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1 3D simulations of salt tectonics in the Kwanza Basin: Insights

2 from analogue and Discrete-Element numerical modeling

3 Yu Zhang1, 2, Jianghai Li 1, 2, Yuting Lei 1, 2, Menglian Yang 1, 2, Peng Cheng 1, 2

4 1 The Key Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution, Ministry of Education, School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking

5 University, Beijing 100871, China

6 2 Institute of Oil and Gas, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China

7 Abstract: The Kwanza Basin is located at the passive margin of West Africa in the Central Segment of the South

8 Atlantic, and is an important area for oil and gas exploration. The distribution and deformation characteristics of

9 thick Lower Cretaceous (Aptian) salt deposits in the basin have significant impacts on hydrocarbon accumulation.

10 However, reports on their 3D interpretation, together with an understanding of the genesis and evolution of salt

11 tectonics in this area, are scarce in the literature. In this paper, 3D analogue experiments and 3D Discrete-Element

12 numerical simulations are carried out to analyze the zonal characteristics (extension-translation-contraction), the

13 main control factors, and to develop a kinematic model of salt tectonics in the basin. According to our modeling,

14 we make the following conclusions. (1) The zonal characteristics of salt tectonics formed in the basin reflect the

15 superposition of gravity gliding and gravity spreading. The main control factor of basin-scale salt deformation is

16 basement structural activity, which can be summarized into three points: early post-salt basement extension, initial

17 presence of local variation of base of salt gradient and more recent differential subsidence between landward side

18 and seaward side. (2) Salt deformation is episodic, having experienced one stage of regional deformation (Late

19 Aptian to Albian) and two stages of inherited developmental deformation (Campanian, and Eocene to Miocene),

20 mainly resulting in forward expansion towards the ocean. (3) During the early stage of salt deformation, faults

21 developed in suprasalt layers in the extensional and translational zones of the basin, resulting in local high-velocity

22 areas and a large vertical upward velocity component in the salt layer. Later, due to blocking by the outer high

23 region and increasing overburden, salt in contact with the outer high developed a vertical upward velocity

24 component, gradually forming thrust structures. (4) 3D analysis highlights the pervasive lateral deformation of the

25 salt. The main factors governing it are the distribution of accommodation in the salt basin and the initial

26 morphology of the salt layer. In the early stages, salt layer had a velocity component to the salt-scarce side (from

27 north to south), whereas in the later stages, it developed a velocity component to the wide side of the basin (from

28 south to north), leading to the gradual accumulation of salt in the north of the basin. We have shown that 3D

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E-mail addresses: jhli@pku.edu.cn (Jianghai Li); 2892122872@pku.edu.cn (Yu Zhang).
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29 simulations can complete the analysis of salt deformation both parallel and perpendicular to the slope in a passive-

30 margin basin. This may provide guidance for the exploration of oil and gas reservoirs in the context of salt

31 tectonics, especially in asymmetrical basins where seismic imaging is poor and has to be supplemented by strong

32 geological concepts including understanding 3D movement of salt.

33 Keywords: South Atlantic; Kwanza Basin; salt tectonic; 3D Discrete Element Method; analogue modeling; 3D

34 kinematics

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36 1 Introduction

37 The Kwanza Basin is a passive-margin basin located in the Central Segment of the South

38 Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1a). It has become a globally important exploration area due to the rapid

39 growth of its oil and gas reserves in recent years. A thick salt layer of Lower Cretaceous (Aptian)

40 age was deposited in the basin (Fig. 1; Appendix 1) and its deposition and deformation have

41 influenced the accumulation and distribution of oil and gas. 2D seismic interpretations and

42 comparison with the conjugate basin (the Espirito Santo Basin) have demonstrated the zonal

43 characteristics of salt tectonics in the Kwanza Basin (Blaich et al., 2011; Kukla et al., 2018;

44 Strozyk et al., 2016). 3D exploration data showed an uneven lateral distribution of salt tectonics in

45 the basin (Serié et al., 2017), whereas proto-basin reconstruction (Hudec and Jackson, 2002) and

46 balanced profile restoration (Hudec and Jackson, 2004) have been used to invert the processes of

47 salt deposition and deformation. The South Atlantic Ocean experienced oblique expansion,

48 widening the Kwanza Basin and the zone of initial salt deposition linearly from south to north.

49 Analogue experiments have been carried out to understand the effects of basement slope on salt

50 deformation in passive-margin basins, defining two modes of gravitational salt tectonics (Fort et

51 al., 2004; Rowan et al., 2004): (1) gravity gliding, which depends on the change of the dip angle of

52 the basement; and (2) gravity spreading driven by differential sedimentary loading. Brun and Fort

53 (2011) considered that salt tectonics at passive margins is dominated by gravity gliding down the

54 margin dip, rather than gravity spreading driven only by differential sedimentary loading. Rowan

55 et al. (2012), however, argued that both gravity gliding and gravity spreading are common

56 processes and both modes may vary spatially and temporally within one salt basin.

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57 However, due to complex morphologies, nonlinear strain, and strong plastic flow, studies of

58 salt tectonics typically lack analyses of genesis, evolution, and 3D structural characterization. At

59 present, a number of problems still exist. (1) Differential sedimentary loading is known to

60 influence local salt deformation, but is generally insufficient to significantly affect basin-scale salt

61 deformation. Moreover, while the gravity gliding mode is strongly controlled by basement slope, it

62 is also incompletely understood. What is the relationship between basin-scale salt deformation and

63 the structural evolution of the basement? How can periods of salt deformation and the

64 corresponding deformation modes be clarified through the structural evolution processes of the

65 basement? (2) Generally, the salt layer mainly moves toward the sea along the basement slope. But

66 what are the controlling factors and kinematic characteristics of salt deformation in the direction

67 perpendicular to the slope? And how do the associated faults develop?

