carbon atom in the diamond crystal is linked
to four other carbon atoms by strong covalent bonds. The four surrounding carbon
atoms are at the four vertices (four corners) of a regular tetrahedron. The carbon atoms
are thus held firmly in place. As a result, a diamond crystal appears to be a closely-
packed three-dimensional rigid structure.
Graphite: Graphite is a greyish-black opaque substance. It is lighter than diamond.

Graphite derives its name from the Greek word graphein which means to write. A
graphite crystal consists of layers of carbon atoms or sheets of carbon atoms. Each
carbon atom in every layer is joined to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds to form flat hexagonal rings. The various layers of carbon atoms in graphite
are quite far apart so that no covalent bonds can exist between them and are held
together by weak forces. Since the various layers are joined by weak forces, they can
slide over one another. Due to the sheet-like structure, graphite is a comparatively soft
substance.
Fullerenes (Buckminsterfullerene): A spherical, crystalline allotropic form of carbon
consisting of 60 atoms was discovered in 1985 by three scientists—Harry Kroto,
Robert Curl and Richard Smalley. This allotropic form is called fullerene. Since there
are 60 carbon atoms in a molecule of buckminster fullerene, so its formula is C60.
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Buckminsterfullerene is a football-shaped spherical molecule in which 60 carbon
atoms are arranged in interlocking hexagonal and pentagonal rings of carbon
atoms. There are 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons of carbon atoms in one molecule of
buckminsterfullerene. This allotrope was named buckminsterfullerene or bucky ball
after the American architect Buckminster Fuller.
4. Following are the properties of diamond.
• Pure diamond is a colourless, transparent substance with extraordinary brilliance.
Raw diamonds do not shine. They shine after undergoing cutting and polishing
procedures such that their angled faces reflect light and break it into different
colours. It is the presence of small traces of metallic oxides and salts that imparts
distinct colours to diamonds.
• Diamond is the hardest natural substance known.
• Diamond has a high density of 3.5 g/cm3.
• Diamond does not conduct electricity but it conducts heat extremely well.
• Diamond has high melting point of 3500°C. It sublimes when heated to this
temperature.
• When diamond is heated to 800°C in the presence of oxygen, then only carbon
dioxide gas is formed and nothing is left behind. This shows that diamond is made
up of carbon only.
• Diamond is insoluble in all solvents.
• Diamond does not react with any chemical.
5. Properties of buckminsterfullerene are as follows.
• Just like diamond and graphite, buckminsterfullerene also burns on heating to
form carbon dioxide. If we burn buckminsterfullerene in oxygen, then only carbon
dioxide is formed and nothing is left behind. This shows that buckminsterfullerene
is made up of carbon only.
• Buckminsterfullerene is neither very hard nor very soft.
• It is soluble in organic solvents.
• It is a bad conductor of electricity.
• The specific gravity of fullerenes ranges from 1.8 to 2.1.
Uses of buckminsterfullerene are as follows.
• It is used in flat-screen televisions.
• It is also used for the treatment AIDS.
6. Following are the uses of wood charcoal.
• Wood charcoal is widely used as a fuel. It is a better fuel than wood due to the
following reasons.
(i) Its ignition temperature is lower than that of wood.
(ii) It has higher calorific value than that of wood.
(iii) It produces no smoke, i.e., causes less air pollution than wood.
• It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals from their metallic oxides.
• Since it has a high adsorbing capacity, it is used in gas masks for military and
industrial purposes.
100
• It is a constituent of gunpowder which is an explosive used in guns and rifles.
• Because it adsorbs coloured materials also, it is used as a decolourising agent in
sugar solutions.
• It is used to prepare anti-gastric tablets that are used by people suffering from
indigestion and gastric problems.
• It is used to prepare deodorants as it also adsorbs foul-smelling gases.
• It is used in making filters and sieves.
7. Activity 9.4 given on page 191 in the textbook shows that charcoal is a good reducing
agent.
8. Coal is formed by the decomposition of ancient plants that were buried under the earth
millions of years ago. In some areas of eastern United States, coal has also been formed
from swamps covered by sea water. It is believed that dead plants were covered by
rocks and soil and were decomposed by bacteria. New plants grew in the soil and they
too got buried under the soil and rocks. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes destroyed
forests which also got buried under the surface of the earth and got covered with
sand, clay and water. Over the years, these remains went deeper and deeper inside
the earth. Due to high temperature and pressure inside the earth’s surface and in the
absence of air they got converted into coal. The slow chemical process of conversion
of dead and decaying matter into coal is called carbonization.
Following are the uses of coal.
• Coal is used as a domestic and industrial fuel.
• Destructive distillation of coal produces coke, coal gas, coal tar and ammonia
solution.
• It is used to manufacture synthetic petroleum.
• It is a source of various organic compounds like benzene, naphthalene, aniline and
phenol.
• It is used to manufacture some fertilizers, drugs, synthetic textile and perfumes.
Destructive distillation of coal: When coal is heated without air, it does not burn but

produces many by-products. This process of heating coal in the absence of air is called
destructive distillation of coal. When coal is heated strongly in the absence of air, it
produces coke (destructive distillation), coal gas, coal tar and ammonia solution.
destructive distillation
Coal → Coke + Coal gas + Coal tar + Ammonia solution
• By the reaction of dilute acids with metal carbonates
Dilute acids such as dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium carbonate to form
carbon dioxide.
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
hydrochloric calcium calcium chloride water carbon
acid(dilute) carbonate dioxide
 A few chips of marble [calcium carbonate (CaCO3)] are taken in a Woulfe’s
bottle which is a double-mouthed glass bottle with two necks.
 A few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid are added through a thistle funnel.
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 An effervescence is observed when the acid reacts with marble and carbon
dioxide is released.
 Carbon dioxide is heavier than air. It is collected by the upward displacement
of air in a glass jar.
• By burning carbon
Fuels containing carbon release carbon dioxide on burning.
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
Fuel + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water vapour + Heat + Light
Wood + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water vapour + Heat + Light
• By heating metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates:
Metal carbona tes and metal hydrogen carbonates when heated produce carbon
dioxide.
heat
CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
copper carbonate copper oxide carbon dioxide
heat
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
sodium hydrogen sodium water carbon dioxide
carbonate carbonate
We perform the following tests to check the presence of carbon dioxide.
• On passing carbon dioxide through lime water, lime water turns milky due to the
formation of calcium carbonate which is insoluble. However, when excess of carbon
dioxide is passed through lime water, the milkiness disappears due to the formation
of calcium bicarbonate which is soluble in water.
• On putting a burning candle or a burning splinter in a jar which contains carbon
dioxide, it is observed that the flame gets extinguished. This shows that carbon
dioxide does not support combustion.
10. Following are the uses of carbon dioxide.
• Aerated drinks: Carbon dioxide is used to manufacture aerated drinks.
• Dry ice: Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice. It acts as a good refrigerant and is
used to preserve food items such as fruits, vegetables, meat, etc.
• Fertilizers: Carbon dioxide and ammonia are heated at 200°C under very high
pressure to prepare urea which is an important nitrogenous fertilizer.
• Carbogen: Carbogen is a mixture of 5% carbon and 95% oxygen. It is used for
artificial respiration. It is given to patients who are suffering from pneumonia,
poisoning, drowning, etc.
• Washing soda and baking soda: Carbon dioxide is used to manufacture washing
soda (sodium carbonate) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate).
• Baking industry: Carbon dioxide is used in the baking industry to make the dough
rise and become light.
• Fire extinguishers: Carbon dioxide is used in making fire extinguishers because it is
neither combustible nor supports combustion.
• Photosynthesis: Green plants use carbon dioxide to prepare food by the process
called photosynthesis.
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11. Greenhouse effect is the overall increase in the earth’s temperature. It is caused by
greenhouse gases present in the earth’s atmosphere. When solar radiations reach
the earth, some of them are absorbed by the earth and then released back into the
atmosphere. These greenhouse gases present in the atmosphere trap these solar
radiations and do not allow the heat to leave. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas
which absorbs infrared radiations. This trapped heat keeps the planet warm thus
making it a place where life can thrive. In addition to carbon dioxide, methane and
water vapour also contribute to greenhouse effect.
12. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere.
It is affecting the weather patterns on earth and causing climate change. Climate
change is further resulting in increased rainfall, higher sea levels, and severe droughts
and floods. This is also leading to melting of polar ice caps.
• Melting of glaciers: The increased global warming has resulted in the rise of sea
• Climate change: Global warming has resulted in irregular weather patterns.
• Droughts: Increase in global warming causes large scale evaporation which is the
• Crops: Due to change in seasons, weather patterns are affected thus resulting in
• Agriculture: Global warming can affect agriculture. Due to an increase in the global
13. Following are the causes of increased concentration of carbon dioxide in atmosphere.
• Cutting down of trees (deforestation) leads to the accumulation of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
• Air pollution due to burning of fuels, industrial activities and use of chemical
weapons also contributes to an increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.
Following are the measures to balance the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere.
• More plants and trees should be planted.
• Renewable sources of energy should be used.
• Consumption of fossil fuels should be reduced.
• Filters should be used in the chimneys of factories and powerhouses.
14. Following are the properties of carbon monoxide.
• Carbon monoxide is a highly poisonous gas.
• It is colourless and odourless, so its presence cannot be detected. This makes it
highly dangerous.
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• It is very sparingly soluble in water.
• It burns in air with a blue flame to form carbon dioxide.
• It is a reducing agent. It reduces heated oxides of metals like zinc, iron, lead and copper
to respective metals and forms carbon dioxide. This property of carbon monoxide
makes it useful in the extraction of metals from their ores.
Poisonous nature of carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide is a highly poisonous
gas. Even if 1% carbon monoxide by volume is inhaled, it can kill a person in a few
minutes. When carbon monoxide enters the human blood stream, it combines with
haemoglobin present in the blood (red blood corpuscles or RBCs) to form a compound
called carboxyhaemoglobin. Carboxyhaemoglobin does not allow oxygen to be
absorbed by haemoglobin. Thus, haemoglobin is not able to carry oxygen to various
parts of the body. This lack of oxygen eventually results in the death of a person.
Following precautions should be taken to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
• Do not sleep in a closed room with a coal fire burning.
• Do not run a car engine in a closed space (garage).
• Do not sleep near lime kilns as the air around these kilns may have large traces of
carbon monoxide.
• Smoke from burning tobacco contains small traces of carbon monoxide. Hence, it is
dangerous for the respiratory system of smokers as well as passive smokers.
• At places where carbon monoxide concentration is on the higher side, wear gas
masks that absorb carbon monoxide. The masks are made of hopcalite (a mixture
of metallic oxides) which oxidizes carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.
15. Carbon monoxide is added to the atmosphere in the following ways:
• Incomplete burning of fuels: The burning of fuels such as coal, coke and charcoal
• Exhaust fumes: The complete combustion of fuels consisting of hydrocarbons leads
carbon monoxide.
Observe and Perform

1. The given image shows the stages of coal formation.
2. The four varieties of coal are: 1. Peat 2. Lignite 3. Bituminous 4. Anthracite.
3. Peat: The first step of coal formation begins with peat. Peat is not coal. It is an
accumulation of partially decayed leaves, twigs and branches. It contains a large
amount of moisture and has very low carbon content (50–60%).
Lignite: Peat converts into brown coal called lignite. It is composed of compressed
woody matter that has lost most of its moisture. Therefore, the carbon content
increases up to 60 – 70%. It is more solid than peat but still soft enough to crumble.
4. The higher the carbon content of coal, the higher is its calorific value. Hence, the
calorific value of anthracite is maximum and that of peat is the least.
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Apply Your Learning
A. A chemical reaction in which carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide:
C + 2H2SO4 → CO2↑ + 2SO2 + 2H2O
carbon conc. sulphuric carbon dioxide sulphur water
acid dioxide
B. Each carbon atom in the diamond crystal is linked to four other carbon atoms by strong
covalent bonds. The four surrounding carbon atoms are at the four vertices (four corners)
of a regular tetrahedron. The carbon atoms are thus held firmly in place. As a result, a
diamond crystal appears to be a closely-packed three-dimensional rigid structure.
C. When diamond is heated to 800°C in the presence of oxygen, then only carbon dioxide
gas is formed and nothing is left behind. This shows that diamond is made up of carbon
only.
D. In a graphite crystal, each carbon atom is joined to only three other carbon atoms by
covalent bonds. Thus, only the three valence electrons of each carbon atom in graphite
are used in bond formation. The fourth valence electron of each carbon atom is free to
move. Due to the presence of free electrons in a graphite crystal, it conducts electricity.
E. The calorific value of anthracite is maximum, and that of peat is the minimum.
Life Skills

