System 107 (2022) 102824

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System
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/system

The interplay between gender and major on content knowledge

and self-beliefs in the English-medium instruction context: A
comparative study between university students from Japan and
South Korea
Victoria Kim a, *, Gene Thompson b
a
Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), School of Business Administration, Ulsan, Republic of Korea
b
Rikkyo University, College of Business, Tokyo, Japan

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This article explores differences in content knowledge, English language proficiency, and moti­
English-medium instruction vation for learners studying via English medium instruction (EMI) at universities in Korea and
Content knowledge Japan. It draws upon content knowledge test and questionnaire data from a total of 455 students
Self-beliefs
from two institutions, representing three groups of students (business majors from the Japanese
Comparative study
Japan
institution, business majors from the Korean institution, and non-business majors from the Korean
Korea institution). Results from a 3 × 2 factorial ANOVA indicated a significant interaction between the
effect of student group and gender on content knowledge test scores and motivated behaviour,
and significant differences between student groups on a range of motivational measures. Findings
indicated differing learner profiles between the three groups: business-major students from the
Korean institution tended to have stronger motivation and high content knowledge, regardless of
gender while significant differences were identified between females and males within the Jap­
anese business major group and non-business major group from the Korean institution. The
comparative nature of the study highlights the potential impact of demographic variables across
and between groups of EMI learners, indicating areas for future exploration within each of the
programs explored in this study.

1. Introduction and background to the study

English-medium instruction (EMI) is a global phenomenon which is reshaping the higher education (HE) landscape, as students
learn academic content via English in countries where the first language (L1) of the majority of speakers is not English (Macaro et al.,
2018). In South Korea (hereafter, Korea) and Japan, the settings of the current study, the internationalization trend has caused rapid
changes in the HE landscape. In each country, national policies that emphasize the internationalization of higher education and the
local workforce have been introduced to encourage EMI provision, such as the Top Global University Project (TGUP) in Japan and the
Study Korea and World Class University Projects in Korea (see Byun & Kim, 2011; Choi, 2021; Rose & McKinley, 2018). As a result, the
provision of EMI classes offered at universities in each country has rapidly increased (see Byun & Kim, 2011; Choi, 2021; Galloway

* Corresponding author. Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology, School of Business Administration, Bldg. 114, office 706-5, 50
UNIST-gil, Uljugun, Ulsan, 44919, Republic of Korea.
E-mail addresses: victoria@unist.ac.kr (V. Kim), thompson@rikkyo.ac.jp (G. Thompson).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102824
Received 29 November 2021; Received in revised form 23 May 2022; Accepted 23 May 2022
Available online 26 May 2022
0346-251X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. Kim and G. Thompson System 107 (2022) 102824

et al., 2020). This movement has stimulated research at the macro (i.e., country policy), meso (i.e., institutional policy), and micro (i.e.,
student, classroom) levels (e.g., Aizawa & Rose, 2019; Galloway et al., 2017; Rose & McKinley, 2018), however as Galloway et al.
(2020, p. 395) note, “provision is rapidly outpacing empirical research”.
At the micro level, most studies have focused on research related to teacher and/or student beliefs and attitudes towards the
introduction and practice of EMI, with few studies exploring differences in content understanding, and other demographic or insti­
tutional differences such as “gender, private-versus public, different academic subjects, different year levels” (Macaro et al., 2018, p.
65). Extant research has identified differences in motivation towards EMI for learners in Asia, such as personal reasons (e.g., interest in
improving English) and external rewards (e.g., employment opportunities) (Galloway et al., 2017, 2020; Kym & Kym, 2014). However,
most studies have examined single contexts; there are few comparative studies that have compared the self-beliefs and content
knowledge of students in different countries and higher institutions (Curle et al., 2020; Macaro et al., 2018). This article addresses
these points by exploring differences between EMI learners in different countries and across different majors. It examines differences in
content knowledge, language proficiency, and self-beliefs towards EMI of students taking business classes via English at a university in
Korea and a university in Japan.