68 This study first conducted 3D analogue modeling. Analogue modeling can directly show salt-

69 related deformation under actual material conditions, and illustrate zonal features and lateral

70 deformation characteristics of salt tectonics in the Kwanza Basin, making it possible to analyze the

71 main control factors. However, unless using an x-ray medical scanner (Callot et al., 2016), it is

72 difficult to observe the entire deformation processes of the salt layer and carry out kinematic

73 analyses at each stage for reasons of time and financial investment (Vendeville and Jackson, 1992;

74 Jackson and Vendeville, 1994; Fort et al., 2004; Rowan et al., 2004; Brun and Fort, 2011).

75 Discrete element method (DEM) is a numerical simulation method based on contact criteria

76 between discrete particles, which can be used to calculate particle displacement and deformation

77 and express the velocity and displacement of particles (Cundall and Strack, 1979; Finch and

78 Hardy, 2003; Morgan and McGovern, 2005; Geng et al., 2009; Hardy et al., 2009; Dean et al.,

79 2015). In addition, DEM exhibits superior performance in the analysis of the viscous behavior of

80 salt rocks (which are approximated by the simulation) and in deducing kinematic characteristics

81 (Pichel et al., 2017). In this study, 3D Discrete-Element numerical modeling is then applied to

82 explore appropriate kinematic models for gravity-driven deformation and lateral movement of salt

83 tectonics in the Kwanza Basin.

84 2 Geologic setting

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85 Since the Late Jurassic, the South Atlantic Ocean has been asymmetrically split from south to

86 north and can be divided into four segments: the Falkland Segment, the Austral Segment, the

87 Central Segment and the Equatorial Segment (Beniest et al., 2017; Moulin et al., 2010). The study

88 area (Kwanza Basin) forms a part of the Central Segment (Fig. 1a), which has evolved through

89 three evolutionary stages: rift, transition, and drift. During the transitional period, the basins of the

90 Central Segment were located within the subtropical and tropical regions (10ºS–27ºS) and were

91 dominated by intercontinental rifting (Chen et al., 2013; Heine et al., 2013). During the Middle

92 and Late Aptian, due to the continuous activity of the Tristan mantle plumes and the formation of

93 the embryonic form of the Walvis Ridge and Rio Grande Rise (Torsvik et al., 2009), the Central

94 Segment became isolated from the world ocean by these volcanic ridges. This caused rapid

95 evaporation and salt precipitation with repeated replenishment, and formed a unified salt basin.

96 From the Late Aptian to the Early Albian, the new ocean ridge developed northward, and the

97 unified salt basin was divided into two parts along the continent-ocean boundary (COB) (Kukla et

98 al., 2018). Basins on the South American side are typically wider in the south of the Central

99 Segment and narrower in the north, whereas those on the west African side are narrow both in the

100 north and south but wider in the middle (Fig. 1a). Moreover, the seaward limit of the present

101 distribution of the deformed Aptian salt layer roughly corresponds to both the continent-ocean and

102 basin boundaries (Fig. 1; Fig. 2a; Kukla et al., 2018).

103

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104 Fig.1. (a) Sketch map of salt basins and salt strata distribution in the Central Segment of the south Atlantic Ocean

105 (data source: General Bathymetric Chart of the Ocean (GEBCO-2008); IHS database (2012)); (b) Salt strata

106 distribution within the Kwanza Basin; (c) Location of the profiles in Fig. 2 and zonation of salt tectonics (modified

107 after Hudec et al., 2002; Kukla et al., 2018)

108

109 The Kwanza Basin is located in the southern part of the Central Segment of the South

110 Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1a). Salt deposition therein occurred during the Middle and Late Aptian

111 (122–112Ma) (Hudec and Jackson, 2002). Based on seismic interpretation (Marton et al., 2000;

112 Fig.2), the present salt layer has a large distribution range and the maximum thickness of the

113 deformed salt mass reaches approximately 4 km. The basin can be divided into three structural

114 zones roughly parallel to the margin based on characteristics of salt tectonics. From proximal to

115 distal, these are as follows (Fig.1c; Fig.2): (1) an extensional zone characterized by listric faults,

116 salt pillows, salt rafts, salt rollovers and salt welding; (2) an intermediate translational zone

117 characterized by salt diapirs; and (3) a contractional zone characterized by thrust nappes and a

118 thick salt plateau. In the northern profile (Fig. 2a), the thickness of the salt layer is greatest and salt

119 tectonics are well-developed in each of the extensional, translational, and contractional zones. The

120 central profile (Fig. 2b) is typical of extensional zone salt tectonics, whereas the southern profile

121 (Fig. 1c) is characterized by salt tectonics relating to the contractional and translational zones.

122 With reference to the reconstruction of proto-basins (Hudec and Jackson, 2002) and balanced

123 profiles (Hudec and Jackson, 2004; Zhang et al., 2020), the basement evolution and salt

124 deformation of the Kwanza Basin can be summarized into the following three stages:

125 (1) Aptian–Albian (122–100 Ma): Salt deposition and initial extensional deformation. In the

126 Aptian, initial basement uplift occurred at the west African margin due to strong magmatic

127 activity, and the basin continued to expand, with strong basement extension (mantle exhumation)

128 and the formation a large range of salt deposits up to 2 km thick. During the Early Albian, the

129 Kwanza Basin and its conjugate basin (the Espirito Santo Basin) eventually separated due to

130 magma intrusion during expansion and extension, forming an outer high on the periphery of the

131 two basins with a bulge of approximately 2 km. Thermal subsidence caused the margin to tilt, and

132 the salt flowed downslope, carried with the supra-salt strata .