A. 1. Bakelite 2. Diamond 3. Fullerenes (Buckminsterfullerene)
4. Combustion 5. Bone or Animal Charcoal 6. Anthracite
B. 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. False 6. True
C. 1. The compounds of carbon of biological origin.
2. The phenomenon of existence of an element in more than one form in the same
physical state.
3. The combustible mixture of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane and hydrogen.
4. The slow chemical process of conversion of dead and decaying matter into coal.
5. Solid carbon dioxide.
6. The increase in the average temperature of the earth’s atmosphere.
D. 1. Following are some useful carbon products and their uses.
• PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is used for making pipes.
• Bakelite is a sturdy plastic having high resistance. It can be moulded into different
shapes. Bakelite is an insulator and is used to make electrical switches and handles
of various utensils. It is also used to make telephones, cameras, etc.
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• Polythene is the most common carbon product used. It is mostly used to make
carry bags, pipes, household articles, etc.
2. Carbon exists in two allotropic forms—crystalline form and amorphous form. The
crystalline forms of carbon are diamond, graphite and fullerenes. The amorphous
forms of carbon are charcoals (namely wood charcoal, bone or animal charcoal and
sugar charcoal), coke, gas carbon, lampblack and coal.
3. Properties of graphite are as follows.
• Graphite is a greyish-black, opaque substance with metallic lustre.
• Graphite is soft and slippery to touch.
• Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
• The density of graphite ranges between 1.9 to 2.3 g/cm3.
• Graphite has a very high melting point of 3700°C.
• Graphite leaves a greyish-black mark on the paper.
• Graphite burns in air at 700°C to form carbon dioxide.
• Graphite is insoluble in most solvents. It can be converted to diamond at a very high
temperature and pressure.
Uses of graphite are as follows.
• Due to its softness, powdered graphite is used as a lubricant for the fast moving
parts of machinery.
• Graphite is a good conductor of electricity due to which it is used for making carbon
electrodes or graphite electrodes in dry cells and electric arcs.
• Graphite is used for making pencil lead.
• Graphite is used to make black paint and printer’s ink because it is black in colour
and insoluble in water.
• Graphite is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors to slow down fast moving
particles.
• Graphite is used in making crucibles for melting metals due to its high melting
point.
4. Amorphous forms of carbon: The word amorphous means lacking in shape and form.
The amorphous forms of carbon contain loosely held particles and hence have no
particular shape or structure. The amorphous forms of carbon are charcoal, coke, gas
carbon, lampblack (carbon black or soot) and coal. These forms of carbon can be easily
broken into smaller pieces and in this way the surface area of the substance increases.
5. Coal is formed by the decomposition of ancient plants that were buried under the earth
millions of years ago. In some areas of eastern United States, coal has also been formed
from swamps covered by sea water. It is believed that dead plants were covered by
rocks and soil and were decomposed by bacteria. New plants grew in the soil and they
too got buried under the soil and rocks. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes destroyed
forests which also got buried under the surface of the earth and got covered with
sand, clay and water. Over the years, these remains went deeper and deeper inside
the earth. Due to high temperature and pressure inside the earth’s surface and in the
absence of air they got converted into coal. The slow chemical process of conversion
of dead and decaying matter into coal is called carbonization.
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There are four varieties of coal which differ in their carbon content.
1. Peat: The first step of coal formation begins with peat.
2. Lignite: In the next stage of coal formation peat converts into brown coal called
lignite.
3. Bituminous: Further lignite transforms into bituminous coal.
4. Anthracite: Anthracite is the final stage of coal formation. This is formed when
bituminous coal remains in the earth for a long time and is subjected to extreme
pressure.
6. Following are the physical properties of carbon dioxide.
Physical Properties
Following are the physical properties of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon dioxide is an odourless and a colourless gas.
• It is slightly acidic in nature and is fairly soluble in water.
• It is a non-poisonous gas. However, if the concentration of carbon dioxide in air is
increased, it can cause suffocation.
• Carbon dioxide when cooled down to –78°C forms dry ice which is a snow-white
solid. It is called dry ice because on heating, it directly changes from a solid to a
gas (sublimes) without passing through the liquid phase to form gaseous carbon
dioxide.
• It is denser than air.
Chemical Properties
Following are the chemical properties of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon dioxide is a compound formed by covalent bonding of carbon and oxygen.
• It does not support combustion.
• It turns moist, blue litmus red which shows that carbon dioxide gas is acidic in
nature.
• Carbon dioxide dissolves in water and forms carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
carbon dioxide water carbonic acid
• Carbon dioxide reacts with alkalis to form salt and water.
2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O
sodium hydroxide carbon oxygen sodium carbonate water
2KOH + CO2 → K2CO3 + H2O
potassium hydroxide carbon oxygen potassium carbonate water
On passing excess of carbon dioxide through alkalis, a soluble bicarbonate is produced.
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2NaHCO3
sodium carbonate carbon oxygen water sodium bicarbonate
K2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2KHCO3
potassium carbonate carbon oxygen water potassium bicarbonate
When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it turns lime water milky. This
happens due to the formation of calcium carbonate which is insoluble in water.
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However, on passing excess of carbon dioxide gas through the solution, the milkiness
disappears which occurs due to the formation of a soluble bicarbonate.
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
lime water carbon dioxide calcium carbonate water
(insoluble)
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca(HCO3)2
calcium carbonate water carbon dioxide calcium bicarbonate
(soluble)
• Carbon dioxide reacts with metallic oxides and forms metal carbonates.
Na2O + CO2 → Na2CO3
sodium oxide carbon dioxide sodium carbonate
MgO + CO2 → MgCO3
magnesium oxide carbon dioxide magnesium carbonate
7. Activity 9.8 given on page 198 in the textbook shows that carbon dioxide is heavier
than air and does not support combustion.
8. Following are the uses of carbon dioxide.
• Aerated drinks: Carbon dioxide is used to manufacture aerated drinks. On dissolving
carbon dioxide gas in water, soda water is formed. Sugar, colour and flavour are
mixed with soda water to prepare a soft drink.
• Dry ice: Solid carbon dioxide is called dry ice. It acts as a good refrigerant and is
used to preserve food items such as fruits, vegetables, meat, etc.
• Fertilizers: Carbon dioxide and ammonia are heated at 200°C under very high
pressure to prepare urea which is an important nitrogenous fertilizer.
• Carbogen: Carbogen is a mixture of 5% carbon and 95% oxygen. It is used for
artificial respiration. It is given to patients who are suffering from pneumonia,
poisoning, drowning, etc.
• Washing soda and baking soda: Carbon dioxide is used to manufacture washing
soda (sodium carbonate) and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate).
• Baking industry: Baking powder is a mixture of baking soda and potassium
hydrogen tartrate. On adding baking powder to the dough, the ingredients of
baking soda react to produce carbon dioxide. When the gas rises through the
dough, spaces are formed and the dough becomes porous thus making the cakes
and bread light, soft and spongy.
• Fire extinguishers: Carbon dioxide is used in making fire extinguishers because it is
neither combustible nor supports combustion.
• Photosynthesis: Green plants use carbon dioxide to prepare food by the process
called photosynthesis.
9. It is important to adopt measures to balance the concentration of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere. Following are some of the measures that can be adopted.
• More plants and trees should be planted.
• Renewable sources of energy should be used.
• Consumption of fossil fuels should be reduced.
• Filters should be used in the chimneys of factories and powerhouses.
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10. Carbon monoxide is an oxide of carbon and its molecular formula is CO. Carbon
monoxide is found in small quantities in coal gas which is found in coal mines. It is
released in the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions and also when carbon (charcoal)
burns in the presence of insufficient supply of oxygen (air).
2C + O2 → 2CO↑
carbon (oxygen in carbon monoxide
limited supply)
Carbon monoxide is produced in domestic and industrial ovens. It is also emitted from

the automobile engines which run on petrol and diesel.
Carbon monoxide is added to the atmosphere in the following ways:
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
CO2 + C → 2CO
carbon dioxide carbon carbon monoxide
Exhaust fumes: The complete combustion of fuels consisting of hydrocarbons leads
•
carbon monoxide.
Project
109
Assessment Sheet 1
Answer Key
A. 1. Gases 2. interparticle spaces
3. interparticle forces of attraction 4. behaviour
5. the same 6. periodic changes 7. Desirable changes
8. temporary, reversible 9. Freezing 10. rusting
11. pure substance 12. fixed 13. suspension
14. emulsion 15. winnowing 16. Atoms
17. atomic number 18. isotopes 19. valence shell
20. variable valency 21. ion 22. chemical formula
23. chemical equation 24. atomic theory 25. Photosynthesis
26. reactants 27. hydrogen gas 28. exothermic reaction
29. Electrochemical reaction 30. thermal
31. hydrogen, magnesium hydroxide 32. Water gas
33. hydrocarbons 34. ammonia 35. oxy-hydrogen flame
36. Rainwater 37. water table 38. Boiling
39. Solubility 40. suspension 41. organic
42. allotropy 43. Sugar 44. Coal
45. Carbon dioxide
B. 1. True 2. False 3. True 4. False 5. True 6. True
7. False 8. True 9. False 10. True 11. True 12. False
13. True 14. False 15. True 16. True 17. False 18. True
19. False 20. True 21. True 22. False 23. True 24. False
25. True 26. True 27. False 28. True 29. False 30. True
43. False 44. True 45. False
C. 1. The kinetic molecular theory of matter states that matter consists of very tiny particles
particles of matter is called interparticle space.
2. The molecules in liquids are comparatively free to move. The kinetic energy of particles
is still not sufficient to overcome the attractive forces. However, the addition of a small
amount of energy can make the particles move away from each other in liquids. Due
to this reason, liquids tend to evaporate when left exposed to the air.
3. The change of state of matter depends on the interparticle spaces between them and
interparticle forces present between the particles of solids, liquids and gases. It also
depends on the collision between the particles of the three states of matter.
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4. The particles of gases are in constant motion. These particles consist of the intermolecular
forces between them, however, the kinetic energy present in a gas is much more than
the intermolecular forces present between the particles of gases. This causes the gas
to spread easily and faster when kept in open as compared to solids and liquids.
5. The law of conservation of mass states that matter is neither created nor destroyed
in a chemical reaction. This law can be applied to the atomic masses of reactants and
products to balance the chemical equation.
6. Some changes that take place in our surroundings are as follows.
• Day changing into night • Changing of seasons
• Digestion of food • Baby growing into an adult
• Curdling of milk • Rusting of iron objects
• Burning of fuels • Cooking of food
• Clotting of blood • Seedling growing into a plant
7. Reversible Changes Irreversible Changes
change in shape and size of a balloon and baking of chapatti from dough
on blowing air in it, adding sugar to are all irreversible changes.
water and separating sugar from water
by heating, and folding and unfolding
of paper are all reversible changes.
8. Changes that occur naturally on their own, i.e., without any human effort are called
natural changes. For example, rotation and revolution of the earth, change of day
into night and formation of coal and petroleum occur naturally, and hence are natural
changes. Changes that occur due to human effort or activity are called man-made
changes. For example, cooking of food and manufacturing of clothes and furniture are
man-made changes.
9. Melting of ice involves a change from solid state of water to liquid state. There is no
change in the properties of the substance and no new substance is formed. Hence,
melting of ice is a physical change.
10. The paper burns immediately when brought near the flame of a burner. The burnt
paper (ash) cannot be changed to the original paper. Therefore, burning of paper is a
chemical change.
11. Elements Compounds
• An atom is defined as the • A compound is a substance composed
smallest possible unit of an of two or more elements chemically
element. combined in a definite proportion by mass.
• An element is a substance that • The formation of a compound occurs
cannot be broken down into when atoms or molecules of different
simpler substances. elements combine.
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12. A pure substance has the following characteristics.
• A pure substance has a definite composition. For example, a molecule of carbon
dioxide consists of one atom of carbon and two atoms of oxygen.
• A pure substance has definite melting and boiling points. It has a characteristic
taste, colour or smell.
13. A type of mixture in which a component is not dissolved completely into another
component is called a suspension whereas a type of mixture consisting of two or more
immiscible liquids is called an emulsion. Chalk in water and dust in air are examples of
suspensions. Example of emulsion is a mixture of oil and water.
14. The separation of mixtures becomes essential due to the following reasons.
• To obtain a useful component
• To obtain a pure sample of a substance and to enhance purity of a substance
• To remove harmful and undesirable impurities
15. The process used for separating a mixture when one of the components of a mixture
is much heavier than water and the other component of the mixture is much lighter
than water is called gravitation. We can use gravitation to separate a mixture of sand
and sawdust by putting them into water in a beaker. We observe that sawdust being
lighter than water floats on water and sand being heavier than water settles down. The
sawdust can be separated by filtration.
16. Maharishi Kanada, a great Indian philosopher of 600 BC, proposed that matter consists
of indestructible particles called paramanu (param means ultimate and anu means
particle). A paramanu does not exist in free state, rather it combines with other
paramanus to form a bigger particle called the anu. In other words, he believed that
an anu may be made up of two or more subatomic particles called paramanu.
17. The number of protons present inside the nucleus of an atom of an element is called
its atomic number. It is represented by the letter Z. Each element has its own atomic
number.
18. Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number
are known as isotopes.
19. Atoms of elements combine or react to attain the electronic configuration of the
nearest noble or inert gas and thus, become stable. Elements tend to combine in such
a way that each element has eight electrons in its valence shell (except hydrogen,
lithium and beryllium). This theory is commonly called the octet rule.
20. Some elements show more than one valency. Such elements are said to have variable
valency. For example, copper, iron, silver, lead, tin and mercury have variable valencies.
21.
Element Symbol
Carbon C
Bromine Br
Nickel Ni
Potassium K
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22. Element Valency
Lithium 1 (Monovalent)
Magnesium 2 (Divalent)
Boron 3 (Trivalent)
Silicon 4 (Tetravalent)
23. Four elements exhibiting variable valency are nitrogen, phosphorus, manganese and
copper.
23. Radicals Formulae Valency
Carbonate CO32– –2
Nitrate NO3– –1
Phosphate PO43– –3
Acetate CH3OO –
–1
25. A chemical equation represents a chemical reaction using symbols and formulae.
26. When an iron nail is dropped in blue-coloured copper sulphate solution, the blue
colour of the solution fades and eventually turns into light green.
(blue) (green)
27. The chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved is called exothermic reaction,
whereas the chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is called endothermic
reaction.
28. Some chemical reactions occur when the electricity is passed through the reactants.
Such reactions are called electrochemical reactions.
29. The decomposition brought about by light is called photodecomposition.
30. The chemical reaction in which an insoluble solid called precipitate separates from the
solution is called a precipitation reaction.
31. A list of metals arranged in order of their decreasing reactivity is known as the activity
series of metals.
32. Metals like potassium, sodium and calcium when treated with cold water liberate
hydrogen and form corresponding hydroxides. Potassium and sodium react with cold
water so violently that hydrogen evolved could immediately catch fire.
33. When electric current is passed through acidulated water, it dissociates into hydrogen
and oxygen. This process is called electrolysis.
34. Hydrogen does not combine with nitrogen under ordinary conditions. In the
presence of iron as a catalyst, at 450°C temperature and at an atmospheric pressure of
200 atm, hydrogen reacts with nitrogen in the ratio 3:1 by volume to produce ammonia
gas. This reaction is reversible and exothermic, and is known as the Haber’s process.
iron
N2 + 3H2 2NH3↑ + Heat
400°, 200 atm
nitrogen hydrogen ammonia
35. Following are the tests for hydrogen.
1. Pure hydrogen burns with a pale blue flame in air. But impure hydrogen burns in air
with a characteristic pop sound.
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2. When hydrogen is burnt in air, water is formed. When a few drops of water so
formed are sprinkled on white anhydrous copper sulphate, the latter turns into blue
anhydrous copper sulphate.
36. Following are the uses of water.
• A large amount of water is needed by plants during photosynthesis.
• Water also helps in transportation of minerals in various parts of the plants.
• It is used as a coolant in power generation from fossil fuels and also in car radiators.
• Water is used for transportation and sanitation purposes.
37. Surface water consists of water present in oceans, seas, rivers, lakes, etc., whereas,
rainwater falling on the earth’s surface seeps down and gets accumulated under the
ground. The water so collected under the ground is called groundwater.
38. The process used to separate insoluble solids suspended in a liquid by allowing them
to settle down is called sedimentation. The solid particles that settle down in the
process of sedimentation are called sediments.
39. Tyndall effect is the scattering of light when a light beam passes through a colloid.
When the light beam falls on the colloidal solution, the particles scatter and reflect
thus making the light beam visible. Due to this phenomenon, the substance appears
opaque.
40. Deliquescence is a phenomenon where a hygroscopic substance absorbs the required
amount of moisture and forms an aqueous solution. Efflorescence is a phenomenon
where some substances on being exposed to air lose the water of crystallization,
thereby reducing in weight and becoming amorphous.
41. Following are some useful carbon products.
• PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) is used for making pipes.
• Bakelite is a sturdy plastic having high resistance. It can be moulded into different
shapes. Bakelite is an insulator and is used to make electrical switches and handles
of various utensils. It is also used to make telephones, cameras, etc.
• Polythene is the most common carbon product used. It is mostly used to make
carry bags, pipes, household articles, etc.
42. Diamonds are found in many parts of the world such as South Africa, Brazil, Namibia,
the Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Belgium, Russia, Australia, USA and
India. South Africa produces and supplies nearly 70% of the world’s demand for
diamonds. In India, diamonds are found in Golconda (Karnataka) and Panna (Madhya
Pradesh).
43. A graphite crystal consists of layers of carbon atoms or sheets of carbon atoms. Each
carbon atom in every layer is joined to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds to form flat hexagonal rings. The various layers of carbon atoms in graphite
are quite far apart so that no covalent bonds can exist between them and are held
together by weak forces. Since the various layers are joined by weak forces, they can
slide over one another.
44. Following are the uses of buckminsterfullerene.
• It is used in flat-screen televisions.
• It is also used for the treatment of AIDS.
114
45.
Wood Charcoal Activated Charcoal
Wood charcoal is black, porous and Activated charcoal is formed by heating
brittle solid. It is obtained by destructive wood charcoal at around 900°C in
distillation of wood. During this process limited supply of air. In powdered form,
a mixture of gases like carbon dioxide activated charcoal has more surface area
(CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane than that of wood charcoal.
(CH4) and hydrogen (H2) is also formed.
D. 1. Following are the postulates of the kinetic molecular theory of matter.
molecules.
kinetic energy.
2. The state of matter is decided on the basis of interparticle force of attraction and
interparticle spaces between the particles of matter. Kinetic molecular theory explains
the behaviour of matter in different states.
Solids: The particles of matter are closely packed to each other in solids. Due to this,
the interparticle force of attraction between the particles is maximum. The particles are
arranged in a well-defined order and remain fixed at their positions. The interparticle
forces of attraction between the particles are so strong that the kinetic energy of the
particles is not enough to break the forces.
Liquids: The particles of matter in liquids are less closely packed to each other as
compared to solids and more closely packed in comparison to gases. Therefore, the
interparticle force of attraction between the particles is less than that in solids but
more as compared to gases. The molecules in liquids are comparatively free to move.
The kinetic energy of particles is still not sufficient to overcome the attractive forces.
However, the addition of a small amount of energy can make the particles move away
from each other in liquids.
Gases: The particles of matter in gases are far from each other. Therefore the
interparticle force of attraction is negligible in gases. The particles in gases are not
arranged in a fixed order and keep moving randomly in the available space. The kinetic
energy of the particles is sufficient to overcome the interparticle forces of attraction
thus enabling the particles to move away from each other
3. The particles in solids majorly vibrate at their own positions. Following are the
properties of solids.
• Solids consist of closely packed molecules that vibrate at their own positions. They
have fixed shape and volume.
• The volume of solid depends upon the size of the particles.
• They possess strong intermolecular forces. Also, due to negligible movement of
particles in solids, they lack kinetic energy.
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• The average kinetic energy of particles is directly proportional to the temperature
of the solid.
4. Activity 1.1 given on page 6 in the textbook observes the changes that occur when ice
melts.
5. The law of conservation of mass states that mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
The density of matter and the volume occupied by the matter may vary within a
system but the mass remains constant. The law of conservation of mass holds validity
because the naturally occurring elements are stable when found on the earth’s surface.
Therefore, atoms are not converted to other elements during chemical reactions. The
atom itself is also neither created nor destroyed. The substances may show change in
size, shape, kinetic energy and other properties during a physical change but the total
mass of the substances remains the same.
Let’s understand the law of conservation of mass with the help of the following example.
• On mixing 30 g ice with 50 g water, the resulting mixture formed after some
duration will be water.
The mass of water will be 30 g + 50 g = 80 g.
6. Changes that occur around us can be classified into different categories which are as
follows.
Reversible Periodic
• Melting of ice • Phases of moon
• Dissolving salt in water • Rising and setting of sun
Irreversible Non-periodic
• Ripening of mango • Earthquakes
• Curdling of milk • Landslides
Desirable Physical
• Burning of fuels • Melting of butter
• Ripening of fruits • Drying of wet clothes
Undesirable
Changes Chemical
• Rusting of iron • Burning of wood
• Soil erosion • Digestion of food
Slow Natural
• Growth of plants • Day and night
• Tooth decay • Growth of living things
Fast Man-made
• Burning of paper • Cooking of food
• Lighting of a bulb • Deforestation
7. Physical changes are changes in which only the physical properties of a substance
change without any change in its composition. During physical changes, no new
substances are formed and such changes are generally reversible in nature.
116
Characteristics of physical change are as follows.
8. Activity 2.4 given on page 20 in the textbook shows that melting of ice is a physical
change.
9. Evaporation is a process by which a substance changes from the liquid state to the
gaseous state at a temperature below the boiling point. The evaporation of water
is a physical change which is slow, natural, desirable and reversible. The rate of
evaporation is dependent on the factors such as temperature, surface area, humidity
and speed of air. An increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation. The rate
of evaporation is higher if the surface area is larger. An increase in the humidity in the
air decreases the rate of evaporation. The rate of evaporation is higher when the speed
of air over the liquid is high.
10. Most of the changes involve energy changes. Energy, usually in the form of heat, is
either released or absorbed during such changes. Following are the changes involving
energy changes.
Changes in which energy is absorbed: Melting of ice, boiling of water and evaporation