2. Literature review

2.1. Learner motivation, self-beliefs, and success in EMI

Learning a foreign language or in a foreign language is a challenging process, and students need a lot of encouragement and
motivation to achieve their learning goals. In research on the L2 learning, motivation is one of the crucial determinants of language
learning achievement (Dörnyei, 2009; Kim & Kim, 2021). While there is an abundance of research on L2 motivation in EFL contexts
(see Mahmoodi & Yousefi, 2021) the literature on motivation in EMI contexts has been scarce. The majority of studies have claimed
that English proficiency is a major determinant of success in EMI classes (e.g., Xie & Curle, 2019), with mixed results about the in­
fluence of different motivational constructs and demographic variables. For instance, in their study, Kojima and Yashima (2017)
explored motivation in EMI classrooms from the perspective of the ideal self and self-determination theory. They found significant
differences between high and low motivation groups in terms of self-study time, motivational factors, and perceived understanding of
lectures. Results indicated that students who had higher perceived competency and a positive attitude towards learning English are
more motivated towards EMI. Another study investigated the relationship between course performance, English language proficiency,
and motivation in an EMI university context in Japan (Kim & Kim, 2020). Similarly to Kojima and Yashima’s (2017) outcomes, the
findings revealed that English language proficiency predicted success in EMI; although, the authors found that students’ ideal
self-motivation did not correlate with higher grades. However, in another study from Japan, Thompson et al. (2022a) found that
self-efficacy made an independent contribution as a predictor of success, alongside L2 proficiency and performance in a preparatory
class.
EMI learners may be driven by various forms of motivation. For example, learners may be intrinsically motivated and driven by
internal rewards, including the sheer enjoyment of a task and a sense of accomplishment in mastering it, as well as satisfying one’s
curiosity, feelings of self-determination, control, and challenge (Dörnyei, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2020). On the other hand, extrinsically
motivated students engage in a learning activity for the sake of rewards, grades, evaluation by others, competition, praise or to avoid
punishment (Dörnyei, 2014; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Extant research thus far has indicated that EMI learners in Asia may have both
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, due to interest in improving English for personal reasons such as interacting with others, or by
external factors such as employment opportunities (Galloway et al., 2017, 2020; Kym & Kym, 2014). Research with Korean learners
has indicated that external rewards play a stronger role (Kym & Kym, 2014). However, in one of the few studies to explore differences
between students across institutions, Galloway et al. (2017) compared student attitudes towards EMI for learners in China and Japan,
finding that the Japanese students used EMI study as a means of improving their English proficiency.
Learners may place different value on the importance of studying via EMI, and may vary in their perceived capability to carry out
EMI study. Task value refers to the degree to which learners believe that the academic task is worth pursuing in terms of relevance,
importance, and utility (Liem et al., 2008); consequently, the higher a student values a task, the more involvement in learning is
expected (Pintrich et al., 1991). Similarly, their self-efficacy or belief about their capability to carry out, organize and accomplish a task
successfully to a particular level (Bandura, 1997; Thompson et al., 2022a) may be a key motivating factor. Bandura (1997) claimed
that self-efficacy beliefs are a precondition for success, particularly in HE contexts, where students are expected to become autonomous
learners, and research thus far has identified efficacy beliefs to predict EMI success for Japanese EMI learners (see Thompson et al.,
2022a; b).
In studies which have investigated the above factors using the Motivational Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (see
Pintrich et al., 1991), differences have been identified between learners studying via the L1 versus the L2. For instance, in Guo et al.’s
(2018) study, key differences were noted in motivation between students studying via EMI versus CMI (Chinese-medium instruction).
In another study, Salili and Tsui (2005) showed differences in the strength of motivation between students learning history via Chinese
versus those studying in English, indicating that CMI students had stronger intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy in comparison to those
learning via English. Few studies thus far have examined differences between different groups of EMI learners.
Learner self-beliefs, attitudes, and regulatory behaviours may also vary amongst EMI learners. Measures of perceived competency
such as self-concept beliefs represent an individual’s evaluation of their perceived competency towards a domain of activity, and
involve evaluations of ability and comparison with others (Bong et al., 2012). These beliefs have been identified as predictors or
success in academic study, however extant research has tended to focus on the role of English (i.e., L2) self-concept (e.g., Chao et al.,

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V. Kim and G. Thompson System 107 (2022) 102824

2019), however student perceptions of self-concept towards the content domain have thus far been relatively unexplored. Accordingly,
one contribution of the current study is extending to the content domain, utilizing a measure of Business self-concept to examine
student perceptions of competence towards business study. International Orientation represents student attitudes towards the “role of
English as a tool of communication among people from all around the world” (Iwaniec, 2014, p. 64) and is derived from research in
Japan on learner international posture. EMI is closely linked to internationalization policies, and a desire to interact with non-Japanese
has been identified as a key reason for students taking EMI courses (Chapple, 2015). Few studies have examined whether such attitudes
extend to EMI learners from other countries. Finally, regulatory or motivated behaviour represents the volitional processes of the learner
towards achieving learning outcomes (Kormos et al., 2011). This construct has been used as a measure of effort and persistence, and
was found to be the strongest predictor of self-regulation in a study of Polish EMI students (Iwaniec, 2014).

2.2. Demographic differences between EMI learners

Recent studies have begun to explore demographic and contextual differences between EMI learners (e.g., Kym & Kym, 2014;
Lasagabaster, 2016; Macaro & Akincioglu, 2018). Research from the wider field of educational research (see Meece et al., 2006) has
found differences in motivation and self-beliefs between males and females, indicating stronger capability towards language arts for
females and mathematics for males. As students studying content via English may be influenced by perceptions of language capability
or content competence, research in the field of EMI has started to focus on potential gender differences. From the few studies carried
out thus far, results are mixed. In a study of 189 EMI students in Spain, Lasagabaster (2016) found significant differences between
genders on a range of motivational measures, as did Macaro and Akincioglu (2018) in a study of EMI in learners in Turkey. However, in
a study of Norwegian and Finnish learners, the differences between gender were only significant for Finnish learners (Bukve, 2020).
Similarly, in a study of Japanese EMI learners, Thompson et al. (2022b) found gender to be a significant predictor of EMI success only
for those students who had significant overseas’ experience. Accordingly, the authors called for further studies to explore other
motivational variables (i.e., other self-belief constructs), the impact of gender, and content learning achievement.
In one study of 364 undergraduate students who were taking 11 different business-related EMI courses taught by seven different
instructors within one institution, Kym and Kym (2014) found that students’ level of satisfaction with EMI and ability to comprehend
course content were significantly different depending on background knowledge, study-abroad experience, and their instructor’s L1
language (i.e., L1 versus L2 user), but not related to other factors (e.g., major, year of study). On the other hand, the study of Kim &
Kim, 2020 revealed that the students’ disciplinary backgrounds (general studies, business, and engineering) created differences in their
perspective towards EMI and learning a business subject. For instance, the business major students ranked English proficiency as the
most important for their career purposes.
Research from the wider field of education has indicated that gender may interact with other variables as an influence upon success
(Vecchione et al., 2014). Thus far, few studies have examined how demographic factors such as gender and major field of study may
interact as an influence on the motivational beliefs and content knowledge of EMI learners.