133 (2) Late Cretaceous–Paleocene (100-58Ma): Stable development of salt tectonics. Due to

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134 blocking of the outer high and the increased deposition load of the overburden, salt tectonics

135 began to stabilize – updip deflation countered by downdip inflation until some sort of balance was

136 achieved. During the Campanian, the thick salt plateau inflated at the sea end of the basin due to

137 local basement uplift, and broke through the restriction of the outer high, forming the Angola Salt

138 Nappe.

139 (3) Eocene–Holocene (58Ma-0): Salt tectonic reactivation. From the Eocene until the

140 Miocene, large-scale basement uplift occurred at the continental end of the basin, causing the

141 reactivation of normal faults in the rifting sequence. In the extensional zone, faults in the overlying

142 layers grew larger, and some salt rafts developed into salt rollovers. In the translational zone, salt

143 diapirs formed during the early stages and continued to move upward. In the contractional zone,

144 most salt diapirs gradually evolved into salt canopies and salt walls. After the late Miocene, a salt

145 nappe located in the deep-sea area was uplifted with the basement and exposed at the foot of the

146 slope, causing decreased resistance from the outer high and decreased sedimentation on the

147 abyssal plain. Basement uplift destabilized the margin, causing renewed slip at the salt-basement

148 interface.

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149

150 Fig.1. (a) Interpretation profile of the Kwanza Basin (the original seismic profile refers to that of Marton et al.

151 (2000)); (b–c) Seismic profiles2 and interpretation of the Kwanza Basin (see Fig. 1c for locations).

21 2
2D seismic-reflection data in time domain (TWT) were provided by the Sinopec Petroleum Exploration and Production Research
22 Institute. The top salt surface generally shows a high amplitude, strong continuity, mid-high frequency, and parallel reflection, which is
23 clear and easy to identify. The flanking of salt tectonics and the surrounding strata show moderate to high amplitude and continuity, and
24 medium frequency reflection. Internal salt tectonics mostly show a weak amplitude, discontinuity, mid-low frequency, a messy in-phase
25 axis, and sometimes blank reflection.
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152 3 Methodology

153 The structural evolution analysis of the Kwanza basin and geological features of salt tectonics

154 summarized in the previous section provide important constraints for the setting up of the initial

155 and boundary conditions of analogue and Discrete-Element numerical modeling.

156 3.1 Analogue modeling

157 3.1.1 Experimental materials

158 Referring to previous analogue experiments on salt tectonics against the gravity background

159 of the passive margin, we used silicone polymer to simulate salt rock and dry quartz sand for

160 carbonate rock and sandstone (Adam et al., 2008; Dooley and Hudec, 2016; Dooley et al., 2017;

161 Fort et al., 2004; Rowan et al., 2012). The viscosity coefficient of silicone polymer is 1.2 × 104 Pa

162 s, its density is 1000 kg/m3, and it has Newtonian fluid properties at low strain rates. The density

163 of dry quartz sand is 1300 kg/m3, its cohesive force is very small, its angle of internal friction is

164 approximately 31°, its deformation follows Mohr–Coulomb theory, and the general physical

165 properties of colored quartz sand do not change with color (Xie et al., 2013). The main scaling

166 between the analogue model and the geological prototype is as follows:

167 g* = 1 (deformation of both model and geological prototype takes place in natural gravity

168 field);

169 l* ≈ 1 × 10−5 (1 cm in the model represents 1 km of the geological prototype);

170 ρ* ≈ 0.5 (the density of the experimental material is approximately half that of the geological

171 prototype). The density contrast between dry quartz sand and silicone polymer (△ρ≈ 1.3) is

172 slightly higher than that between natural sediments and salt (△ρ ≈ 1.05–1.18), however, this

173 disparity is considered acceptable (Weijermars et al., 1993; Fort et al., 2004);

174 μ* ≈ 1 × 10−15 (the viscosity coefficient of silicone polymer is much lower than that of natural

175 salt rock).

176 t* = μ*/(ρ*·g*·l*) (1 h in the model approximates 0.6 My in the geological prototype;

177 however, due to constraints of time and financial investment, we only consider the main

178 deformation stages of salt tectonics, and relative stability stages are simplified in time; besides,

179 our experiments will adjust run time according to the immediate experimental phenomenon) (Xie

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180 et al., 2013).

181 3.1.2 Model design

182 In this paper, we study basin-scale salt deformation processes, rather than the development of

183 local or single salt structures. Consequently, we mainly consider the following experimental

184 aspects according to realistic geological conditions: (1) initial tectonic pattern of the basin; (2)

185 basal tectonic activity, which is reflected in changes of slope inclination angle, extension quantity,

186 and uplift and subsidence patterns; and (3) initial morphology of the salt layer (Fig. 1; Kukla et al.,

187 2018). The width of the Kwanza Basin and the salt layer vary from south to north. The basement

188 experienced strong extension at an early stage, and large-scale tectonic uplift at later stages.

189 Experiment I was designed accordingly, and the simplified model is shown in Figure 3. Taking

190 into consideration that there were relatively high initial basement bulges near the continental end

191 in some areas of the basin, a foam plate was placed over the bottom plate to simulate the initial

192 basement bulge in Experiment II (Fig. 3).

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193

194 Fig. 3. Simulation model (top view & side view) of salt tectonics in the Kwanza Basin: (a-h) Experiment I (general

195 model); (i–p) Experiment II (with landward initial basement bulge). The vertical scale of side view is enlarged

196 twice for a better visual presentation. (a & b, i & j) Initial basement setup. The edge of the upslope basement

197 wedge is oblique to the seaward buttress and the outer high. (c & d, k & l) Salt is deposited in the area between the

198 slope and the seaward buttress. (e & f, m & n) The salt layer and pre-kinematic layer begin to deform following the

199 removal of the buttress. (g & h, o & p) The tilt of the slope is slowly increased from 1° to 3° with deposition and

200 deformation of syn-kinematic layers.