are some changes which absorb heat. This is because when a change of state occurs
from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, the intermolecular force of attraction decreases
resulting in an increase in the intermolecular distance. This is possible only when heat
energy is absorbed by the solid or liquid. Some chemical changes like photosynthesis
absorb energy in the form of sunlight.
Changes in which energy is released: Physical change like freezing of water releases

energy in the form of heat. This is because when water freezes into ice, i.e., water
changes its state from liquid to solid, the intermolecular force of attraction increases,
released by the liquid or gas. Chemical changes like combustion and digestion of food
also involve release of energy.
11. Characteristics of mixtures are as follows.
• A mixture has no definite composition. The constituents of a mixture are not present
in a fixed ratio.
• The constituents of a mixture can be separated by simple physical methods.
• The original properties of constituents of a mixture are retained.
• A mixture has no fixed melting and boiling points.
• A mixture has no fixed physical and chemical properties.
• There is no energy absorbed or released during the formation of a mixture.
117
Following are the differences between homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous
mixtures.
Homogeneous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures
• A mixture in which the constituents • A mixture in which the constituents
are uniformly distributed throughout are not distributed uniformly is called
is called a homogeneous mixture. a heterogeneous mixture.
• The constituents of these mixtures • The constituents of these mixtures
are not clearly visible and cannot be are clearly visible and can be
identified individually. identified individually.
• A salt solution, a glucose solution, • A mixture of iron filings and sulphur
and an alloy of iron and carbon are powder, a mixture of oil and water,
some examples of homogeneous and a mixture of chalk powder
mixtures. in water are some examples of
heterogeneous mixtures.
12. The process by which insoluble solid particles can be separated from a liquid by
allowing the mixture to pass through a filter is called filtration. We use this method to
separate solid-liquid mixtures in which the solid particles are lighter and are insoluble
in the liquid. We can use filter paper, a layer of sand and charcoal as filters. These
filters allow the liquid to pass through them but restrict the passing of solid particles.
The insoluble solid particles that are left behind in the filter paper are called residue.
The liquid that passes through the filter paper is called filtrate. We can separate the
mixtures such as tea and tea leaves, chalk and water, clay and water, and sawdust and
water by filtration.
13. The process of separating a liquid from a soluble component by selective evaporation
and condensation is called distillation. This process of separation is based on the
principle of difference in the boiling points of the components of a mixture. The
component with lower boiling point evaporates before the component with higher
boiling point. Distillation is performed in a special round bottom flask called the
distillation flask. A condenser is fitted into the flask. When the mixture in the distillation
flask is heated, the liquid vaporizes and the solid part is left behind in the flask. The
vapours of the liquid component condense into the pure liquid upon cooling. The
pure liquid obtained is collected in the conical flask.
vapours thermometer
rising
water out condenser
water in
distillation
flask
conical
flask
pure liquid
14. Activity 3.4 given on page 43 in the textbook shows how a mixture of kerosene and
water can be separated.
118
15. Paper chromatography is considered to be the simplest type of chromatography. It
is performed using a special type of paper called chromatographic paper or ordinary
filter paper. A line is drawn using a pencil near the edge of the paper at the bottom. A
drop of the mixture that needs to be separated is placed on the filter paper above the
drawn line.
The paper is then dipped in the beaker containing the solvent such that the line drawn
on the paper is above the level of the solvent. In this process, the solvent acts as a
mobile phase whereas the filter paper acts as a stationary phase. The solvent carries
along with it the drop of mixture that contains various components as it rises on
the paper. The more soluble component of the drop rises faster, followed by other
components depending on rates of absorption. We observe various spots on the filter
paper that indicate different components of a mixture. Later, we remove the paper
from the solvent and dry it.
Paper chromatography has the following advantages.
• Paper chromatography is used to separate various dyes from a mixture.
• Paper chromatography is also used to test the quality of food by examining the
presence of different vitamins, preservatives, amino acids and proteins.
16. The postulates Dalton’s atomic theory are as follows.
• All matter consists of tiny particles called atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible or indestructible. They can neither be created nor destroyed.
• In chemical reactions, atoms rearrange, combine or separate but they do not
themselves break apart.
• All atoms of a particular element are identical in mass and other properties.
• The atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements,
i.e., atoms of different elements have different mass, different size and different
• Atoms of an element combine with atoms of another element (or elements) in
fixed whole numbers to form compounds. For example, 2 atoms of hydrogen (H)
combine with one atom of oxygen (O) to form water (H2O).
17. In 1897, the English scientist Sir J.J. Thomson proved that an atom can be split into
even smaller parts. His discovery of the electron was the first step towards a detailed
model of the atom. He used William Crookes’ experiment where two metal plates were
placed at each end of a discharge tube. The metal plate connected to the negative
terminal of the voltage source served as the cathode and the metal plate connected
to the positive terminal served as the anode. Crookes had observed that on passing
an electric current of high voltage through the discharge tube, rays were emitted from
the cathode. He showed that the emitted rays were negatively charged by studying
the direction in which these rays were deflected by a magnetic field.
J.J. Thomson applied the following conditions in electric discharge tubes to conduct
his experiment on a gas. Under ordinary conditions, gases are poor conductors of
electricity. But gases become good conductors of electricity when
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When a high voltage electric current was passed through the discharge tube
containing small quantity of a gas, at very low pressure, a green fluorescence was
seen coming from the glass opposite to the cathode. This fluorescence was observed
due to a stream of rays originated from the cathode, hence called the cathode rays.
J.J. Thomson found that the cathode rays consisted of negatively-charged particles.
These particles were named as electrons.
18. Following are the characteristics of cathode rays.
• Cathode rays are produced from the cathode in a discharge tube when an electric
• Cathode rays consist of negatively-charged particles because when an electric field
positively-charged plate.
• Cathode rays are a stream of fast moving charged particles.
• Cathode rays travel in a straight line.
Following are the characteristics of anode rays.
• Anode rays are produced from the anode in a discharge tube when an electric
• Anode rays consist of positively-charged particles because when an electric field
negatively-charged plate.
• Anode rays are a stream of fast moving charged particles.
• Anode rays travel in a straight line.
19. Structural stability of an atom: A force of attraction exists between the electrons
and protons present within the atom. The electrons being charged and lighter are in
constant motion and would lose energy, and eventually fall into the nucleus leading
to structural collapse of the atom. However, this does not happen. This is because the
electrons revolve in fixed orbits (shells) around the nucleus at a very high speed. Each
orbit is associated with a fixed amount of energy. The electrons in the orbits neither
lose nor gain energy until some external force is applied on them. They are thus able
to maintain their position. This results in the balancing of the inward force exerted by
the nucleus by the outward force of the moving electrons. This in turn prevents the
electrons from falling into the nucleus, thus making the atom structurally stable.
20. Electropositive ions: When an atom donates electrons to acquire a stable electronic
Formation of electropositive ions:

Example:
–2 electrons
Mg → 2(K), 8(L), 2(M) Mg2+ → 2(K), 8(L)
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Electronegative Ions: When an atom accepts electrons to acquire a stable electronic
Formation of electronegative ions:
Example:
• Oxygen (O) accepts 2 electrons to become oxygen ion (O2–).
+2 electrons
(8 electrons) O O2– (10 electrons)
0 → 2(K), 6(L) O2– → 2(K), 8(L)
21. There are certain rules for representation of elements. Following are those rules.
• Symbols of most of the elements are denoted by first letter of the name of the
element. For example, symbol of nitrogen is N and that of carbon is C.
• In some cases, more than one element has a name starting with the same letter, for
example, carbon and chlorine. In such a case, carbon is represented by the letter C
and chlorine is represented by any two letters of its name, i.e., Cl. When a symbol is
represented using two letters of the name of an element, we write the first letter in
upper case followed by the second letter in lower case.
• Some elements are assigned symbols on either their scientific or Latin, Greek or
German name. For example, the symbol Na of sodium is derived from its Latin name
natrium.
22. The chemical formula of a compound is derived in the following way.