2.3. Summary and rationale for the current study

In summary, a range of motivational variables and self-beliefs have been identified to influence EMI learner behaviours and success.
However, given the various findings from studies thus far, and the potential influence of demographic factors such as gender, there
have been calls for greater exploration of motivational factors for EMI learners (e.g., Thompson et al., 2022a; Kim & Kim, 2020;
Lasagabaster, 2016; Macaro & Akincioglu, 2018). Studies of EMI learners have tended to focus on self-beliefs towards learning via the
L1 versus studying via English (e.g., Dafouz & Camacho-Miñano, 2016) and may not have included measures of content knowledge.
There are few comparative studies which have explored differences in content understanding, self-beliefs and demographic factors
between different groups of EMI learners (Macaro et al., 2018). One key difficulty for researchers has been identifying measures of
content knowledge that could be used to compare learners across differing programs. Finally, few studies have explored the potential
interaction between different demographic variables upon EMI learner motivation and content knowledge.
The current study responds by exploring the potential impact of gender and major field of study on EMI learner motivation, self-
beliefs, and content knowledge. It examines these variables across two institutions, extending upon the research introduced above by
comparing learners from two programs, and including a measure of content knowledge.

3. Methods

3.1. Design of the study

The current study addressed the following research question and sub-questions:

(1) To what extent do demographic and contextual differences between students from different EMI programs impact content
knowledge and self-beliefs towards EMI?
(a) To what extent does major area of study impact content knowledge, language proficiency, and self-beliefs towards EMI?
(b) To what extent does gender impact content knowledge, language proficiency, and self-beliefs towards EMI for female versus
male students?

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3.2. Research context and participants

Data were collected from a total of 455 students studying a business subject via EMI at a university in Korea (Institution A, n = 328)
and Japan (Institution B, n = 127). The research contexts have similar histories and attract similarly ranked students. Both business
schools are relatively young and internationally oriented, with Institution A accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate
Schools of Business (AACSB) and Institution B being in the process of the AACSB accreditation. In addition, both schools have similar
mission statements, learning goals, and a similar number of faculty. Based on average student rankings at entrance, each school draws
from the top 5% (Institution A) to 7% (Institution B) of entrance test examinees in each country and is recognized as an institution
fostering EMI. Institution A was established in 2009 during the time of Korea’s World Class University (WCU) project as an EMI
institution, while Institution B was selected as a part of the “Top Global University Project” by the Japanese government in 2014 to
promote internationalization. The business school and EMI program examined in the current study were established in 2006.
However, it is important to note that the two institutions differ in their approach towards EMI implementation, and in the relative
proportion of females and males in the student body. Although 100% of lectures are conducted in English at Institution A, students
from Institution B complete some introductory business classes via Japanese during the first 18 months of the program and begin
studying via English from their second year, taking approximately 70% of their ‘content’ courses via EMI. Table 1 provides details
about participant demographics. Students were divided into three groups based on their institution (Korea, Japan) and whether they
majored in business or not.

3.2.1. Institution A
A total of 328 students from Institution A agreed to participate in the study. Institution A represents a context where students take
all of their classes via English in all years of study. Data were collected from students completing an introductory class in Entrepre­
neurship, which is a required course for all students of the university, regardless of year and major. Of the 328 participants from
Institution A, a total of 208 students (Year 2 = 208) were science/engineering majors (referred to below as Korean Sci/Eng. students),
and 120 (Year 2 = 49; Year 3 = 71) were studying business as a major (referred to below as Korean Business students).

3.2.2. Institution B
A total of 127 students from Institution B participated in the study. At Institution B, students take approximately 70% of their
classes via English, starting from their second year of study. Data were collected from students completing an introductory class in
International Business in the College of Business, which is a required course for second-year students taking the Global Business
program. Although the course is open to students from outside the global program (i.e., those without a major in Global Business); of
the 127 students who agreed to participate in the study, all were studying Global Business as a major. These students are referred to
below as Japanese Business students. As shown in Table 1, almost all students had some overseas experience due to a program
requirement that students carry out a three-week short-term study abroad program in their first year.
Although the female students (29%) were vastly outnumbered by their male counterparts (71%) in the Institution A, like at most
science-and-technology oriented universities, the gender statistics in the sample reflected the student body in both institutions/de­
partments. International/exchange students in both institutions were excluded after the data collection, as they had different back­
grounds and were accepted by different means.