201

202 The specific settings of Experiment I were as follows (Fig. 3a-h; Table 1) : (1) The bottom

203 plate was 70 cm long; the initial angle of the slope was 1°; we represented the S-N widening of the

204 basin by laying the outer high oblique to the base of slope: while the base of slope is parallel to the

205 edge of the sandbox, 70 cm from its distal (western) margin, the landward edge of the outer high

206 was laid 15 cm away from this margin for the southern side and 11.5 cm for the northern sides. (2)

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207 Silicone polymer was laid in the experimental device, and a foam plate was placed at the seaward

208 boundary as a buttress. We rubbed the surface of silicone polymer with a rolling pin to shape the

209 analog layer; after standing for two hours, the upper surface of the silicone polymer became

210 smooth. The silicone polymer was 1.2–2.0 cm thick from land to sea with a distribution range of

211 79 cm in the southern end, 82.5 cm in the northern end, and 6 cm from the outer high in order to

212 simulate the increase in basement width due to intense extension of the initial basement. We set an

213 initial seaward free boundary and provided the silicone polymer with motion space, but did not

214 allow the bottom plate to move, because the exact rate of basement extension is unknown and the

215 traction produced by the plate movement would affect the movement of the silicone polymer. (3)

216 We laid the first layer of red sand with a thickness of 0.4 cm and removed the foam plate (buttress)

217 at the seaward boundary. (4) The tilt of the plate was slowly increased to 2°, and the second layer

218 of white sand was laid 1.5 hours later, with a thickness of 0.4 cm. (5) 3 hours later, we laid the

219 third layer of green sand, with a thickness of 0.4 cm; (6) We slowly increased the tilt of the plate to

220 3°, and laid the fourth layer of black sand (0.5 cm thick) 7.5 hours later; (7) 20.5 hours later, we

221 laid the fifth layer of white sand, 0.4 cm thick; (8) 21.5 hours later, the sixth layer of red sand was

222 laid, with a thickness of 0.4 cm; (9) Finally, 22 hours later, we laid the seventh layer of white sand

223 with a thickness of 0.4 cm.

224 Experiment II was designed as follows (Fig. 3i-p; Table 1) : (1) The initial angle of the

225 bottom plate was 1°, but a foam plate with a length of 30 cm and a slope of 3° was added to the

226 continental side of the model. (2) After the silicone polymer was placed, it was 1.0–2.0cm thick

227 from land to sea. (3) We laid the first layer of red sand, 0.4 cm thick. (4) We then slowly increased

228 the tilt of the plate to 2°, and laid the second layer of white sand, with a thickness of 0.4 cm, 1

229 hour later. (5) 2.5 hours later, we laid a third layer of green sand, 0.4 cm thick. (6) We slowly

230 increased the tilt of the plate to 3° and laid the fourth layer of red sand (0.4 cm thick) 4.5 hours

231 later. (7) 14.5 hours later, we laid the fifth layer of white and green sand with a total thickness of

232 0.4 cm. (8) 44.5 hours later, we laid the sixth layer of red sand, 0.4 cm thick. (9) Finally, 61 hours

233 later, we laid the seventh layer of white sand, with a thickness of 0.2 cm.

234 Table 1. Summary of the main experimental parameters for the analogue modeling.

Experiment nos Experiment I Experiment II

Model summary General model Model with landward initial basement bulge

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Initial tilt of the slope 1° 1°

Final tilt of the slope From 1° to 3° From 1° to 3°

Model salt thickness 1.2–2.0 cm from land to sea 1.0–2.0 cm thick from land to sea

Pre-kinematic overburden thickness 0.4 cm 0.4 cm

Synkinematic sedimentation Six layers Six layers

Removable seaward buttress Yes Yes

Outer high Oblique to the base of slope Oblique to the base of slope

235

236 3.2 Discrete element method (DEM)

237 The DEM was first proposed by Cundall and Strack (1979). It is a numerical simulation

238 method based on contact criteria between discrete particles. The 3D DEM treats the rock mass as

239 assemblage of rigid spherical particles (balls) that are connected by a certain strength. By

240 controlling properties of particles, different types of rocks and rock associations can be set. Further

241 to this, by defining the microscopic parameters representing the strength of the assemblage,

242 particles can be bonded or separated until the threshold is exceeded. The time-displacement finite

243 difference method is used to calculate the movement of particles according to Newton's Laws; this

244 can effectively simulate elastic-plastic deformation processes and is suitable for understanding

245 large-variable structural deformation (Finch and Hardy, 2003; Hardy et al., 2009; Guo and

246 Morgan, 2004; Naylor et al., 2005; Dean et al., 2013). The method has been used to calculate

247 particle displacement and deformation based on stress and displacement criteria, and allows the

248 modeling of sliding and fracture between particles, which can effectively express the velocity and

249 displacement of particles (Morgan and Mcgovern, 2005; Dean et al., 2015). Pichel et al. (2017)

250 successfully applied this method to the analysis of salt-related deformation, adjusting the

251 properties of the particles representing salt such they behaved macroscopically as a viscous-plastic

252 material and deformed microscopically by an approximation of dislocation-creep.

253 Firstly, the boundary conditions of the model were set up, and the basic geometric model was

254 established after preparatory debugging. Most salt in the Kwanza Basin was deposited as halite

255 (Kukla et al., 2018), and the salt rocks behave similarly to Newtonian fluids in linear models.

256 When particles make contact with each other or the wall, the force between them can be calculated

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257 using the force-displacement relationship. The common parallel bond model is used in all

258 overlying layers, allowing the particles to make contact through parallel bonding, which can

259 transfer both force and moment. The parallel bond model is also used for the boundary between

260 salt rocks and their overlying layers. In addition, the normal and tangential stiffness of the wall

261 were set at 1010N/m in the simulation, and the friction coefficient between the wall and the

262 particles was set at 0.5. The size ratio between the model and the actual geological situation was

263 set at 1:1000, and random particles were generated with a radius of 1.0-1.5 m in the spatial range

264 of 300 m (x-axis), 90 m (y-axis) and 90 m (z-axis). Gravity was then set to allow particle

265 aggregates to naturally compress and balance, and thus to scale the sediment layers. At the same

266 time, with reference to relevant studies on Discrete-Element simulations of passive margins and

267 salt tectonics in the South Atlantic (Pichel et al., 2017; Dean et al., 2015; Maxwell, 2009), triaxial

268 mechanical simulation experiments were used for debugging. The specific parameters of these

269 models are given in Table 2.