Step 3: The valencies are changed and are written as the subscripts next to the symbols.

It is not required to write the subscript if the valency is 1.

However, in case it is not possible, the valencies are written as they are.
23. The chemical formula for the following compounds:
Water: A molecule of water is formed by combining the atoms of the elements

hydrogen and oxygen.
Step 1: Hydrogen = H Oxygen = O
H O
Step 2: H O
1 –2
Step 3: H2O

Step 4: Since no further division of valency is possible, therefore the chemical formula

of water is H2O.
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Carbon Dioxide: A molecule of carbon dioxide is formed by combining the atoms of

the elements carbon and oxygen.
Step 1:
Carbon = C Oxygen = O
Step 2:
C O
4 –2
Step 3: C2O4

Step 4: Simplify the formula by dividing the valency by common factor 2.

CO2
Therefore, the chemical formula of carbon dioxide is CO2.
Calcium hydroxide: Calcium hydroxide is formed by combining calcium and hydroxide

which is a radical.
Step 1: Calcium = Ca
Hydroxide = OH
Step 2:
Ca OH
2 –1
Step 3: Ca(OH)2

Sodium carbonate: Sodium carbonate is formed by combining sodium and carbonate.

Step 1: Sodium = Na
Carbonate = CO3
Step 2:
Na CO3
1 –2
Step 3: Na2CO3

24. A word equation represents the chemical reaction written using only the names of the
reactants involved and products formed.
Let’s understand this with the following example. Iron reacts with air to form iron (III)
oxide or ferric oxide. This reaction can be represented as shown below.
Iron + Oxygen → Iron (III) oxide
This equation can be written again using the symbols and formulae to represent the
chemical equation.
Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
However, the equation needs to be balanced. The balanced equation is shown below.
4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
25. Following is the chemical equation that represents the reaction between magnesium
and oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
Step 1: Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

Step 2: Mg + O2 → MgO

Step 3:
Number of Mg atoms: 1 1
The number of magnesium atoms is equal on both the sides. However, there are two
oxygen atoms on the left side and one oxygen atom on the right side. In order to have
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an equal number of magnesium and oxygen atoms on both the sides, we multiply Mg
by 2 on the left-hand side and we multiply MgO by 2 on the right-hand side.
By doing so, the equation changes in the given form.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Step 4: The chemical equation 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO now contains an equal number

of various atoms in reactants and products. Therefore, we can say that it is a balanced
equation.
26. In addition to the formation of new substances, a chemical change may be accompanied
by one or more of the following changes. Following are the characteristics of a chemical
reaction.
1. Evolution of gas: Some chemical reactions are characterized by evolution of gas.
Example: When solid sodium nitrate is heated, oxygen gas is evolved. If a glowing
splinter is brought near the mouth of the test tube, it bursts into flame.
2. Change of colour: Some reactions are characterized by change of colour.
Example: When green-coloured copper (II) carbonate is heated strongly, it
decomposes to form black-coloured copper (II) oxide and carbon dioxide gas is
evolved.
3. Formation of precipitate: Some reactions are characterized by the formation of
precipitate.
Example: When sodium chloride and silver nitrate solutions are mixed together, a
white precipitate of silver chloride is formed.
4. Change of state: In many chemical reactions, a change of physical state is observed.
Example: Hydrogen and oxygen gases combine together to form water which is a
liquid.
5. Change in energy: Some reactions are characterized by absorption or evolution of
heat, light or any other radiation.
Absorption of light: Plants prepare food from carbon dioxide by absorption of
sunlight.
Depending upon the absorption or evolution of heat, chemical reactions are of two
types.
Exothermic reaction: The chemical reaction in which heat energy is evolved is called
exothermic reaction.
Examples: When water is added to quicklime, heat energy is evolved.
Endothermic reaction: The chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed is
called endothermic reaction.
Examples: When carbon and sulphur are heated, heat energy is absorbed.
27. Chemical reactions take place when the necessary conditions are met.
Example: Sodium reacts vigorously with cold water.
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a faster rate.
Example: When sodium sulphate and barium chloride are mixed in an aqueous
solution, a white precipitate of barium chloride is formed.
Example: Calcium carbonate on heating gives carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
Example:
• Photosynthesis is a photochemical reaction.
• The decomposition of silver chloride in the presence of light is also a
photochemical reaction.
Example: Water dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen when electric current is
passed through it.
high pressure.
Example: Nitrogen reacts with hydrogen under high pressure to form ammonia.
(g) Catalyst: Some reactions take place in the presence of a catalyst.
The rate of a chemical reaction can be controlled by the concentration of reactants,
temperature, pressure and the presence of catalyst that is capable of altering the rate
of a chemical reaction.
28. Following is the difference between a catalyst and an enzyme.
Catalyst Enzyme
A catalyst is a substance that alters the When a substance acts as a catalyst in a
rate of a chemical reaction without biochemical reaction, then it is called a
itself undergoing any permanent biocatalyst or an enzyme.
chemical change during the reaction.
29. Combination reactions: The chemical reaction in which two or more substances
combine to form a single substance is called a combination reaction. Such a reaction
is also called synthesis reaction. The general representation of such a reaction is as
shown.
A + B → AB
Example: Reaction of carbon and oxygen: Carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
C + O2 → CO2↑
30. Following are the points that elaborate the importance of neutralization reactions in
our daily life:
• Acidity: Hydrochloric acid present in the stomach helps in the digestion of food.
However, excess of hydrochloric acid causes acidity and indigestion. This condition
can be overcome by taking antacids like milk of magnesia, which is a mild base
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and contains magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]. It thus neutralizes the excess of
hydrochloric acid.
Ant and bee sting: When an ant or a bee stings, formic acid is injected into the body
•
which causes itching. To neutralize the effect of an ant or a bee sting, baking soda
solution or calamine solution is applied on the affected area. Baking soda contains
sodium hydrogen carbonate and calamine solution contains zinc hydroxide. Both
these solutions are basic in nature and hence help to reduce the itching.
Soil treatment: Due to excessive use of fertilizers, soil becomes either too acidic or
•
too basic thus preventing the proper growth of plants. If the soil is too acidic, it can
be treated with bases like quicklime which contains calcium oxide or slaked lime
which contains calcium hydroxide to neutralize the acidic nature of soil.
Disposal of factory wastes: The wastes released from the factories are acidic in
•
nature. If they are allowed to flow as it is into the water bodies, they can cause huge
damage to aquatic plants and animals. Therefore, basic substances are added to
factory wastes to neutralize their acidic nature.
Toothpastes: The toothpastes that we use today contain bases to neutralize the
•
acids formed in the mouth.
31. Occurrence of hydrogen in nature: Hydrogen makes up almost 90% of the matter in
the universe. It makes up only 1.0% of the earth’s crust, oceans and atmosphere. There
is practically no hydrogen in the earth’s atmosphere. This is because the free hydrogen
is so light that it has escaped far above the earth into the outer atmosphere.
On earth, hydrogen occurs in a free state in very small quantities, mainly in volcanic
gases. The most important compound of hydrogen is water (H2O) that covers 70% of
the earth’s surface. Hydrogen combines with other elements to form compounds such
as acids, bases, hydrocarbons, carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The occurrence of
hydrogen on the earth in various forms of compound is shown in the given table.
Compounds of hydrogen on the earth
Combination of hydrogen Compounds Occurrence

with
Oxygen Water (H2O) Oceans, seas, rivers, lakes,
ponds, water vapour in air,
underground water, etc.
Carbon Hydrocarbons Oil, petroleum and natural gas
Carbon, oxygen and Organic compounds Animal and vegetable matter
nitrogen
Chlorine, sulphur, nitrogen Acids, alkalis Prepared in laboratory
and oxygen
32. Discovery of hydrogen: In 1766, Henry Cavendish discovered the element hydrogen.
He then called it ‘inflammable air’ or ‘phlogiston’. He observed that it is distinct from
other combustible gases. He studied the properties of hydrogen and found that the
only product we get on burning hydrogen is water. In 1781, Antoine Lavoisier, a French
chemist named this gas as hydrogen. In Greek hydro means water and genes means
forming. So hydrogen means forming water.
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33. Given below is the preparation of hydrogen by the action of water on metals.
• From cold water: Metals like potassium, sodium and calcium when treated with
cold water liberate hydrogen and form corresponding hydroxides.
2K + 2H2O → 2KOH + H2↑
potassium water potassium hydroxide hydrogen
2Na + 2H2O → 2NaOH + H2↑
sodium water sodium hydroxide hydrogen
Ca + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + H2↑
calcium water calcium hydroxide hydrogen
Potassium and sodium react with cold water so violently that hydrogen evolved
could immediately catch fire.
• From hot water: Magnesium reacts with hot water, liberating hydrogen and
forming magnesium hydroxide.
Mg + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + H2↑
magnesium hot water magnesium hydroxide hydrogen
From steam: Metals like aluminium, zinc and iron react with steam to liberate
•
hydrogen gas and form corresponding oxides.
2Al + 3H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2↑
aluminium water aluminium oxide hydrogen
(steam)
Zn + H2O → ZnO + H2↑
zinc water zinc oxide hydrogen
(steam)
34. Following is the preparation of hydrogen by the action of dilute acids on metals.
Dilute sulphuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid liberate hydrogen when they are
treated with metals placed above hydrogen in the activity series of metals.
Mg + H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2↑
magnesium sulphuric acid magnesium sulphate hydrogen
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2↑
iron hydrochloric acid iron chloride hydrogen
35. In the laboratory, hydrogen is prepared by the action of dilute sulphuric acid or dilute
hydrochloric acid on zinc granules.
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2↑
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36. Activity 8.1 given on page 156 in the textbook shows that rainwater does not contain
any dissolved impurities but well water contains them.
37. The process of converting a liquid into vapour by heating and then condensing
the vapour back into the liquid is called distillation. This process is used to remove
dissolved impurities from water. The water obtained after distillation is distilled water.
It is the purest form of water. The impure water is kept in the distillation flask and
boiled. The steam produced is passed through Liebig’s condenser where the steam
condenses to water which is collected in the receiver. The dissolved impurities are left
behind in the flask. Hence, the process enables the recovery of both pure water and
dissolved solids.
38. A molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Its
molecular formula is H2O. Some of the properties of water are as follows.
• Nature: Pure water is transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless at ordinary
temperature. Water contains dissolved minerals and gases that give it a pleasant
taste. Pure water being transparent allows light to pass through and helps aquatic
plants to carry out photosynthesis. This feature also helps aquatic animals to see
under water.
• Boiling point: Under normal pressure, pure water boils at 100°C and changes into
steam. The temperature remains constant till all the water has boiled and changed
into steam. The boiling point of water varies with the pressure in the following
manner.
 With decrease in pressure, the boiling point of water decreases.
 With increase in pressure, the boiling point of water increases.
• Freezing point: Under normal pressure pure water freezes at 0°C and changes into
ice. The temperature remains constant till all the water has changed into ice. With
increase in pressure, freezing point of water decreases.
• Density: Most liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling. However, water
shows an unusual property. It contracts on cooling till the temperature reaches 4°C.
Thereafter, it expands when cooled below 4°C. This property is known as anomalous
expansion of water. Due to this property, the density of water is maximum at 4°C.
But if it is cooled further water expands to become less dense. At 0°C water freezes
to form ice.
• Heat and electrical conductivity: Pure water is a bad conductor of heat and
electricity.
• Specific heat: Water has high specific heat. It means water absorbs large amount of
heat energy before it begins to heat up and also it releases heat energy slowly when
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it cools down. In other words, water neither heats up nor cools down quickly. This
feature makes water an excellent cooling agent.
39. A salt consists of positive and negative parts. When salt is dissolved in water, the
positive part of salt gets attracted to the negative part of water and the negative part
gets attracted to the positive part of water. As a result, the disappearance of salt occurs.
This process can be physical or chemical depending upon the salt or compound taken
with water. Dissolution of sodium chloride in water is represented as shown.
NaCl(s) → Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
This is considered as a chemical change as sodium chloride dissociates into Na+ and
Cl– ions. Hence, the water contains these ions and conducts electricity. It can also be
called a chemical change because the reactant which is sodium chloride is different
from the products formed which are sodium cation and chlorine anion.
40. Activity 8.7 given on page 167 in the textbook shows that copper sulphate crystals
contain water of crystallization.
41. Following are the chemical properties of carbon.
• Carbon is insoluble in all solvents.
• When carbon is heated with excess supply of oxygen, it forms carbon dioxide. This
is because it has a great affinity for oxygen. But if carbon is heated with limited
supply of oxygen, it forms carbon monoxide.
• When carbon is heated with hydrogen at 500°C and 250 atmospheric pressure, a
mixture of hydrocarbon containing methane, ethane, etc. is obtained.
• It is a good reducing agent. It reduces oxides of metals placed below zinc in the
metal activity series to their corresponding metals.
• It reduces concentrated sulphuric acid and nitric acid to form sulphur dioxide
and nitrogen dioxide, respectively. Carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide in these
reactions.
• Carbon in the form of wood charcoal reacts with sulphur vapours to form carbon
disulphide when heated strongly.
• It reacts with calcium at a very high temperature (1000°C – 2800°C) to form its
carbide.
• When water in the form of steam is passed over red hot coke, it gets reduced to a
mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which is also called water gas.
• Carbon in the form of finely ground coke when heated strongly in the presence of
electric arc reduces silicon dioxide to silicon carbide.
42. Following are the properties of diamond.
• Pure diamond is a colourless, transparent substance with extraordinary brilliance.
Raw diamonds do not shine. They shine after undergoing cutting and polishing
procedures such that their angled faces reflect light and break it into different
colours. It is the presence of small traces of metallic oxides and salts that imparts
distinct colours to diamonds.
• Diamond is the hardest natural substance known.
• It has a high density of 3.5 g/cm3.
• It does not conduct electricity but it conducts heat extremely well.
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• Diamond has high melting point of 3500°C. It sublimes when heated to this
temperature.
• When diamond is heated to 800°C in the presence of oxygen, then only carbon
dioxide gas is formed and nothing is left behind. This shows that diamond is made
up of carbon only.
• It is insoluble in all solvents.
• It does not react with any chemical.
Following are the uses of diamond.
• Diamonds are used in instruments like glass cutters and rock drilling equipments.
• They are used for making jewellery because of their extraordinary brilliance.
• They are used by eye surgeons as surgical tool to perform certain eye surgeries with
a great precision.
• Diamond dust is used for polishing other diamonds and valuable stones.
• Diamonds can withstand high radiation in space and are used for making protective
windows for spacecrafts and satellites.
43. Properties of graphite are as follows.
• It is a greyish-black, opaque substance with metallic lustre.
• It is soft and slippery to touch.
• It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
• The density of graphite ranges between 1.9 to 2.3 g/cm3.
• Graphite has a very high melting point of 3700°C.
• It leaves a greyish-black mark on the paper.
• It burns in air at 700°C to form carbon dioxide.
• It is insoluble in most solvents. It can be converted to diamond at a very high
temperature and pressure.
Uses of graphite are as follows:
• Due to its softness, powdered graphite is used as a lubricant for the fast moving
parts of machinery.
• Graphite is a good conductor of electricity due to which it is used for making carbon
electrodes or graphite electrodes in dry cells and electric arcs.
• It is used for making pencil lead.
• It is used to make black paint and printer’s ink because it is black in colour and
insoluble in water.
• It is used as a moderator in nuclear reactors to slow down fast moving particles.
• It is used in making crucibles for melting metals due to its high melting point.
44. The following activity shows that charcoal is a good reducing agent.
Refer Activity 9.4 given on page 191 in the textbook.
By the reaction of dilute acids with metal carbonates:
•
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Dilute acids such as dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium carbonate to form
carbon dioxide.
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
hydrochloric calcium calcium chloride water carbon
acid(dilute) carbonate dioxide
 A few chips of marble [calcium carbonate (CaCO3)] are taken in a Woulfe’s
bottle which is a double-mouthed glass bottle with two necks.
 A few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid are added through a thistle funnel.
 An effervescence is observed when the acid reacts with marble and carbon
dioxide is released.
 Carbon dioxide is heavier than air. It is collected by the upward displacement
of air in a glass jar.
• By burning carbon:
Fuels containing carbon release carbon dioxide on burning.
C + O2 → CO2 + Heat
Fuel + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water vapour + Heat + Light
Wood + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water vapour + Heat + Light
• By heating metal carbonates or metal hydrogen carbonates:
Metal carbona tes and metal hydrogen carbonates when heated produce carbon
dioxide.
heat
CuCO3 → CuO + CO2
copper carbonate copper oxide carbon dioxide
heat
2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
sodium hydrogen sodium water carbon dioxide
carbonate carbonate
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Assessment Sheet 2
Answer Key
A. 1. Matter 2. Solids 3. motion, kinetic energy
4. density, volume 5. reactants, products 6. change
7. slow 8. Man-made 9. increase
10. permanent, irreversible 11. compound 12. magnetic separation
13. froth floatation 14. Fractional distillation 15. Paper chromatography
16. anode 17. neutral 18. electronic configuration
19. divalent 20. covalent bond 21. valence electrons
22. radical 23. balanced 24. law of conservation of mass
25. catalyst 26. iron hydroxide 27. zymase
28. copper 29. baking soda, calamine 30. Amphoteric oxides
31. proton, electron 32. metal hydrides 33. Liquid hydrogen
34. reducing 35. Coal gas, water gas 36. Unsaturated
37. colloid 38. Hygroscopic 39. soft water
40. calcium, magnesium 41. valency 42. crystalline, amorphous
43. insoluble 44. Bone or animal 45. Global warming
B. 1. True 2. True 3. False 4. True 5. True 6. True
7. False 8. True 9. True 10. False 11. False 12. True
19. False 20. True 21. True 22. False 23. True 24. False
25. False 26. False 27. True 28. False 29. True 30. True
31. True 32. False 33. True 34. True 35. True 36. False
37. True 38. False 39. True 40. False 41. True 42. False
C. 1. Solids Liquids Gases
solids and liquids.
size of the particles. the particles. This in turn occupied by them is also
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• They possess strong • The intermolecular force • These particles neither
intermolecular forces. of attraction is less than attract nor repel each
Also, due to negligible the solids but more as other. The particles in
movement of particles compared to gases. gases are not arranged
in solids, they lack in a fixed order and keep
kinetic energy. moving randomly in the
available space.
space.