3.3. Data collection

Data collection included the following research instruments:

(1) Scores on a content-knowledge test of business management completed by students at the conclusion of the semester

Table 1
Participant demographics (n = 455).
Demographic Institution A (n = 328) Institution B (n = 127)

Sci/Eng. (n = 208) Business (n = 120) Business (n = 127)

Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage

Gender
Female 51 24.5% 43 35.8% 74 58.3%
Male 157 75.5% 77 64.2% 53 41.7%
Year
Sophomores 208 100.0% 49 40.8% 127 100.0%
Juniors 0 0% 71 59.2% 0 0.0%
Prior experience of studying overseas in English
None 161 77.4% 87 72.5% 19 15.0%
0–1 month 21 10.1% 14 11.7% 57 44.9%
1–6 months 17 8.2% 8 6.7% 14 11.0%
6–12 months 1 0.5% 8 6.7% 18 14.1%
12 months + 8 3.8% 3 2.5% 19 15.0%

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Table 2
Descriptive statistics of content knowledge, L2 proficiency, and self-beliefs towards EMI by student group and gender (n = 445).
Variable Student Group Gender N Mean SD SE Min Max

Business Test Score Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 13.59 2.86 .33 6.5 20
F 49 13.06 2.63 .38 7 18
M 155 13.76 2.91 .23 6 19
Korean Business Overall 120 16.66 1.96 .25 9 20
F 43 17.02 1.71 .26 9 20
M 77 16.45 2.06 .24 9 20
Japanese Business Overall 121 15.45 2.98 .40 7 20
F 72 15.92 2.64 .31 9 20
M 49 14.78 3.34 .48 5 20
L2 Proficiency (TOEIC) Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 809 94.27 10.52 560 975
F 49 813 94.18 13.46 540 970
M 155 807 94.35 7.58 580 980
Korean Business Overall 120 875 63 7.95 735 985
F 43 887 53.96 8.23 780 990
M 77 869 67.18 7.66 690 980
Japanese Business Overall 121 802 98 12.87 552 960
F 72 804 96.27 11.36 600 945
M 49 800 100.64 14.38 505 975
IM Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 4.82 .90 .11 2.25 6.88
F 49 4.47 .99 .14 2.50 6.75
M 155 4.94 .84 .07 2.00 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 5.25 .85 .12 3.25 7.00
F 43 5.16 .85 .13 3.25 7.00
M 77 5.31 .85 .10 3.25 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 4.73 1.13 .15 2.38 6.88
F 72 4.75 1.16 .14 2.25 6.75
M 49 4.69 1.09 .16 2.50 7.00
EM Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 5.10 .86 .10 3.00 7.00
F 49 5.23 .89 .13 3.50 7.00
M 155 5.06 .85 .07 2.50 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 5.40 .95 .12 3.38 7.00
F 43 5.52 .88 .13 3.50 7.00
M 77 5.33 .10 .11 3.25 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 4.46 1.24 .16 1.88 6.88
F 72 4.68 1.20 .14 2.25 7.00
M 49 4.12 1.24 .18 1.50 6.75
SE Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 4.78 .84 .10 2.13 6.88
F 49 4.70 .96 .14 1.75 7.00
M 155 4.80 .80 .06 2.50 6.75
Korean Business Overall 120 5.22 .86 .11 3.38 6.88
F 43 5.08 .76 .12 3.25 6.75
M 77 5.30 .91 .10 3.50 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 4.02 1.16 .15 1.63 6.38
F 72 4.01 1.22 .14 1.25 6.50
M 49 4.05 1.10 .16 2.00 6.25
TV Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 5.07 .85 .10 2.50 6.88
F 49 5.00 .86 .12 3.00 6.75
M 155 5.09 .85 .07 2.00 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 5.42 .82 .11 3.63 7.00
F 43 5.45 .80 .12 3.75 7.00
M 77 5.41 .84 .10 3.50 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 5.26 1.15 .15 2.75 7.00
F 72 5.42 1.16 .14 2.75 7.00
M 49 5.03 1.10 .16 2.75 7.00
L2SC Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 3.64 1.25 .14 1.00 6.75
F 49 3.68 1.22 .17 1.00 6.50
M 155 3.62 1.26 .10 1.00 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 4.72 1.17 .15 1.63 7.00
F 43 5.01 1.13 .17 2.25 7.00
M 77 4.56 1.16 .13 1.00 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 4.07 1.34 .18 1.00 6.75
F 72 4.05 1.34 .16 1.00 6.50
M 49 4.11 1.34 .19 1.00 7.00
BSC Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 3.39 1.09 .13 1.00 6.50
F 49 3.16 1.16 .17 1.00 6.00
M 155 3.47 1.06 .08 1.00 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 5.04 0.96 .14 2.25 6.75
F 43 4.99 1.03 .16 1.25 6.75
(continued on next page)

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V. Kim and G. Thompson System 107 (2022) 102824

Table 2 (continued )
Variable Student Group Gender N Mean SD SE Min Max

M 77 5.06 .93 .11 3.25 6.75

Japanese Business Overall 121 4.03 1.08 .14 1.00 6.50
F 72 3.96 1.08 .13 1.00 6.25
M 49 4.13 1.08 .15 1.00 6.75
IO Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 5.64 .84 .10 3.13 7.00
F 49 5.52 .81 .12 3.25 7.00
M 155 5.68 .84 .07 3.00 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 5.93 .77 .10 4.25 7.00
F 43 6.09 .66 .10 4.50 7.00
M 77 5.84 .82 .09 4.00 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 6.01 .94 .13 3.50 7.00
F 72 6.08 .88 .10 3.50 7.00
M 49 5.91 1.03 .15 3.50 7.00
MB Korean Sci/Eng. Overall 204 5.34 .84 .10 2.75 7.00
F 49 5.23 .98 .14 2.50 7.00
M 155 5.38 .79 .06 3.00 7.00
Korean Business Overall 120 5.77 .81 .11 3.38 7.00
F 43 5.81 .70 .11 4.25 7.00
M 77 5.75 .87 .10 2.50 7.00
Japanese Business Overall 121 5.23 1.05 .13 3.00 6.75
F 72 5.50 1.07 .13 3.00 7.00
M 49 4.84 .88 .13 3.00 6.50