270 Table 2. Microscopic parameters of particles in the PFC3-3D Discrete-Element numerical simulation.

Parameter Salt rock Carbonate rock Clastic rock Boundary particl

Density (kg/m3) 2200 2700 2400 -

Normal stiffness (N/m) 108 108 108 -

Tangential stiffness (N/m) 108 108 108 -

Frictional coefficient 0.1 0.3 0.3 Inheritable

Damp coefficient 0.7 0.7 0.7 Inheritable

Contact type Linear model Parallel bond model Parallel bond Parallel bond

model model

Normal critical damping ratio 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7

Normal stiffness of parallel bond (N/m) - 108 108 106

Shear stiffness of parallel bond (N/m) - 5 x 107 5 x 107 5 x 106

Tensile strength of parallel bond (N) - 2 x 105 2 x 105 2 x 103

Cohesion of parallel bond (N) - 5 x 104 5 x 104 5 x 102

271

272 Based on the results of analogue modeling, a numerical model was set up with its main

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PFC: Particle Flow Code.
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273 settings generally similar to those shown in Figure 3a–h. (1) Referring to the IHS database (2012)

274 for the stratigraphic column of the basin (Appendix 1), carbonate and clastic rocks were given

275 different parameters. (2) The 3D Discrete-Element simulation was more complex, increasing the

276 calculation amount exponentially when compared with the 2D Discrete-Element simulation. To

277 improve its numerical efficiency, the initial slope was set to 3°, then raised to 4°. (3) The

278 topography of the outer high was designed to be adjusted over time. (4) Repeated debugging was

279 carried out according to experimental phenomena. Under the parameter settings of the experiment,

280 1000 steps of the model operation were set to correspond to 1 My geological time, and time

281 intervals of basal uplift and synsedimentary loading were determined according to this conversion

282 relationship.

283 4 Results

284 4.1 Analogue modeling

285 4.4.1 Experiment I

286 After we laid the first layer of red sand and removed the foam plate (buttress) at the seaward

287 boundary, salt analog began to flow and deform. Because of the initially open-toed system and

288 gravity spreading, the overlying layer underwent faulting, which propagated upslope from the

289 translational zone4. As the bottom plate was slowly raised to 2°, the effect of gravity sliding was

290 gradually enhanced, and the overlying layer was broken in the extensional zone, causing the

291 development of faults in the downward slope direction. 1.5 hours later, two stages of faulting

292 could be seen in the overburden, with wide cracks and strike angle of 0° to 50° between the faults

293 and the slope, which means there was lateral migration of salt analog from north to south during

294 this period (Fig. 4a).

295 As the experiment progressed, salt analog on the southern side of the model was the first to

296 be blocked by the outer foam, followed by central and northern salt analog. 3 hours later (Fig. 4b),

297 the E-W salt analog walls rose near the southern boundary of the sandbox (but this phenomenon

298 was exaggerated by edge effects due to the friction of glass wall); salt analog on the central and

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The extensional, translational and contractional zones are the divisions of the present salt tectonics and reflect its
49 properties. However, these zones mentioned during the process only represent the spatial locations corresponding
50 to the present zones, and do not reflect the properties at that time.
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299 northern sides was thrusted over the platform of outer buttress along the slope, which was different

300 from the south. A large number of faults were reactivated, especially on the central and northern

301 sides, and their strike was similar to that of the slope, which means the direction of lateral

302 migration of salt analog changed from southward to northward at this stage. Meanwhile, some

303 diapirs formed at the locations of early faults in the translational zone.

304 Subsequently, the bottom plate was slowly raised to 3°. 7.5 hours later, salt analog had

305 developed obvious phenomenon of structural zonation, namely, faults in the extensional zone,

306 diapirs in the translational zone, and thrust structures in the contractional zone (Fig. 4c).

307 22 hours later, the overall rate of change of the model was very slow; at this time, the cover

308 layer was laid. In the southern half of the model, profiles L1, L2, and L3 were cut from south to

309 north (Fig. 5a). In profile L1, we identified low-amplitude diapirs, pillows and residual two-stage

310 allochthonous salt analog sheets in the translational zone, and anticlines, thrust nappes, and thrust

311 faults in the contractional zone, while rollovers and even high-amplitude walls were noted in the

312 extensional zone. In profile L2, the amplitude of diapirs in the translational zone was relatively

313 high, and the displacement of the thrust nappe in the contractional zone was larger. In the

314 extensional zone, the fault density increased, and more layers were broken through. In profile L3,

315 a high-amplitude diapir could be seen in the translational zone, which was extrusive at this time

316 flowing across the model surface before being buried. Salt analog in the contractional zone thrust

317 to the platform of the outer foam. In the northern half of the model, the overburden of the layer

318 was removed and the top surface of salt analog could be observed (Fig. 4b). The growth fault

319 zone, elongate diapir zone, thick salt analog plateau, and thrust nappe zone could be seen. Their

320 developmental position and morphology were used as indicators of the flow directions of the

321 underlying salt analog. Salt analog on the slope and the southern part migrated to the northwest

322 and mainly accumulated in the thick salt analog plateau and elongate diapir zone, after which it

323 was thrust above the outer high.

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324
325 Fig. 4. Top views of Experiment I relating to the Kwanza Basin. The views shown were obtained after 1.5 hours

326 (a), 3 hours (b), and 7.5 hours (c). The two-stage faults are marked by the dashed ellipses (a). It's worth noting that,

327 there are edge effects at the north and south limits of the model due to friction on the glass walls, especially the

328 exaggerated W-E salt analog walls (b); the color bandings observed in the southern half of these panels are

329 artefacts related to lighting.

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330

331 Fig. 5. Results of Experiment I relating to the Kwanza Basin: (a) three profiles in the south (see Fig. 4c. for

332 locations); (b) top view of the salt analog layer in the northern half of the model.