2. There exist interparticle forces of attraction among the particles of matter and the
distance between the particles of matter is called interparticle space.
3. The particles of matter in liquids are arranged far from to each other as compared to
solids and more closely packed in comparison to gases. Therefore, the interparticle
force of attraction between the particles is less than that in solids but more as
compared to gases.
4. Particles in solids lack kinetic energy because of negligible movement of particles.
5. The average kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the temperature
of the gas.
6. Following table shows the differences between periodic and non-periodic changes.
Periodic Changes Non-periodic Changes
• Changes that occur after a regular • Changes that do not occur after a
interval of time are called periodic regular interval of time, i.e., they
changes. occur irregularly are called non-
periodic changes.
• Rising and setting of the sun, • Precipitation and earthquake are
changing of seasons and phases some examples of non-periodic
of the moon are all examples of changes
periodic changes
7. Following table shows the differences between desirable and undesirable changes.
Desirable Changes Undesirable Changes
• Changes that are beneficial to us are • Changes that are not beneficial to us
called desirable changes. are called undesirable changes.
• Ripening of fruits, burning of fuels to • Occurrence of earthquakes, floods,
run automobiles and cooking of food etc. rusting of iron and spoilage of
are desirable changes. food are undesirable changes.
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8. A glass plate forms many pieces when it breaks. Each broken piece of the glass plate is
still glass and there is no new substance formed. Hence, the breaking of a glass plate is
considered to be a physical change.
9. Dissolving is a process in which a solid, liquid or gas mixes uniformly with another
substance to form a solution. When we dissolve sugar in water, the sugar particles
spread out and form solution with water. This process can be reversed by evaporating
the water and collecting the sugar. Hence it is a physical change.
10. When we take some dough of flour, roll a chapatti out of it and bake it on a griddle,
we will observe that the rolled chapatti changes into a baked chapatti. Now, it is not
possible to get back the dough of flour. This shows that baking a chapatti is a chemical
change.
11. A mixture consists of two or more pure substances such as elements, compounds or
both, which retain their individual properties. Air is a mixture of different gases such as
nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide and other gases.
12. In a mixture, each component retains its individual identity and properties. The basis
of separation of a mixture is the fact that each component of a mixture has different
physical and chemical properties. These components of a mixture are either elements
or compounds. The techniques used for separating mixtures rely on the differences in
the physical properties of the components.
13. A method in which the components of a mixture are separated using a sieve is called
sieving. The principle of the technique is the difference in size of the components of a
mixture. When we place a mixture on a sieve and shake it, the component with smaller
size falls down through the holes of the sieve, whereas the component with larger size
remains on the sieve.
14. The process used to separate insoluble solids suspended in a liquid by allowing them
to settle down is called sedimentation, whereas the process of pouring the clear liquid
without disturbing the sediments is called decantation. We can separate a mixture of
sand and water by sedimentation and decantation.
15. The process by which a substance changes directly from the solid state to the gaseous
state without passing through the intermediate liquid state is called sublimation. This
process is used to separate a mixture of iodine and sand.
16. The sum total of the number of protons and the number of neutrons present in the
nucleus of an atom of an element is called the mass number of that element. It is
represented by the letter A.
Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons
17. The relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times by which the average
It is expressed in atomic mass unit (amu).
18. Following are the properties of isotopes.
• The isotopes of an element have same atomic number. Thus, the number of
electrons of that element are also same.
• The isotopes of elements show same chemical properties because they have same
atomic number.
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• Mass dependent properties such as density, melting point and boiling point will
differ in different isotopes. This is because the mass of the isotopes differs slightly.
19. The electronic configuration of carbon, aluminium, phosphorus and potassium is
given in the table below.
Elements Electronic Configuration
K L M N
Carbon 2 4
Aluminium 2 8 3
Phosphorus 2 8 5
Potassium 2 8 8 1
20. Positive Valency Negative Valency

• When an atom donates electrons • When an atom accepts electrons
to acquire a stable electronic to acquire a stable electronic
configuration, it becomes a positively configuration, it becomes a negatively
charged ion and is said to have charged ion and is said to have
positive (electropositive) valency. negative (electronegative) valency.
• During chemical reactions, metals • During chemical reactions, non-
donate electrons, resulting in a metals accept electrons resulting in
greater number of protons and lesser an excess of electrons over protons in
number of electrons left with them. their atoms and become negatively
As a result, they become positively charged. This leads to the formation
charged, thus forming cations. of anions (negatively charged ions).
21. The outermost shell of an atom is known as valence shell or valence orbit. The electrons
present in the valence shell of an atom are called valence electrons. The number of
electrons that an atom needs to accept, donate or share so as to form a complete outer
octet (8 electrons) is called valency. In other words, valency is the combining capacity
of an atom of an element.
22. A cation is formed when an atom or a group of atoms loses electron(s) by developing
a positive charge, whereas an anion is formed when an atom or a group of atoms
accepts electron(s) by developing a negative charge.
23. Element Ion formed Symbol
Copper Cuprous/Cupric Cu+/Cu2+
Sodium Sodium Na+
Chlorine Chloride Cl–
Oxygen Oxide O2–
24. A balanced equation is an equation that has an equal number of atoms of one or more
elements in the reactants and products. Such an equation conforms to the atomic
theory and the law of conservation of mass.
25. A catalyst which helps to increase the rate of a reaction is called a positive catalyst,
whereas a catalyst which helps to decrease the rate of a reaction is called a negative
catalyst.
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26. Reactants are substances that take part in a chemical reaction, whereas products are
substances that are produced in a chemical reaction. A chemical equation consists of
reactants that are present on the left-hand side (LHS) and products that are present on
the right-hand side (RHS).
27. Pepsin is present in the stomach and helps in the breakdown of proteins into amino
acids. Enzyme maltase, present in the living cells of yeast, helps in the conversion of
maltose (a carbohydrate) into glucose.
28. The decomposition brought about by electricity is called electric decomposition.
Decomposition of water, sodium chloride and aluminium oxide on passing of
electricity are examples of electric decomposition.
29. The chemical reaction in which an element takes the place of another element in a
compound is called displacement reaction. In general, a more reactive metal displaces
a less reactive metal from its compound.
30.
Calcination Roasting
• Calcination is a decomposition • Roasting is a decomposition process
process in which a metallic ore is in which a metallic ore is heated in
heated in the absence or limited the presence of air at a very high
supply of air. temperature.
• This method is employed for • This method is employed for
carbonate ores. sulphide ores.
• Carbon dioxide is produced along • Sulphur dioxide is produced along
with metal oxide. with metal oxide.
31. Preparation of hydrogen by the action of water on metals from steam: Metals
like aluminium, zinc and iron react with steam to liberate hydrogen gas and form
corresponding oxides.
32. Preparation of hydrogen by the action of alkalis on metals: Metals like aluminium,
zinc and lead react with hot alkali solution and liberate hydrogen.
33. Reaction of hydrogen with oxygen: The reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is highly
exothermic. Hydrogen burns in oxygen with a pale blue flame to form steam which on
condensation forms water. The energy released in this process is harnessed to propel
space rockets.
34. Reaction of hydrogen with carbon: Hydrogen combines with carbon to form
compounds called hydrocarbons. This reaction occurs at a temperature above 520°C
in the presence of nickel or cobalt acting as a catalyst.
The reaction can be reversed on further raising the temperature.
35. Following are two chemical reactions where hydrogen is acting as a reducing agent.
PbO + H2 → Pb + H2O
lead(II) oxide hydrogen lead water
Fe2O3 + 3H2 → 2Fe + 3H2O
ferric oxide hydrogen iron water
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36. Following are the uses of distilled water.
• Distilled water is used in batteries of cars and inverters.
• It is used in the preparation of medicines.
• It is used for conducting experiments in laboratories.
37. With increase in pressure, the boiling point of water increases. This is because when
more pressure is acting on the surface of a liquid, the liquid cannot escape as water
vapour easily. That is why, in pressure cooker the increased pressure raises the boiling
point of water and food cooks faster.
38. Most liquids expand on heating and contract on cooling. However, water shows an
unusual property. It contracts on cooling till the temperature reaches 4°C. Thereafter it
expands when cooled below 4°C. This property is known as anomalous expansion of
water.
39. Following factors affect the formation of a solution.
• Size of the particles: The rate of the formation of the solution is faster if the size of
the particles of solute is smaller.
• Stirring: Stirring increases the rate of formation of a solution.
• Increase in temperature: The rate of formation of a solution increases on heating
the solution.
40. Different metals react with steam in different manner.
• Metals like Pb, Cu, Hg, Ni, Ag and Au do not react with water in any form.
• Magnesium reacts with steam vigorously and forms a white solid of magnesium
oxide and hydrogen gas. An intense white light is seen when the reaction occurs.
• Zinc and iron also react similarly with steam but the reaction is less vigorous.
• Aluminium also reacts with steam readily to give aluminium oxide and hydrogen
gas. This reaction however stops after a short while. This happens because a thin but
strong layer of aluminium oxide covers the metal and does not allow the reaction to
proceed further.
41. Each carbon atom in the diamond crystal is linked to four other carbon atoms by
strong covalent bonds. The four surrounding carbon atoms are at the four vertices
(four corners) of a regular tetrahedron. The carbon atoms are thus held firmly in place.
As a result, a diamond crystal appears to be a closely-packed three-dimensional rigid
structure. Many properties of diamond such as hardness, high density, high melting
point (3500°C), high refractive index and non-conducting nature are attributed to its
crystalline structure.
42. Powdered coke when heated with a little sand and iron(III) oxide in an electric furnace
at a temperature about 3000°C produces pure graphite.
SiO2 + 3C 3000°C
→ SiC + 2CO
ferric oxide
sand coke silicon carbide carbon monoxide
heat
SiC → Si + C
silicon carbide silicon graphite
43. Following are the uses of sugar charcoal.
• It is used as a reducing agent to extract metals from their oxides.
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• It is used as a decolourising agent.
• It is used to prepare artificial diamonds by subjecting it to heat at 3000°C–3500°C.
44. Following are the uses of lampblack.
• It is used as a pigment in making printer’s ink, carbon paper, black paint and shoe
polish.
• It is used in hardening of rubber tyres.
• It is used in the manufacturing of gun powder.
45. We perform the following tests to check the presence of carbon dioxide.
• On passing carbon dioxide through lime water, lime water turns milky due to the
formation of calcium carbonate which is insoluble. However, when excess of carbon
dioxide is passed through lime water, the milkiness disappears due to the formation
of calcium bicarbonate which is soluble in water.
• On putting a burning candle or a burning splinter in a jar which contains carbon
dioxide, it is observed that the flame gets extinguished. This shows that carbon
dioxide does not support combustion.
D. 1. The kinetic molecular theory of matter states that matter consists of very tiny particles
particles of matter is called interparticle space.
Following are the postulates of the kinetic molecular theory of matter.
molecules.
kinetic energy.
2. Liquids: The following properties explain the nature of liquids.
• Liquids consist of closely packed particles which are in random motion and maintain
the volume.
• The volume of the liquid depends on the size of the particles. This in turn affects the
properties of a liquid.
• The decrease in the motion of the molecules of liquids allows the interparticle
forces to act which significantly affect the properties of a liquid.
• Liquids have fixed volume and take up the shape of the container.
• The average kinetic energy of particles is directly proportional to the temperature
of the liquid.
Gases: The particles of gases are in constant motion. These particles consist of the
intermolecular forces between them; however, the kinetic energy present in a gas is
much more than the intermolecular forces present between the particles of gases. This
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causes the gas to spread easily and faster when kept in open as compared to solids
and liquids. This is further explained by the following properties.
• A gas consists of a large number of particles moving in a random direction. The
distance between the particles is larger as compared to solids and liquids.
• Since the particles are small, the volume occupied by them is small compared to the
total volume.
• These particles neither attract nor repel each other.
• The collisions are elastic in nature, i.e., they take place within a negligible span of
time and no loss of kinetic energy occurs.
• The average kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to the temperature
of the gas.
3. Activity 1.2 given on page 8 in the textbook shows that total mass remains same
during a chemical change.
4. Activity 1.3 given on page 8 in the textbook shows that total mass remains same
during a chemical change.
5. Activity 1.4 given on page 9 in the textbook shows that total mass of reactants is equal
to the total mass of products in a chemical reaction between barium chloride and
sodium sulphate.
6. (a) Drying of wet clothes: Evaporation of water takes place when wet clothes dry.
The water in the clothes changes to its vapour state on absorbing heat from the
surroundings. Therefore, drying of wet clothes is a physical change.
(b) Melting of ice: It involves a change from solid state of water to liquid state. There
is no change in the properties of the substance and no new substance is formed.
Hence, melting of ice is a physical change.
7. Activity 2.3 given on page 20 in the textbook shows that cutting of paper is a physical
change.
8. Sublimation is a process by which a substance changes directly from the solid state to
the gaseous state without forming the liquid state. Naphthalene balls are an example
of sublimation. They are kept in cupboards to protect woollen clothes from insects as
naphthalene sublimes at room temperature.
Sublimation of ammonium chloride: We take a small quantity of ammonium chloride