(2) A questionnaire, which included demographic information and items measuring self-beliefs towards EMI study: Intrinsic
motivation, extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, task value, international orientation, L2 self-concept, business self-concept,
motivated behaviour
(3) A measure of language proficiency (TOEIC)

In this study, mastery of content-knowledge was measured using a test designed by the researchers based on the common content
elements of the two classes. Each of the researchers in the current study is involved with the course design of the relevant courses at
each institution. To develop the test, an initial set of 100 multi-choice items was selected from the test bank of a commercially available
business management textbook. Each researcher selected those items that represented ‘key’ content covered in their respective class,
then 20 overlapping common items covering a range of topics were selected for use in the study. These items represent basic knowledge
required in each course related to general theories of business management (e.g., value creation, cost leadership), strategy in inter­
national business (e.g., local responsiveness), market entry strategies and production choices (e.g., strategic alliances), and marketing
(e.g., price discrimination). All test items were presented to the students of both institutions in English.
The measure of language proficiency utilized in the study was the students’ highest, self-reported score on the Test of English for
International Communication (TOEIC), using the combined reading and listening scores achieved by participants during their time as a
student at each institution (i.e., maximum score 990).
A total of eight self-belief constructs were included in the questionnaire with a total of four items per construct (see Appendix for
items): intrinsic motivation (IM), extrinsic motivation (EM), self-efficacy (SE), and task value (TV) were measured using items adapted
from Pintrich et al. (1991) Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ). International orientation (IO), L2 self-concept
(L2SC), business self-concept (BSC) and motivated behaviour (MB) were measured using items adapted from Iwaniec (2014). The
MSLQ has been extensively used in education research and other studies of EMI learners (e.g., Chen et al., 2020; Guo et al., 2018; Kim,
2018), while constructs from Iwaniec’s questionnaire have been used in other studies of EMI learners (e.g., Rose et al., 2020;
Thompson et al., 2022a).
Survey items were presented to participants in English/Korean (Institution A) and English/Japanese (Institution B) via an online
questionnaire using a seven-point Likert-scale ranging from ‘not very much like to me’ to ‘very much like me’. The questionnaire
consisted of 32 items in total and the value for Cronbach’s Alpha for the survey was excellent (α = .931). The IM and IO subscales’
alpha coefficients were acceptable (α = .738; α = .791), while the reliability estimates for the other subscales were good or excellent:
EM (α = .809); SE (α = .871); TV (α = .838); L2SC (α = .905); BSC (α = .921); and MB (α = .822).

3.4. Data analyses

Analyses were carried out using IBM SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics were generated for the content knowledge test, L2
proficiency measure (TOEIC test), and averages of the eight motivational constructs. There were no instances of missing data, however
a total of 10 outliers (z > 3.29) were removed (Institution A = 4 instances; Institution B = 6 instances). Next, a 3 × 2 factorial between-
groups ANOVA was conducted to compare the main effects of student group and gender and the interaction effect between student
group and gender on each of the variables (Business test score, TOEIC Score, IM, EM, TV, SE, IO, L2SC, BSC, and MB).
Histograms of the residuals for each variable were analysed, demonstrating approximately normal distributions. Excepting L2 and
business self-concept, Levene’s test of homogeneity of variance was significant for each of the other variables, indicating

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V. Kim and G. Thompson System 107 (2022) 102824

heteroscedasticity. In such cases, is a more stringent alpha level of significance (i.e., a p-value of .025 rather than .05) is suggested (see
Keppel, 1991; Seltman, 2018), and was accordingly employed in this study.

4. Results

Table 2 presents descriptive statistics for each of the measures employed in the study (following removal of 10 outliers). Results are
presented for the three groups overall and by gender: Korean Sci/Eng. represents the participants majoring in science or engineering (i.
e., non-business majors) from Institution A (Korea), Korean Business represents those majoring in business from Institution A (Korea),
and Japan Business shows those majoring in business from Institution B (Japan). Following the table, we report the results of a 3 × 2
factorial ANOVA for each variable.

4.1. Business test scores

The analysis yielded a significant main effect for student grouping, F(2, 439) = 51.05, p < .001 and post-hoc tests indicated sig­
nificant differences between all groups. No main effect was identified for gender, F(1, 439) = 1.47, p = .225. There was a statistically
significant interaction between the effects of gender and student group on business test scores, F(5, 439) = 4.202, p = .016. As shown in
Fig. 1, the influence of gender appears to dependent on student grouping; female business majors outperform male business majors,
however the opposite was true of non-business majors. Simple main effects analysis showed that Japanese females significantly
outperformed Japanese males (p = .02).