333 4.1.2 Experiment II

334 After depositing the first layer of red sand, the initial buttress was removed and salt analog

335 could freely advance to the outer buttress. however, due to the superposition of gravity spreading

336 and gravity sliding with the initial basement bulge on the slope, faults began to develop,

337 predominantly in the bulge area on the slope. After the bottom plate was raised, faults continued to

338 develop. 2.5–4.5 hours later, faults were observed throughout the extensional zone, with a large

339 number on the northern side and examples with large widths on the southern side (Fig. 6a & b).

340 8.5 hours later, salt analog on the southern side rose vertically upward in the contractional and

341 translational zones, while salt analog on the central and northern sides thrust onto the platform of

342 the outer buttress, leading to fault reactivation in the extensional zone (Fig. 6c).

343 61 hours later, salt analog had partially punctured the overlying layers to form sheets: on the

344 southern side, salt analog did not completely thrust onto the platform of the outer high, such that

345 the local compressional force in the contractional zone was strong and salt analog moved upward.

346 The timing of buttressing was earlier in the south so the free face existed longer in the north, and

347 then differential loading began to play a major part as more salt analog was expelled from the

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348 south. In the north, salt analog accumulated and punctured overlying layers to form a large sheet in

349 the translational zone (Fig. 6d). Following the formation of the cover layer, profiles L4, L5, and

350 L6 were cut from south to north (Fig. 7). In these profiles, a large number of normal faults were

351 identified in the extensional zone, although rafts, rollovers, pillows, weldings, and graben

352 structures were also noted. Salt analog developed low-amplitude bulges in the translational zone

353 and a thrust nappe was visible in the contractional zone. However, from south to north, salt analog

354 was observed to gradually thicken and form a thick salt plateau in the translational and

355 contractional zones.

356
357 Fig.6. Top views of Experiment II relating to the Kwanza Basin. The views shown were obtained after 2.5 hours

358 (a), 4.5 hours (b), 8.5 hours (c), and 61 hours (d). There are also artefacts related to lighting, like in Figure 4.

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359

360 Fig. 7. Results of Experiment II relating to the Kwanza Basin (see Fig. 6d. for locations).

361

362 4.2 Discrete-Element numerical simulation

363 Figure 8 shows the starting point of the Discrete-Element numerical simulation, when the

364 slope of the basement is 3° and the outer high is 2.4 m higher than the seafloor. We load two layers

365 of particle aggregates with a thickness of 1-12 m from land to sea and 4 m, respectively, giving the

366 properties of Aptian salt rock and Upper Aptian–Lower Albian carbonate rock (pre-kinamatic

367 layer); but it is worth noting that the thicknesses of the sediment layers in the model are

368 approximately half that of the original loading after compaction of particle aggregates. Additional

369 information regarding the loading of synsedimentary layers can be seen in Appendix 2.

370

371 Fig. 8. Initial particle model of the Kwanza Basin: top view (a) and side view (b). We represented three layers of

372 salt in the numerical model in order to more easily follow the visual evolution of the particles. Particles in each salt

373 layer have the same properties; differences in color are only used to distinguish between layers.

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374

375 The result of the earliest stages of salt movement in the Late Aptian were observed after 100

376 operational steps (representing 100 ky) by making particles of post-salt sediments became

377 transparent (Fig. 9). Thin blue arrows indicate the overall movement of the salt layer: due to the

378 superposition of gravity spreading and gravity sliding, salt particles mainly move downslope, with

379 apparently erratic lateral migration. Clusters of medium-sized green arrows green arrows in Figure

380 9 indicate areas in which the salt particle velocity has a high upward vertical component, i.e.,

381 regions of locally vertical salt movement along the faults in the overburden. At this point, green

382 arrows are distributed throughout the slope and mainly at the upper end; the density of blue arrows

383 increases downslope. This indicates that, during the early stages of salt deformation, faults

384 developed both in the extensional and translational zones because of the open-toed system. A large

385 quantity of faults and complex pattern of salt tectonics developed in the extensional zone. The

386 density of faults was small in the translational zone, but these faults were later key to the

387 development of salt tectonics. After 5000 steps, i.e. in the Early Albian, salt underwent rapid

388 deformation processes (Fig. 10). The motion vectors of salt particles became evenly distributed,

389 although mainly directed seaward, with a lateral velocity component from north to south. There

390 are locally high-velocity zones (especially in the the translational zone), with vertical upward or

391 downward velocity components that show arches or depressions in the salt layer.

392

393 Fig. 9. Particle motion vectors of salt in the Late Aptian of the Kwanza Basin model: (a) top view; (b) side view;

394 (c) close-up of the top view (location shown by red square in a). The direction of arrows indicates the direction of

395 salt flow, and color represents velocity. Particles of supra-salt layers are set to be visually transparent (as in Figs.

396 10, 11, 12 and 13).

397

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398
399 Fig. 10. Particle motion vectors of salt in the Early Albian of the Kwanza Basin model: (a) top view; (b) side view;

400 (c-d) close-up views of the top and side views (locations shown by red squares in a & b). Black circles indicate

401 high-velocity areas, and black arrows indicate the overall direction of motion of the salt layer.

402

403 We then loaded the Albian carbonate layer, 4 m thick, and the simulation was subjected to a

404 further 10000 steps, representing 10 My and taking the model into the Early Cenomanian. Basal

405 extension decreased during the Late Albian– Early Cenomanian, and salt layers became gradually

406 blocked by the outer high, causing them to slow down. Motion vectors of salt particles

407 concentrated at the foot of the slope and moved along the basement to the sea. Some of the salt

408 particles in contact with the outer high also developed a vertical velocity component with a

409 tendency to spill over the outer high, whereas on the slope, the salt layer tended to stabilize (Fig.

410 11). Subsequently, we loaded the Cenomanian–Campanian mudstone layer, also 4 m thick. Due to

411 thermal subsidence of the oceanic crust and uplift of the basement below the thick salt plateau on

412 the sea side in the Campanian (Hudec and Jackson, 2004), we decreased the topographic height of

413 the outer high to model the change of the relative height between the outer high and the salt

414 plateau; therefore, after 35,000 steps, the height of the outer high was set to be reduced to 1.2 m.