in an evaporating dish and place an inverted glass funnel over it. We close the opening
of the funnel using cotton wool. Now we heat the dish over the flame of a burner. We
will observe that white fumes of ammonium chloride rise in the funnel which change
back to solid ammonium chloride and settle along the cooler parts of the process.
9. Changes in which two substances react chemically to form new substances with
different properties are called chemical changes. They are generally irreversible in
nature. In chemical changes, the molecules of original substances undergo change to
form the molecules of products, i.e., substances undergo chemical transformation to
form new substances.
Following are the characteristics of a chemical change.
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chemical change.
10. (a) Rusting of iron: Rusting of iron is the process of formation of rust on the iron
surface. The rust formed has different properties from those of iron and it cannot
be converted back to iron by simple physical methods. Hence, rusting of iron is a
chemical change.
(b) Curdling of milk: When we add a tablespoon of curd to a container that consists
of milk and keep it at room temperature overnight, we observe that the whole
milk changes into curd which cannot be changed back to milk. This shows that
curdling of milk is a chemical change.
11. Types of Mixtures Examples
• Solid-solid mixture (Solid mixed • Soil containing clay, silt and sand
with a solid)
• Solid-liquid mixture (Solid • Clay mixed with water: Clay particles are
mixed with a liquid) suspended in water and form a mixture
called suspension.
• A solution is formed if the solid dissolves.
• Solid-gas mixture (Solid mixed • Smoke containing minute dust particles
with a gas) suspended in gases
• Liquid-liquid mixture (Liquid • Alcohol mixed with water
mixed with a liquid)
• Liquid-gas mixture (Liquid • Mist containing tiny droplets of water mixed
mixed with a gas) with air
• A suspension of liquid droplets in a gas
called aerosol
• Carbon dioxide mixed in water in soft drinks
• Gas-gas mixture (Gas mixed • Air containing different gases
with a gas)
There is another type of mixture called alloy. An alloy is a metallic mixture of a metal
with another metal or a non-metal.
12. Activity 3.2 given on page 37 in the textbook shows how components of a mixture can
be separated by winnowing.
13. Solvent extraction: Solvent extraction is the process used to separate components
of a mixture based on their relative solubility. This process is applicable when one of
the solid components is soluble in a liquid. For example, we can separate a mixture of
sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) using solvent extraction. We put
a mixture of sodium chloride and calcium carbonate in a beaker containing water. We
observe that salt being soluble, dissolves in water whereas calcium carbonate being
insoluble settles at the bottom of the beaker. We can then obtain the salt solution by
decantation thus leaving the calcium carbonate behind.
Fractional crystallization: Fractional crystallization is the process used to separate
components of a mixture when the solubility of solid components varies in the
same solvent. We can separate a mixture of common salt and potassium nitrate by
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fractional crystallization. Both the components are soluble in water but the solubility
of potassium nitrate is more in hot water as compared to the solubility of sodium
chloride in water. On cooling the solution containing the mixture, potassium nitrate
crystallises and sodium chloride is left behind.
14. Refer Activity 3.3 given on page 38 in the textbook shows how components of a
mixture of CaCO3 and NaCl can be separated.
15. A combination of different separation techniques can be used when a mixture consists
of more than two components. Let’s look at the following examples to understand
how it is done.
Separating a mixture of iron filings, sand and iodine:
• Take a mixture of iron filings, sand and iodine.
• Separate iron filings from the mixture using magnetic separation. This is done as
iron is magnetic and hence a magnet is used to attract iron filings from the mixture
thus leaving sand and iodine behind.
• Separate iodine from sand by sublimation.
Separating salt, sand and grain:
• Separate grain from the mixture of salt, sand and grain by sieving.
• Separate the mixture of salt and sand by filtration using water as a solvent for sand.
• Separate the remaining salt and water by evaporation.
16. Discovery of proton: An atom is electrically neutral. This suggests that if negatively
charged electrons are present in an atom, so there must be some positively charged
particles present in the atom to neutralize the negative charge of the electrons. E.
Goldstein, a German scientist, performed an experiment in the discharge tube, with
a perforated cathode (a cathode with small holes to allow passage of positive rays).
During the experiment, he observed another set of rays moving in a direction opposite
to that of the cathode rays. Since these rays originated from the anode, they were
named as anode rays. They were also called canal rays. The anode rays consist of the
positively charged particles called protons.
Following are the characteristics of protons.
• A proton is an integral part of an atom.
• The charge to mass ratio (e/m) of proton is not fixed, i.e., it varies.
• The e/m value depends on the gas being used in the discharge tube.
• The mass of a proton is almost equal to the mass of an atom of hydrogen, i.e.,
1.672 × 10–24 g.
• The charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, i.e.,
1.602 × 10–19 C but opposite in nature and sign.
The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons in the atom
which makes the atom electrically neutral.
17. Rutherford’s model of an atom: Rutherford in 1911 published his views on atomic
theory. He suggested the following model of the atom.
• Most of the mass of an atom was concentrated in the centre of the atom called
nucleus.
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• The nucleus is the densest part of an atom and contains the positively charged
particles, the protons.
• The size of the nucleus is extremely small as compared to the size of atom as a
whole, as there is a lot of empty space around the nucleus.
• An atom is electrically neutral, i.e., an equal number of electrons surround the
nucleus to counter balance the positive charge in an atom.
• Electrons revolve in circular orbits (shells) in the space available around the nucleus,
just as in the solar system the sun is at the centre and the planets revolve around it.
The Rutherford model of an atom did not explain the stability of an atom. Positively
charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons would attract each other. An
electrically charged particle in motion releases energy and therefore, the electrons
should lose energy and get attracted towards the nucleus, leading to the total collapse
of the atom. But this does not happen.
18. According to the modern concept of the atom:
 The nucleus
 The extra-nuclear region or the empty space that surrounds the nucleus
• The nucleus is positively charged central part of the atom. It contains the protons
• The extra-nuclear region of an atom consists of the electrons which revolve around
the nucleus in definite orbits or shells. Each orbit has a fixed energy level. The
energy increases as you go away from the nucleus. The electrons experience an
outward pull (or centrifugal force) due to their circular motion. This outward pull
is counter balanced by the inward attraction between these electrons and the
protons present inside the nucleus.
19. Discovery of neutron: Initially it was concluded that the mass of an atom was entirely
concentrated within the nucleus in the form of protons, since electrons had negligible
mass. However, during subsequent experiments, it was accounted that the mass of an
atom is far more than the total mass of proton present in the atom. It was realized that
there must be a third type of subatomic particle, which was present in the nucleus
that had mass but no electric charge. Thus, the neutron was discovered. Neutron was
discovered in 1932 by James Chadwick.
Following are the characteristics of neutrons:
• Neutron is an integral part of an atom and is present inside the nucleus.
• It is of the same size as that of a proton.
• It is electrically neutral, i.e., it has no charge.
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20. Chemical Bond: Atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons in order to achieve
stability. The bond formed between two atoms when they combine is called chemical
bond. Atoms can combine either by transferring electrons or by sharing electrons.
Electrovalent Compound: The chemical bond formed by the complete transfer of

electrons from one atom to the other is called electrovalent or ionic bond and the
compounds so formed are called electrovalent or ionic compounds.
Covalent Compound: The chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons is
covalent bond and the compounds so formed are called covalent compounds.
21. (a) 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3
(b) CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
22. Following chemical equation represents the dissociation of water.
Water → Hydrogen + Oxygen
H2O → H2 + O2
Number of H atoms: 2 2
The number of hydrogen atoms is equal. However, the number of oxygen atoms is not
equal. There is one oxygen atom on the left-hand side and two oxygen atoms on the
right-hand side. In order to have an equal number of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on
both the sides, we multiply H2O by 2 on the left-hand side and H2 by 2 on the right-
hand side. By doing so, the equation changes in the given form.
2H2O → 2H2 + O2
The chemical equation 2H2O → 2H2 + O2 now contains an equal number of
various atoms in reactants and products. Therefore, we can say that it is a balanced
equation.
23. (a) CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
Solution: The above equation is balanced as it consists of equal number of various

atoms on both the sides. Here, the reactants and products are compounds. In this
case we find out the molecular mass of compounds by using the atomic mass of
each element.
Ca = 40u, C = 12u, O = 16u