4.2. L2 proficiency

As shown in Fig. 2, females had a higher TOEIC scores (on average) in comparison to males, while Korean Business students had
higher scores than the other two groups. A significant main effect was identified for student grouping, F(2, 439) = 25.81, p < .001 and
post-hoc tests indicated significant difference between the Korean Business students and other two groups. No main effect was
identified for gender, F(1, 439) = 1.47, p = .225, and no statistically significant interaction was found between the effects of gender
and student group on L2 proficiency, F(5, 439) = 0.199, p = .820.

4.3. Intrinsic motivation

Although the shape of Fig. 3 indicates interaction between the effects of gender and student group on intrinsic motivation (as the
lines intersect), no statistically significant interaction was found, F(5, 439) = 2.63, p = .073. A significant main effect was identified for
student group, F(2, 439) = 11.83, p < .001 and post-hoc tests indicated significant difference between the Korean Business students
and other two groups. Although no main effect was identified for gender, F(1, 439) = 3.49, p = .062, pairwise comparisons between
groups found that Korean Sci/Eng. males had significantly stronger motivation in comparison to females (p = .003).

4.4. Extrinsic motivation

As shown in Fig. 4, female students generally had higher extrinsic motivation than males, which contrasts with general pattern for
intrinsic motivation shown in Fig. 3. Japanese male students reported the lowest level of extrinsic motivation. No statistically sig­
nificant interaction was found, F(5, 439) = 1.54, p = .216, however a significant main effect was identified for student group, F(2, 439)
= 33.10, p < .001 and gender, F(1, 439) = 8.95, p = .003. Post-hoc tests indicated significant differences between each of the three

Fig. 1. Profile plot of business test scores by student group and gender.

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Fig. 2. Profile plot of L2 proficiency by student group and gender.

Fig. 3. Profile plot of intrinsic motivation by student group and gender.

Fig. 4. Profile plot of extrinsic motivation by student group and gender.

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groups, and pairwise comparisons between groups found that Japanese male students reported significantly weaker extrinsic moti­
vation in comparison to females (p = .002).

4.5. Self-efficacy

Japanese students reported lower self-efficacy than both Korean Sci/Eng. majors and Korean business majors (see Fig. 5). Males
reported slightly higher self-efficacy, however no significant main effect was identified for gender, F(1, 439) = 1.57, p = .210. A
significant main effect was identified for student group, F(2, 439) = 44.10, p < .001, and post-hoc tests indicated significant differences
between each of the three groups. No statistically significant interaction was identified between student group and gender on self-
efficacy, F(5, 439) = 0.28, p = .757.

4.6. Task value

Although the shape of Fig. 6 indicates interaction between the effects of gender and student group on task value, no statistically
significant interaction was found, F(5, 439) = 2.23, p = .109. Female Sci/Eng. students reported weaker task value than males, while
both Korean and Japanese female business students perceived higher value in the learning task in comparison to male students. A
significant main effect was identified for student group, F(2, 439) = 5.44, p = .005 and post-hoc tests indicated significant differences
between Korean Sci/Eng. majors and the other two groups. Although no main effect was identified for gender, F(1, 439) = 1.47, p =
.225, pairwise comparisons between groups found that Japanese male students reported significantly weaker task value in comparison
to females (p = .023).

4.7. L2 self-concept

Fig. 7 indicates that there may be interaction between student group and gender on L2 self-concept, however no statistically
significant interaction was identified, F(5, 439) = 1.31, p = .271. Korean female students reported stronger L2 self-concept in com­
parison to males, while the opposite was true of Japanese students. However, no significant main effect was identified for gender, F(1,
439) = 1.33, p = .250, and pairwise comparisons found no significant differences between groups (p = .059 for Korean business
females and males). A significant main effect was identified for student group, F(2, 439) = 26.22, p < .001, and post-hoc tests indicated
significant differences between each of the three groups.

4.8. Business self-concept

Fig. 8 indicates that males consistently rated their business self-concept more strongly than females across each group, and this
finding contrasts with the pattern for L2 self-concept (see Fig. 7), where females generally reported stronger self-concept. No statis­
tically significant interaction was identified, F(5, 439) = 0.405, p = .667, and no main effect was found for gender, F(1, 439) = 2.87, p
= .091. A significant main effect was identified for student group, F(2, 439) = 84.15, p < .001, and post-hoc tests indicated significant
differences between each of the three groups.

4.9. International orientation

Although Fig. 9 indicates that there may be interaction between student group and gender on international orientation, no sta­
tistically significant interaction was identified, F(5, 439) = 2.15, p = .117. Korean Sci/Eng. students reported the lowest level for this

Fig. 5. Profile plot of self-efficacy by student group and gender.

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Fig. 6. Profile plot of task value by student group and gender.

Fig. 7. Profile plot of L2 self-concept by student group and gender.

Fig. 8. Profile plot of business self-concept by student group and gender.

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Fig. 9. Profile plot of international orientation by student group and gender.

measure, while female Korean and Japanese business majors reported similar levels of interest. No main effect was found for gender, F
(1, 439) = 0.946, p = .331, however a significant main effect was identified for student group, F(2, 439) = 9.08, p < .001. Post-hoc tests
indicated significant differences between the Korean Sci/Eng. students and the business majors (Korean and Japanese).