415 Salt particles were then able to slip over the outer high, and the thrust velocity increased from

416 south to north, with a northward lateral velocity component (Fig. 12).

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417

418 Fig. 11. Particle motion vectors of salt in the Cenomanian of the Kwanza Basin: (a) top view; (b) side view; (c–d)

419 close-up of the top view and front view (location shown by red squares in a & b).

420

421 Fig. 12. Particle motion vectors of salt in the Campanian of the Kwanza Basin: (a) top view; (b) side view; (c–d)

422 close-up of the top view and side view (location shown by red squares in a & b).

423

424 The Maastrichtian–Paleocene clastic layer was loaded with a thickness of 4 m. After 55,000

425 steps, we added a 4 m interval of Eocene clastics. As the basin experienced stable thermal

426 subsidence while large-scale uplift prevailed at the continental end of the model during the

427 Eocene–Miocene, the slope of the basement increased; therefore, the angle of the bottom plate in

428 the model was adjusted to 4° after 75,000 steps. Following 100 operational steps, the velocity

429 magnitude of the salt particles became greater on the slope, gradually decreasing downward the

430 slope, and showed a sharp decrease (although tended to be stable) at the foot of the slope (Fig. 13

431 a & b). This indicates that tectonic activity at the continental end caused another stage of strong

432 salt deformation in the extensional zone, but had little effect on salt deformation in the

433 contractional zone. In other words, since the proximal salt layer (thin) is directly affected by

434 tectonic activity, a large displacement in this layer results in a small displacement in the thicker

435 part (the distal zone). After 85,000 steps, the terrigenous clastic layers of two Miocene units were

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436 loaded, with respective thickness of 4 m and length of 157.5 and 210 m in the model (see

437 appendix 2), representing the corresponding episodes of progradation. Because of thermal

438 subsidence of the oceanic crust and a slight uplift in the central part and the seaward end of the

439 basin in the Middle-Late Miocene (Hudec and Jackson, 2004; Zhang et al., 2020), we decreased

440 the topographic height of the outer high to model the change of the relative height between the

441 outer high and the salt nappe; therefore, after 95,000 steps, the height of the outer high was set to

442 be reduced to 0.6 m. Following 100 operational steps, the velocity magnitude of salt particles in

443 the contractional zone increased, signifying accelerated development of the Angola Salt Nappe

444 (Fig. 13 c & d). At the same time, due to the thick salt layer in this area, salt movement gradually

445 spread onto the slope. After that, the model had become relatively stable.

446

447 Fig. 13. Velocity magnitude of salt in the Kwanza Basin: top view (a) and side view (b) in the Eocene; top view (c)

448 and side view (d) in the Middle Miocene.

449 5 Discussion

450 5.1 Validity of the modeling assumptions

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451 The edges of the analogue experiment device are glass walls. Due to the friction of glass and

452 the slight unevenness of the sand layer near the glass walls during the laying of the sand, some

453 experimental errors occurred. For example, within approximately 3 cm of the E-W glass walls, the

454 strike direction of salt analog uplift and faults may change and become almost parallel to the wall.

455 Overall, however, the results of our analogue modeling are meaningful. Comparing these results

456 with seismic profiles of the Kwanza Basin (Fig. 1; Kukla et al., 2018; Strozyk et al., 2016; Blaich

457 et al., 2011), the following two aspects are in particularly good agreement: (1) the salt tectonics of

458 the whole basin show zonal characteristics of continuous translation from extensional structures to

459 contractional structures; and (2) the patterns of salt tectonics in each zone are different. Generally,

460 salt rafts, salt rollovers and graben structures develop in the extensional zone together with a large

461 number of normal faults (Fig. 14a), whereas salt diapirs of different amplitudes, salt pillows and

462 salt sheets appear in the translational zone (Fig. 14 b, c, & d) and thrust structures, salt sheets, and

463 salt anticlines occur in the contractional zone (Fig. 14 e&f).

464 In our analogue modeling, we established the relationship between the structure-sedimentary

465 evolution and salt deformation history of the basin by setting the seaward free boundary, changing

466 the tilt of the plate, and laying synsedimentary layers. Salt deformation exhibited an episodic

467 character depending on the changing boundary conditions. As for the numerical modeling, we

468 refined the structure-sedimentary evolution process of the basin, including setting up the Cenozoic

469 progradation process and changing the relative topographic height between the outer high and the

470 salt plateau. Discrete particles were used to replace the sediments in the Discrete-Element Method,

471 and the loading of discrete particles in each period had a step interval. The number of particles and

472 their settling time were both limited; by design, this process cannot be entirely equivalent to the

473 long-term continuous deposition of sediments in nature. This could be improved in future

474 experiments by setting up a larger number of discrete particles with a smaller particle size using a

475 high-performance computer. In general, however, layered loading of synsedimentary layers is

476 already an accurate representation of the dynamic sedimentation process and, in addition, the

477 sedimentary process is generally insufficient to affect salt deformation of the whole basin either in

478 analogue or numerical experiments. We therefore consider that the numerical modeling approach

479 used is a reliable means of reproducing basin-scale salt deformation processes that are mainly

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480 controlled by structural processes rather than sedimentary processes.

481
482 Fig. 14. Local results of analogue experiments in the Kwanza Basin (see Fig. 5. and 7. for locations). (a)

483 Extensional zone (raft, rollover, and graben structure). (b–d) Translational zone (diapir, pillow, and sheet). (e–f)

484 Contractional zone (thrust nappe, sheet and anticline).

485 5.2 Control factors and deformation modes

486 5.2.1 Gravity gliding and gravity spreading

487 With reference to discussions on gravity spreading and gravity gliding of salt tectonics in the

488 Gulf of Mexico in Brun and Fort (2011) and Rowan et al. (2012), we also consider that, under the

489 superposition of gravity spreading and gravity sliding, salt tectonic zonation corresponding to

490 zones of extension, translation, and contraction are formed in the Kwanza Basin. Gravity gliding is

491 mainly driven by basin-scale basement subsidence, the nature of the initial basement bulge, and

492 local basement uplift. Gravity spreading is controlled by differential sedimentary loading, but

493 more importantly by initial basement extension (the initial seaward free boundary). These two

494 modes vary spatially and temporally within the Kwanza Basin.