CaCO3 = 40u + 12u + 3 × 16u = 40u + 12u + 48u = 100u
CaO = 40u + 16u = 56u, CO2 = 12u + 2 × 12u = 44u
Total mass of the reactant on LHS = 100u
Total mass of the products on RHS = 56u + 44u = 100u
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(b) Mg + O2 → MgO
Solution: The above equation is not balanced as the number of various atoms on

both the sides is not equal. The balanced equation for the equation can be written
as shown below.
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
Mg = 24u, O = 16u
2Mg = 2 × 24u = 48u, O2 = 2 × 16u = 32u
2MgO = 2 (24u + 16u) = 2 × 40u = 80u
Total mass of the reactants on LHS = 48u + 32u = 80u
reaction that occurs.
Let’s take an example of the following equation to know about the information it
provides.
The above equation tells us about the following things.
• It tells us about the name of the reactant(s). Reactant: CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
• It tells us about the name of the product(s). Products: CaO and CO2 (calcium oxide
and carbon dioxide)
• It tells us about the number of molecules of each reactant participating in the
reaction: 1 molecule of calcium carbonate
• It tells us about the number of molecules of each product participating in the
reaction: 1 molecule of calcium oxide and 1 molecule of carbon dioxide
• It tells us about the proportion of reactants. Here, we have only one reactant.
• It tells us about the proportion of products. Calcium oxide and carbon dioxide are
in the ratio 1:1.
• It tells us about the mass of the reactant(s). The mass of calcium carbonate is 100 g.
• It tells us about the mass of the products. The mass of calcium oxide is 56 g and the
mass of carbon dioxide is 44 g.
25. Given below are the limitations of a chemical reaction.
Pure state or solution: Some reactions occur only when they are present in a solution
form. For instance, sodium iodide solution is added to silver nitrate solution and a
reaction takes place. However, this reaction will not take place if silver nitrate is in solid
state and sodium nitrate is in a solution form. Therefore, an equation must indicate the
information about pure state and solution forms of reactants and products.
Physical states of reactants and products: A chemical equation should indicate the
physical states of the reactants and products; ‘s’ for solid, ‘l’ for liquid, ‘g’ for gas and ‘aq’
for aqueous.
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Heat and temperature: There are some reactions that occur at high temperatures and

others that occur at low temperatures. The chemical reaction should indicate heat as a
necessity.
Light: Some chemical reactions take place in the presence of light. Photosynthesis is a

chemical reaction that occurs in green plants in the presence of sunlight. The chemical
reaction should indicate light when necessary.
Electricity: Some chemical reactions need electricity to take place. Decomposition of
water into hydrogen and oxygen is one such example. The chemical reaction should
indicate electricity as necessary or not.
Pressure: Some chemical reactions in which one or more reactants are in the gaseous

state occur when the pressure is applied. The chemical reaction should indicate
pressure as a necessity or not.
Catalyst: A substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without itself

reaction should indicate the use of a catalyst.
Reversibility: Some chemical reactions proceed in both the directions and are called

reversible reactions. The chemical reaction should indicate the double arrow between
the reactants and products.
Endothermic or exothermic: A reaction in which energy is absorbed is called an

endothermic reaction. A reaction in which energy is evolved or given out is called an
exothermic reaction. The absorption of energy in a chemical reaction can be indicated
by adding heat on the reactant(s) side and the evolution of energy can be indicated by
subtracting the heat on the product(s) side.
26. The chemical reaction in which a compound splits into two or more simpler substances
is called a decomposition reaction. A decomposition reaction is just the opposite of a
combination reaction. The general representation of such a reaction is as shown.
AB → A + B
The decomposition brought about by heat is called thermal decomposition.
Example:
heat
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2↑
The decomposition brought about by electricity is called electric decomposition.
Example:
electricity
2H2O → 2H2↑ + O2↑
water hydrogen oxygen
The decomposition brought about by light is called photodecomposition.
Example:
light
2AgCl → 2Ag + Cl2
silver chloride silver chlorine
(white) (greyish white) (greyish yellow)
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27. Displacement Reaction Double Displacement Reaction
• The chemical reaction in which an • The chemical reaction in which two
element takes the place of another compounds react by exchange of
element in a compound is called ions to form two new compounds is
displacement reaction. called double displacement reaction.
• The general representation of a • The general representation of such a
displacement reaction is as shown. reaction is as shown.
AB + C → CB + A AB + CD → AD ↓ + BC
28. The chemical reaction in which oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously is
called redox reaction.
The addition of oxygen or the removal of hydrogen from a substance is called oxidation.
• Addition of oxygen: Magnesium reacts with oxygen to form magnesium oxide.
heat
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
magnesium oxygen magnesium oxide
We can see that magnesium gets oxidized with the addition of oxygen.
• Removal of hydrogen: Hydrogen sulphide reacts with chlorine and gets oxidized
to sulphur due to loss of hydrogen.
H2S + Cl2 → 2HCl + S
hydrogen sulphide chlorine hydrochloric acid sulphur
The addition of hydrogen or the removal of oxygen from a substance is called
reduction.
• Removal of oxygen: Copper oxide reacts with hydrogen to form copper by the
removal of oxygen from copper.
heat
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
Copper oxide is reduced to copper.
• Addition of hydrogen: Hydrogen reacts with chlorine to form hydrogen chloride.
H2 + Cl2 → 2HCl
hydrogen chlorine hydrogen chloride
Since hydrogen is added to chlorine, it is a reduction reaction.
Oxidizing and Reducing Agents

• Oxidizing agent: An atom or a group of atoms which accepts electrons during an
oxidation reaction is called an oxidizing agent. Some common oxidizing agents are
oxygen, ozone, chlorine, bromine, nitric acid and sulphuric acid.
• Reducing agent: An atom or a group of atoms which loses electrons during a
chemical reaction is called a reducing agent. Some common reducing agents are
hydrogen, carbon and sulphur dioxide.
29. Decomposition reactions to form oxides: An oxide is a compound which consists of
oxygen as an anion. Oxygen forms oxides by combining with metals and non-metals.
We can produce oxides of metals by heating their ores. This can be done in two ways:
calcination and roasting.
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Calcination: Calcination is a decomposition process in which a metallic ore is heated
•
in the absence or limited supply of air. This method is employed for carbonate ores.
Carbon dioxide is produced along with metal oxide.
heat
Roasting: Roasting is a decomposition process in which a metallic ore is heated
•
in the presence of air at a very high temperature. This method is employed for
sulphide ores. Sulphur dioxide is produced along with metal oxide.
2PbS + 3O2 → 2PbO + 2SO2
lead sulphide oxygen lead oxide sulphur dioxide
30. An oxide is a chemical compound containing oxygen in its molecule, chemically
combined with a metal or a non-metal. Oxides are of four types depending upon the
nature and properties of the compounds.
• Acidic oxides: Acidic oxides or non-metallic oxides are formed when non-metals
are heated in the presence of oxygen.
• Basic oxides: Basic oxides or metallic oxides are formed when metals react with
• Neutral oxides: The oxides which do not exhibit either acidic or basic properties are
called neutral oxides. Carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (NO) are neutral in
natural and do not change the colour of indicators.
• Amphoteric oxides: Some metallic oxides like zinc oxide and aluminium oxide can
react with both acids and bases to form salt and water. They are called amphoteric
oxides.
31. When electric current is passed through acidulated water, it dissociates into hydrogen
and oxygen. This process is called electrolysis. Acidulated water is made by adding
a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid to pure water to make it a better conductor of
electricity.
electric current
2H2O → 2H2↑ + O2↑
32. Bosch’s process is used to produce hydrogen on a large scale. There are three main steps
involved in the Bosch’s process.
Step 1: Production of water gas
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Water gas is formed when
water in the form of superheated steam reacts with carbon (white-hot coke) at a
temperature of about 1000°C.
C + H2O → CO + H2 + Heat
Step 2: Conversion of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide
It is difficult to separate the mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Therefore,
we convert CO to CO2 and in order to do so, the mixture is made to react with equal
volume of steam in the presence of iron chromate which acts as a catalyst. Carbon
monoxide oxidizes to carbon dioxide.
iron chromate
CO + H2 + H2O →
450°C
CO2 + 2H2
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Step 3: Separation of hydrogen from the mixture
The mixture is passed through water under at atmospheric pressure of approximately 30
atm. Carbon dioxide gets dissolved in water and hydrogen is collected in cylinders. The
hydrogen that is obtained is refined as per the desired levels of purity by other chemical
methods.
33. Mentioned below are the physical properties of hydrogen.
• Hydrogen gas is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non-poisonous gas.
• It is the lightest of all the gases. One litre of hydrogen gas weighs 0.09 g at 1
atmospheric pressure and 0°C. It is about 20 times lighter than air.
• It is almost insoluble in water. One litre (1000 cm3) of water dissolves about
21.4 cm3 of hydrogen gas at ordinary temperature and pressure.
• Hydrogen gas cannot be liquefied easily. It liquefies into a colourless liquid at
–240°C and 20 atmospheric pressure.
• The melting point of hydrogen is –259°C and its boiling point is –253°C.
• It is a highly inflammable gas and burns with a pop sound. It has a pale blue flame.
Activity 7.2 given on page 143 in the textbook shows that hydrogen gas is combustible.
34. Mentioned below are the chemical properties of hydrogen.
• Action with litmus: Hydrogen is a neutral gas. It is neither acidic nor basic, hence no
change occurs in the colour of litmus.
• Combustibility: Hydrogen is combustible in air but it does not support combustion.
Pure hydrogen burns in air with a pale blue flame producing water vapour and heat
energy.
• Reaction with oxygen: The reaction of hydrogen with oxygen is highly exothermic.
Hydrogen burns in oxygen with a pale blue flame to form steam which on
condensation forms water. The energy released in this process is harnessed to
propel space rockets.
• Reaction with chlorine: Hydrogen and chlorine combine slowly in diffused sunlight
and explosively in bright sunlight to form hydrogen chloride gas.
• Reaction with nitrogen: Hydrogen does not combine with nitrogen under ordinary
conditions. In the presence of iron as a catalyst, at 450°C temperature and 200
atmospheric pressure, hydrogen reacts with nitrogen in the ratio 3:1 by volume to
produce ammonia gas. This reaction is reversible and exothermic, and is known as
the Haber’s process.
• Reaction with sulphur: When hydrogen gas is passed through molten sulphur,
hydrogen sulphide gas is formed which gives a rotten egg smell.
• Reaction with carbon dioxide: When hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide at a
temperature of 300–400°C under high pressure in the presence of nickel acting as a
catalyst, methane and water are produced.
• Reaction with carbon: Hydrogen combines with carbon to form compounds called
hydrocarbons. This reaction occurs at a temperature above 520°C in the presence of
nickel or cobalt acting as a catalyst. The reaction can be reversed on further raising
the temperature.
• Reaction with metals: Hydrogen reacts with certain highly reactive metals at a high
temperature to form salt-like compounds called metal hydrides.
Activity 7.4 on page 146 in the textbook shows that hydrogen gas is a strong reducing
agent.
147
• Hydrogen gas is also used in the manufacturing of hydrochloric acid and methanol.
• It is used in the preparation of solid vanaspati ghee from liquid vegetable oils such
as palm oil, groundnut oil and coconut oil.
• Hydrogen is used in the production of oxy-hydrogen flame which is a high
temperature flame used for cutting and welding of metals.
• Liquid hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets and guided missiles. This is because it has
high heat of combustion. Coal gas and water gas are some hydrogen-based fuels.
• It is used as a reducing agent in metallurgy to extract pure metals from their oxides.
• Hydrogen is used to produce hydrogen chloride gas.
• It is seen as an alternate source of energy for the future. It can even replace
hydrocarbons as it forms water rather than harmful gases on burning. It is a
36. Following are the chemical properties of water.
Nature: Pure water is neutral. It has no effect on litmus solution.
Stability: Water is highly stable. It does not decompose easily. However, when heated
above 2000°C or when electric current is passed through it, it decomposes into
hydrogen and oxygen gases.
Reactivity with metals: Metals react differently with water based on their position in
the metal activity (reactivity) series.
• Reaction of metals with cold water: Metals positioned above magnesium in the
hydroxides and hydrogen gas. Metals like Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag and
Au do not react with cold water.
is seen when the reaction occurs. Zinc and iron also react similarly with steam
but the reaction is less vigorous. Aluminium also reacts with steam readily to give
aluminium oxide and hydrogen gas. Metals like Pb, Cu, Hg, Ni, Ag and Au do not
react with water in any form.
37. Activity 8.8 on page 170 in the textbook shows us how to test the quality of tap water
and distilled water.
38. Activity 8.9 on page 170 in the textbook shows the formation of scum in hard water
and soft water.
39. Following are the causes of hardness of water.
Hardness of water is caused by the presence of dissolved salts of calcium and
magnesium such as calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium sulphate (CaSO2), calcium
bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2], magnesium chloride (MgCl2), magnesium sulphate (MgSO4)
and magnesium bicarbonate [Mg(HCO3)2]. Hardness is of two types—temporary and
permanent.
148
Temporary hardness of water: Water which contains bicarbonates of calcium and
•
magnesium is called temporary hard water.
Permanent hardness of water: Water which contains chlorides and sulphates of
•
calcium and magnesium is called permanent hard water.
Following are the disadvantages of hard water.
• Hard water is unfit for washing as it results in wastage of soap. The scum formed is
difficult to remove and leaves dirty stains on clothes.
40. Hardness of water can be removed by the following methods.
41. Following are the properties of buckminsterfullerene.
• Buckminsterfullerene is a dark solid at room temperature. It differs from the other
two allotropes of carbon—diamond and graphite. In fact diamond and graphite
are giant molecules, which consist of an unending network of carbon atoms. But
buckminsterfullerene is a very small molecule made up of only 60 carbon atoms.
• Just like diamond and graphite, buckminsterfullerene also burns on heating to
form carbon dioxide. This shows that buckminsterfullerene is made up of carbon
only.
• Buckminsterfullerene is neither very hard nor very soft.
• It is soluble in organic solvents.
• It is a bad conductor of electricity.
• The specific gravity of fullerenes ranges from 1.8 to 2.1.
42. Formation of coal: Coal is formed by the decomposition of ancient plants that were
buried under the earth millions of years ago. In some areas of eastern United States,
coal is formed from swamps covered by sea water. It is believed that dead plants
were covered by rocks and soil and were decomposed by bacteria. New plants grew
in the soil and they too got buried under the soil and rocks. Volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes destroyed forests which also got buried under the surface of the earth
and got covered with sand, clay and water. Over the years, these remains went deeper
and deeper inside the earth. Due to high temperature and pressure inside the earth’s
surface and in the absence of air they got converted into coal. The slow chemical
process of conversion of dead and decaying matter into coal is called carbonization.
Coal is mainly carbon as plants contain carbon compounds but the carbon content
varies in different types of coal.
149
Different types of coal: There are four varieties of coal which differ in their carbon