4.10. Motivated behaviour

Fig. 10 indicates an interaction between student group and gender on motivated behaviour, and a statistically significant inter­
action was identified, F(5, 439) = 5.56, p < .001. As shown in Fig. 10, Korean Sci/Eng. males reported higher levels of motivated
behaviour in comparison to females, while the opposite was true for Korean and Japanese business majors. The analysis yielded a
significant main effect for student grouping, F(2, 439) = 11.83, p < .001 and post-hoc tests indicated that Korean business majors
reported averages were significantly higher than Korean Sci/Eng. majors and Japanese business majors. Given the Keppel correction
(p-value of .025) employed in the current study, no significant main effect was identified for gender, F(1, 439) = 4.401, p = .036,
however simple main effects analysis showed that within the Japanese business major group, females reported significantly higher
motivated behaviour in comparison to males (p < .001).

5. Discussion

The current study is one of few thus far to explore differences in motivation and content knowledge between different groups of EMI
learners (see Macaro et al., 2018). One methodological contribution of this study is the means of comparing content knowledge, using
test items common to each course derived from a commercially available text. The process followed in this study could be used in other
studies of EMI learners, given that textbook test banks often form the basis of tests taken by EMI learners in the real world.
The findings introduced above contribute further empirical evidence that demographic factors may influence motivation and
content achievement in EMI. This study is one of the first to show how demographic variables may interplay, highlighting differences

Fig. 10. Profile plot of motivated behaviour by student group and gender.

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between learners that are dependent on the interaction between demographic and contextual differences (i.e., gender and major)
between learners. To highlight how the different factors appear to interplay, we start our discussion by summarizing a short profile for
each learner group, from which we point out how the interaction between major and gender appear to influence motivational and
content knowledge differences.
Female Science/Engineering students appear to be focusing on the achievement of a required credit, and are accordingly more
extrinsically motivated. They have weak intrinsic motivation and see less value in studying business, with weak self-beliefs of capa­
bility and lower attainment of content knowledge. By comparison, Science/Engineering males have relatively weak self-beliefs about
their capability with respect to business and English. These students appear to see greater value in the study of business and put forth
greater effort and achieved higher content knowledge in comparison to their female counterparts. These profiles contrast with those of
the Korean business major group, where females tend to have higher achievement, see more value in the task, and have stronger
motivated behaviour. Female Korean business students have comparatively strong English, English self-concept, and an international
orientation. These students are motivated by extrinsic rewards and put forth greater effort in comparison to every other group.
Accordingly, they achieved the highest average content knowledge scores. Korean business major males have comparatively lower
English ability and self-beliefs relative to their female counterparts. Similar to the Korean non-majors male students, they have
stronger intrinsic motivation in comparison to their female counterparts, and appear to draw on their (perceived) confidence as EMI
learners and strengths in business to achieve similar results in terms of content knowledge acquisition. The interplay between insti­
tutional context and gender is demonstrated when these groups are compared to the Japanese students, where the Japanese males have
both weaker intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in comparison to females. With respect to female Japanese business students, there
appears to be inconsistency between their ability (comparatively strong) and self-beliefs (relatively weak). These students see value in
class content and put forth greater effort (in comparison to their male counterparts) to achieve results equivalent to international peers
(i.e., Korean students). On the other hand, Japanese business males appear to have weak motivation and be relatively disengaged. They
see less value in the content and put forth far less effort than their female counterparts to achieve significantly poorer content
knowledge.
Our findings highlight areas consistent with the research literature and aspects which require further investigation. Gender appears
to influence learner self-beliefs toward and success in EMI (e.g., Lasagabaster, 2016; Macaro & Akincioglu, 2018; Thompson et al.,
2022b) in some contexts. Our study contributes further empirical that such differences may be dependent on the interaction with other
variables (i.e., major and institution in the current study). This interplay is highlighted by the Korean non-business major females
achieving the lowest business test scores in comparison to Korean business females, who achieved the highest. In other words, the
gender effect within the institution was dependent on whether the students were majoring in business or not. A similar pattern was
identified for motivated behaviour, where non-business major males reported stronger self-regulatory behaviour and enjoyed higher
achievement, while for business majors the opposite was true where females put forth great effort and demonstrated stronger content
knowledge.
The research evidence from the field of language learning has generally shown stronger motivation in females in comparison to
males (e.g., Ryan, 2009). However, as Lasagabaster (2016, p. 12) has explained, “EMI may help to diminish these gender-related
differences”. Findings from the current study, however, indicate significant differences in content knowledge and motivational be­
liefs by gender, although some differences may be context specific. For example, significant differences were found in extrinsic
motivation for all groups. However, the impact of gender appears to be stronger for Japanese learners, where the Japanese business
major males reported the lowest average values for extrinsic motivation, with significant differences also found in content knowledge,
motivated behaviour, and task value. These differences may be specific to the institution examined in the current study, or may reflect
a trend in the wider population of Japanese EMI students; future studies are needed to explore the potential impact of these variables.
The Korean business major group gained higher average scores on the content knowledge test, with higher L2 proficiency, and the
highest average scores for most of the motivational variables. These gaps may be related to the significant differences in L2 proficiency
between the student groups. Studies in Japan (e.g., Rose et al., 2020) and China (e.g., Xie & Curle, 2019) have identified L2 proficiency
as a significant predictor of success in content-knowledge acquisition, while in a study of Korean students, academic discipline
(business versus engineering versus no-major) was crucial in determining the comprehension of a business-specialized subject, as
business students had significantly higher English proficiency than their counterparts (Kim & Kim, 2020).
Results indicated significant differences between the Korean business and non-business majors with respect to motivational beliefs.
Business majors put forth greater effort, saw greater value in the subject, were more motivated, and had stronger self-perceptions of
domain-level (L2 self-concept, business self-concept) and task-level (self-efficacy) competence. Although other research (e.g., Kong &
Wei, 2019; Kym & Kym, 2014) has not identified major as factor influencing learner satisfaction or attitudes towards EMI, our findings
align with Kim & Kim, 2020, in demonstrating that major field of study appears to influence student academic and career goals within
the Korean institution.
These findings raise two points for consideration. Firstly, comparative studies of EMI learners may be useful for highlighting key
differences within learner groups by showing different patterns across programs. In this case, the differences between males and fe­
males at the Japanese institution appears to be an important area for future research. Secondly, previous studies in Japan that have
utilized interview data may be limited as they have tended to draw upon female student voices (as in Thompson et al., 2022b).
Although the authors noted the potential limitation of using such data, it seems that the self-beliefs and motivations of male Japanese
EMI learners need greater attention.

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6. Limitations and conclusion

The study has a number of potential limitations. Although the items for our measure of content knowledge were derived from a
commercially available text and items were matched to the content studied by each group, the difference in focus of the Entrepre­
neurship (Institution A) and International Business (Institution B) classes is a potential limitation. Further, language proficiency was
measured using the combined reading and listening TOEIC test score. Although the TOEIC is ecologically valid as scores are used
within each university and society (e.g., for employment purposes), neither speaking nor writing were assessed. Differences between
the EMI models of the institutions, and differences within the respective student groups may also introduce confounding factors. For
example, the business major group from the Korean institution included both second and third-year students. Although we found no
significant differences between second and third-year business students in terms of content knowledge, L2 proficiency and self-beliefs,
our findings may be potentially limited by the sample size and composition of each of the groups. Further, differences in the respective
motivation and knowledge of Japanese students may be due to the fact that they study some content via their L1, and accordingly may
place lesser value on their EMI classes. Future studies could attempt to identify groups across programs which are more evenly
matched, and utilize established content-knowledge tests and English language measures that include all four skills to further explore
differences between EMI learners across contexts.
Despite the limitations introduced above, this study is one of the first to explore differences between EMI students in differing
contexts. This study has highlighted intra-institution variation between student groups and the interplay of gender and major field of
study on student self-beliefs and content knowledge. The average profile of learners (based on major and gender) varied significantly in
achievement of content mastery, L2 proficiency, reported regulatory behaviour, and self-beliefs. More comparative studies are needed,
not only as they may highlight differences between learners across programs, but also because they may indicate factors important to
specific contexts that need greater exploration.

Declaration of competing interest

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Author contributions

Victoria Kim: Conceptualization, Methodology/Study design, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data
curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Visualization, Project administration.
Gene Thompson: Conceptualization, Methodology/Study design, Software, Validation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources,
Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing, Visualization, Project administration.

Appendix

Intrinsic Motivation (IM)

• In a class like this, I prefer course material that really challenges me so I can learn new things.
• In a class like this, I prefer course material that arouses my curiosity, even if it is difficult to learn.
• The most satisfying thing for me in this course is trying to understand the content as thoroughly as possible.
• When I have the opportunity in this class, I choose course assignments that I can learn from even if they don’t guarantee a good
grade.

Extrinsic Motivation (EM)

• Getting a good grade in this class is the most satisfying thing for me right now.
• The most important thing for me right now is improving my overall grade point average, so my main concern in this class is getting
a good grade.
• I want to do well in this class because it is important to show my ability to my family, friends, employer, or others.
• If I can, I want to get better grades in this class than most of the other students.

Task Value (TV)

• I think I will be able to use what I learn in this course in other courses.
• I am very interested in the content area of this course.
• I think the course material in this class is useful for me to learn.
• It is important for me to learn the course material in this class.

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Self-efficacy (SE)

• I am confident that I can use my language and business knowledge to gain a high grade in this class.
• I am confident that I can understand the most difficult material presented in the readings to gain a high grade in this course.
• In order to gain a high grade in this class, I am confident that I can understand the material presented by the instructor.
• I am confident that I can do an excellent job on the assignments and tests to gain a high grade in this course.

L2 Self-concept (L2SC)

• I have always done well in English.

• Studying English comes easy to me.
• Compared to other students I’m good at English.
• I usually get good marks in English.

Business self-concept (BSC)

• Studying business comes easy to me.

• I usually get good marks in business.
• I have always done well when studying business.
• Compared to other students I’m good at understanding business concepts.

International Orientation (IO)

• If I could speak English well, I could get to know more people from other countries.
• Studying English will help me understand different people from other countries.
• In the future, I would really like to communicate with people from other countries.
• Studying English will help me feel part of the international community of people speaking English.

Motivated Behaviour (MB)

• I always complete the homework and assignments to the best of my ability.

• To understand the content, I study as long as it takes.
• I am putting in my best effort to succeed in this course
• When there is something I don’t understand, I do my best to find the answer from a variety of resources (coursebooks, asking my
instructor, asking friends)

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