content.
1. Peat: The first step of coal formation begins with peat. It contains a large amount of
moisture and has very low carbon content (50–60%).
2. Lignite: In the next stage of coal formation peat converts into brown coal called
lignite. The carbon content increases up to 60–70%.
3. Bituminous: Further lignite transforms into bituminous coal. It is dense, dark and
brittle variety of coal. The carbon content in this variety is 75–80% and it is therefore
an efficient fuel.
4. Anthracite: Anthracite is the final stage of coal formation. This is also called hard
coal and contains over 90–95% of carbon.
43. Following are the physical properties of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon dioxide is an odourless and a colourless gas.
• It is slightly acidic in nature and is fairly soluble in water.
• It is a non-poisonous gas. However, if the concentration of carbon dioxide in air is
increased, it can cause suffocation.
• Carbon dioxide when cooled down to –78°C forms dry ice which is a snow-white
solid. It is called dry ice because on heating, it directly changes from a solid to a
gas (sublimes) without passing through the liquid phase to form gaseous carbon
dioxide.
• It is denser than air.
Following are the chemical properties of carbon dioxide.
• Carbon dioxide is a compound formed by covalent bonding of carbon and oxygen.
• It does not support combustion.
• It turns moist, blue litmus red which shows that carbon dioxide gas is acidic in
nature.
• It dissolves in water and forms carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
• It reacts with alkalis to form salt and water. On passing excess of carbon dioxide
through alkalis, a soluble bicarbonate is produced.
• Carbon monoxide, a highly poisonous gas is produced when carbon dioxide reacts
with red hot coke.
• Carbon dioxide reacts with metallic oxides and forms metal carbonates.
44. The trapping of solar heat in the earth’s lower atmosphere is known as greenhouse
effect. It is caused by greenhouse gases present in the earth’s atmosphere. When solar
radiations reach the earth, some of them are absorbed by the earth and then released
back into the atmosphere. These greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere trap
these solar radiations and do not allow the heat to leave. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse
gas which absorbs infrared radiations. This trapped heat keeps the planet warm thus
making it a place where life can thrive. However, today due to human activities such
as burning of fossil fuels and using huge numbers of vehicles, large amount of carbon
dioxide is released into the atmosphere. The extra carbon dioxide produced due to
human activities is adding to the increase in global temperature which causes global
150
warming. In addition to carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour also contribute to
greenhouse effect.
• Melting of glaciers: The increased global warming has resulted in the rise of sea
• Climate change: Global warming has resulted in irregular weather patterns.
• Droughts: Increase in global warming causes large scale evaporation which is the
• Crops: Due to change in seasons, weather patterns are affected thus resulting in
• Agriculture: Global warming can affect agriculture. Due to an increase in the global
45. Carbon dioxide is a non-poisonous gas. However, if the concentration of carbon
dioxide in air is increased, it can cause suffocation.
Following precautions should be taken to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
• Do not sleep in a closed room with a coal fire burning.
• Do not run a car engine in a closed space (garage).
• Do not sleep near lime kilns as the air around these kilns may have large traces of
carbon monoxide.
• Smoke from burning tobacco contains small traces of carbon monoxide. Hence, it is
dangerous for the respiratory system of smokers as well as passive smokers.
• At places where carbon monoxide concentration is on the higher side, wear gas
masks that absorb carbon monoxide. The masks are made of hopcalite (a mixture
of metallic oxides) which oxidizes carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide.
Carbon monoxide is added to the atmosphere in the following ways.
• Exhaust fumes: The complete combustion of fuels consisting of hydrocarbons leads
carbon monoxide.
151
Logical Thinking
Answer Key
1. Activity 1.4 given on page 9 in the textbook justifies the law of conservation of mass for
the given reaction.
BaCl2 + Na2SO4 → BaSO4 + 2NaCl

barium chloride sodium sulphate barium sulphate sodium chloride
2. An electric current passes through the filament of the bulb when an electric bulb is
switched on. The filament glows to give light. The bulb stops glowing when switched
off as the filament returns to its normal condition. No new substance is formed in this
process and hence glowing of an electric bulb is a physical change.
3. When Ananya dissolved sugar in water, the sugar particles spread out and formed a
homogeneous solution with water. This is a physical change which can be reversed. This
process can be reversed by evaporating the water and collecting the sugar.
4. Yes. Fermentation is the chemical change with which bread is made. Fermentation is a
process by which a substance is broken down by the action of microorganisms with the
release of heat and carbon dioxide. When dough is fermented, bread is made which is
soft. Thus, it is slow and desirable.
5. A mixture of iron filings and sulphur powder is a heterogeneous mixture. This mixture
can be separated by the process of magnetic separation.
6. To separate small stones present in pulses, Garima needs to adopt the method of
handpicking. The principle on which the technique is based upon is the visible difference
in size, shape or colour of the components of a mixture. Due to this, it becomes easy to
pick small stones present in pulses or rice.
7. Froth floatation is a separation technique in which a suitable liquid is mixed with the
mixture and compressed air is allowed to pass through the mixture. The technique of
froth floatation is based on the principle of wetting of components of a mixture. In this
process, a suitable liquid is mixed with the mixture and compressed air is allowed to
pass through the mixture. Due to the absorbed liquid, the weight of the component
that gets wet more increases. As a result, the lighter component floats in the form of
froth over the mixture and the heavier component settles down. This froth can be easily
drained out. The component can be obtained by drying.
8. To separate a mixture of immiscible liquids, Ritvik has to use the technique of separating
funnel. The principle behind the separation of liquids is that the lighter liquid floats
above the heavier liquid.
• The mixture to be separated is put into a separating funnel and is allowed to settle.
• After some time, it is observed that the liquids form separate layers one above the
other.
152
• The liquid forming the lower layer is collected in a container on opening the
stopcock.
• The stopcock is closed once the liquid is collected in the container.
• The liquid forming the upper layer is collected in another container in the same way.
9. To separate a mixture of CaCO3 and NaCl, Mahira should use filtration and evaporation
as CaCO3 is insoluble whereas NaCl is soluble in water.
• Take the mixture of CaCO3 and NaCl in the beaker.
• Pour some water into the beaker and stir it thoroughly until all the salt (NaCl) is
completely dissolved. Add some more water if required.
• Using a filter paper, make a cone and place it in the conical funnel. Set the apparatus
as shown in the figure below.
mixture of CaCO3
filter paper and NaCl
conical funnel
• Pour the content of the beaker into the funnel.

• Heat the conical flask to dry up the water.
• You will observe that CaCO3 filters out. Some remains of CaCO3 are left partly in the
beaker and also on the filter paper. The flakes of NaCl are found in the conical flask.
10. A force of attraction exists between the electrons and protons present within the atom.
The electrons being charged and lighter are in constant motion and would lose energy,
and eventually fall into the nucleus leading to structural collapse of the atom. However,
this does not happen. This is because the electrons revolve in fixed orbits (shells)
around the nucleus at a very high speed. Each orbit is associated with a fixed amount
of energy. The electrons in the orbits neither lose nor gain energy until some external
force is applied on them. They are thus able to maintain their position. This results in
the balancing of the inward force exerted by the nucleus by the outward force of the
moving electrons. This in turn prevents the electrons from falling into the nucleus, thus
making the atom structurally stable.
11. When an atom donates electrons to acquire a stable electronic configuration, it becomes
a positively charged ion and is said to have positive (electropositive) valency.
153
–2 electrons
Mg → 2(K), 8(L), 2(M) Mg2+ → 2(K), 8(L)
• Aluminium (Al) donates 3 electrons to become aluminium ion (Al3+).
–3 electrons
(13 electrons) Al A
l3+ (10 electrons)
Al → 2(K), 8(L), 3(M) Al3+ → (K), 8(L)
12. Calcium hydroxide is formed by combining calcium and hydroxide which is a radical. Its
chemical formula is Ca(OH)2.
13. The compound is sodium nitrate.
heat
2NaNO3 → 2NaNO2 + O2↑
sodium nitrate sodium nitrite oxygen
14. When solid lead nitrate is heated, reddish-brown nitrogen gas is evolved with oxygen.
Also, a yellow-coloured lead monoxide is formed.
heat
2[Pb(NO3)2] → 2PbO + 4NO2↑ + O2↑
lead nitrate lead oxide nitrogen dioxide oxygen
(yellow) (reddish-brown)
15. Copper oxide reacts with hydrogen to form copper and water. Removal of oxygen takes
place from copper oxide to form copper (reduction) and addition of oxygen to hydrogen
takes place to form water (oxidation).
reduction
removal of oxygen
heat
CuO + H2 → Cu + H2O
addition of oxygen
oxidation
(a) Substance oxidized: H2

(b) Oxidizing agent: CuO
(c) Substance reduced: CuO
(d) Reducing agent: H2
16. Dilute nitric acid is not used to prepare hydrogen because it is a strong oxidizing agent
and liberates nitric oxide or nitrogen dioxide.
17. With decrease in pressure, the boiling point of water decreases. This is because when
less pressure is acting on the surface of a liquid, the liquid can escape as water vapour
more easily.
154
18. When you apply pressure on two ice cubes they join together to form one big cube. This
happens due to decrease in melting point of water which leads to melting of ice and
thus water is formed. When the pressure is released, the water freezes into ice. This joins
the two ice cubes together. This phenomenon is known as regelation.
19. Iron (II) sulphate forms green crystals. The crystals are formed by chemically combining
one molecule of FeSO4 with 7 molecules of water thus forming FeSO4.7H2O. On heating,
it loses the water of crystallization, i.e., 7 molecules and forms powder of non-crystalline
FeSO4.
20. When water in the form of steam is passed over red hot coke, it gets reduced to a mixture
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen which is also called water gas.
C + H2O → CO + H2
coke (red hot) steam water gas
21. The substance is Diamond. In the structure of diamond each
carbon atom is linked to four other carbon atoms by strong
covalent bonds. The four surrounding carbon atoms are
at the four vertices (four corners) of a regular tetrahedron.
The carbon atoms are thus held firmly in place. As a result,
a diamond crystal appears to be a closely-packed three-
dimensional rigid structure. Many properties of diamond
such as hardness, high density, high melting point (3500°C),
high refractive index and non-conducting nature are
attributed to its crystalline structure. The value of a diamond Arrangement of carbon
depends upon its weight and the impurities present in it. atoms in diamond
The weight of a diamond is expressed in carats.
22. Wood charcoal is black, porous and brittle solid. It is obtained by destructive distillation
of wood. In the laboratory, wood charcoal is prepared by heating wood shavings or saw
dust in the absence of air.
Physical properties of wood charcoal are as follows.
• The density of wood charcoal is 1.5 g/cm3 which is heavier than that of water but it
floats on water since it is porous. It has the capacity to hold air in its pores.
• It is a bad conductor of heat and electricity.
• It is a good adsorbent of gases, liquids and solids. An adsorbent has the capacity to
attract to its surface the molecules of a gas or solution with which it is in contact.
Uses of wood charcoal are as follows.
• Wood charcoal is widely used as a fuel. It is a better fuel than wood.
• It is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of metals from their metallic oxides.
• Since it has a high adsorbing capacity, it is used in gas masks for military and
industrial purposes.
• It is a constituent of gunpowder which is an explosive used in guns and rifles.
• Because it adsorbs coloured materials also, it is used as a decolourising agent in
sugar solutions.
155
• It is used to prepare anti-gastric tablets that are used by people suffering from
indigestion and gastric problems.
• It is used to prepare deodorants as it also adsorbs foul-smelling gases.
• It is used in making filters and sieves.
23. Bituminous is the variety of coal contains 80–85% carbon content. When it burns, it
produces ash and sulphur compounds which pollute the air.
24. The gas here is carbon monoxide and the compound is called carboxyhaemoglobin.
Carboxyhaemoglobin does not allow oxygen to be absorbed by haemoglobin. So
haemoglobin is not able to carry oxygen to various parts of the body. Lack of oxygen
results in the death.
25. (a) It is dangerous to sleep in a closed room with a coal fire burning as incomplete
burning of coal leads to the formation of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is
a highly poisonous gas. Even if 1% carbon monoxide by volume is inhaled, it can
kill a person in a few minutes. When carbon monoxide enters the human blood
stream, it combines with haemoglobin present in the blood to form a compound
called carboxyhaemoglobin. Carboxyhaemoglobin does not allow oxygen to be
absorbed by haemoglobin. So haemoglobin is not able to carry oxygen to various
parts of the body. Lack of oxygen results in the death.
(b) One should not sleep near lime kilns as the air around these kilns may have large
traces of carbon monoxide.
(c) Carbon monoxide is formed when hydrocarbon fuels are burnt in a limited supply
of air. This takes place generally in the engines of automobiles and therefore the
automobile exhaust gases contain carbon monoxide.
156

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Viva

New Delhi • Mumbai • Chennai • Kolkata • Bengaluru • Hyderabad • Kochi • Guwahati

Take a Break! (Page 4)

Take a Break! (Page 9)

Short and Precise

Solid Liquid Gas

Solid Liquid Gas

Observe and Perform

Apply Your Learning

Integrate Your Learning

Projects and Activities

Review Your Learning

2. Following are the postulates of the kinetic molecular theory of matter.

Reversible Periodic Desirable Slow Natural Physical

Physical Change Chemical Change

A chemical change is permanent and

One or more new substances with new sets of

No gain or loss of energy takes place in a physical

A. 1. Reversible Changes Irreversible Changes

2. Periodic Changes Non-periodic Changes

Apply Your Learning

Review Your Learning

Short and Precise

Pure Substances Mixtures

Handpicking Sieving Winnowing Magnetic Gravitation Solvent Fractional

Sedimentation Evaporation Froth Chromatography

Filtration Crystallization Sublimation Centrifugation Fractional

Solid-solid mixture Solid-gas mixture Liquid-liquid mixture Gas-gas mixture

Solid-liquid mixture Alloy (a metal with Liquid-gas mixture

A. 1. Pure Substances Mixtures

3. Homogeneous Mixtures Heterogeneous Mixtures

Observe and Perform

sand bath evaporating

tripod stand burner

2. Evaporation is shown in the image.

2. Fractional distillation is shown in the image.

Review Your Learning

3. Solvent extraction is the process used to separate components of a mixture based on

Take a Break! (Page 76)

E. 1. (d) 2. (f ) 3. (e) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c)

Monovalent elements Divalent elements Trivalent elements

Example: Sodium Example: Magnesium Example: Aluminium

Positive Valency Variable Valency Negative Valency

Electrovalent Compound Covalent Compound

3. Positive Valency Negative Valency

Review Your Learning

Short and Precise

Monovalent Divalent Trivalent Tetravalent Pentavalent

Unbalanced equation Balanced equation

B. 1. 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O 2. 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

Step 3: Count the number of various atoms in reactants and products.

Observe and Perform

Close Presence of Heat Light

Combination Double displacement Decomposition Displacement

Precipitation Neutralisation Thermal Electric Photolytic

Acidic oxides Basic oxides

potassium chlorate potassium chloride oxygen

3. Positive Catalyst Negative Catalyst

5. Displacement Reaction Double Displacement Reaction

7. Oxidising Agent Reducing Agent

10. Amphoteric Oxides Neutral Oxides

Cl2 + H2S → 2HCl + S