495 In Experiment I (Fig. 15), the initial slope was small. To simulate basement extension we

496 used a removable buttress, and during the early stages, salt deformation was dominated by gravity

497 spreading, and faults in the supra-salt layers formed initially in the translational area (i.e. near the

498 seaward end). Faults gradually developed toward the land, becoming part of the later salt-diapir

499 system (Jackson et al., 2015; Dooley et al., 2015). To simulate thermal subsidence of the oceanic

500 crust we gradually increased the tilt of the slope, and gravity gliding dominated the salt

501 deformation. Large number of faults began to develop in the extensional zone and migrated

502 downslope with the formation of salt rafts and salt rollovers. These results can be compared with

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503 the seismic profile (Fig. 5; Fig. 2c), showing that salt tectonics in the translational and

504 contractional zones are distinct and more consistent with observations. In Experiment II (Fig. 16),

505 the initial basement bulge was set on the land end, which is the main difference in setup from

506 Experiment I, and salt deformation was dominated by gravity gliding during the early stages, but

507 also subject to gravity spreading. Later, because of the increasing tilt of the slope, meant to

508 simulate outer thermal subsidence, the influence of gravity gliding further strengthened. The

509 results can be compared with the seismic profile (Fig. 7; Fig. 2b), showing that salt tectonics in the

510 extensional zone became distinct and more consistent with observations. Comparing Experiments

511 I & II with the results of Fort et al. (2004) for the Angolan Margin, we observe that the simulation

512 of basement extension, the initial basement bulge, and more recent basement subsidence are the

513 decisive factors in the development of extension-translation-contraction zonation in the Kwanza

514 Basin (Fig. 15; Fig. 16). They control the relative magnitude and variation of gravity spreading

515 and gravity gliding. In addition, more recent basement uplift and syn-deposition are important

516 factors controlling salt deformation, further promoting the development of salt tectonics.

517

518 Fig. 15. Formation model of salt tectonics in Experiment I. (a) Salt rocks are deposited in the unified salt basin. (b)

519 The salt layer is dominated by gravity spreading and begins to deform. (c) The salt layer forms the zonal

520 characteristics of extension-translation-contraction. (d) Mature salt tectonics.

521

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522

523 Fig. 16. Formation model of salt tectonics in Experiment II. (a) Salt rocks are deposited in the unified salt basin

524 with an initial basement bulge. (b) The salt layer is dominated by gravity gliding and begins to deform. (c) The salt

525 layer forms the zonal characteristics of extension-translation-contraction. (d) Mature salt tectonics.

526 5.2.2 Lateral deformation

527 The South Atlantic Ocean has been asymmetrically split from south to north, and the width of

528 the Kwanza Basin and the salt layer vary from south to north, controlled by the spreading center

529 which advanced through the entire Aptian salt province (Strozyk et al., 2016; Kukla et al., 2018).

530 In both analogue experiments, during the simulation of early basement extension, salt had

531 sufficient flow space and migrated from the salt-rich to salt-scarce side (Fig 17a; from north to

532 south). In the extensional zone, a larger number of faults occurred on the northern side, but cracks

533 on the southern side were wider and characterized by more intense salt upwelling. In the later

534 period, salt on the south side was first blocked by the outer high. Under the effect of local

535 compression, some salt was contractional thickening and partially broke through the overlying

536 strata to form early salt sheets; on the other hand, due to more flow space in the north, salt on the

537 southern side gradually migrated to the north (Fig.17b), causing the salt layer to become thinner or

538 disappear, and mainly preserving early salt sheets between the overlying strata. In the north, the

539 salt layer gradually thickened and formed a thick salt plateau under the slope, a part of which was

540 thrust onto the platform of the outer high. At this time, faults in the extensional zone were

541 reactivated, and salt in the translational and contractional zones continued to accumulate due to

542 gravity gliding and lateral migration, partially piercing the overlying layer and subsequently

543 forming later salt sheets. Based on the results of these two experiments (Fig. 5, Fig. 7) and 3D

544 exploration data (Serié et al., 2017), salt in the Kwanza Basin is considered to have characters

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545 evidencing lateral deformation, the main factors involved in which are the accommodating space

546 of the basin and the initial morphology of salt layer. Salt finally aggregates from the narrow end to

547 the wide end of the basin (from south to north) and the salt layer reaches its maximum thickness at

548 the northern end (Fig. 2a).

549 5.3 Episodic character and kinematic model

550 According to a comprehensive analysis of analogue and numerical modeling with reference to

551 the model of syn-exhumation salt basins in Rowan et al. (2014), salt deformation has obvious

552 characteristics of episodic activity, primarily due to basal structural evolution in the Kwanza Basin

553 (Fig. 17). The salt has experienced one stage of regional deformation (Fig.17 a&b; Late Aptian to

554 Albian) and two stages of inherited developmental deformation (Fig.17 c&d; Campanian, and

555 Eocene to Miocene), mainly resulting in forward expansion toward the ocean accompanied by

556 lateral deformation.

557 During the Late Aptian, the Kwanza Basin and its conjugate basin (the Espirito Santo Basin)

558 were still a unified salt basin (Fig.17a), and evaporites symmetrically deposited in the basin with

559 thick deposits in the middle and thinner deposits on both sides (Strozyk et al., 2016). As the South

560 Atlantic continued to expand obliquely, the basement of the basin was stretched and thinned,

561 accompanied by thermal subsidence (Lentini et al., 2010). At this stage, the rate of of the African

562 plate was greater than that of the South America plate, causing a higher degree of basal extension

563 on the east side of the basin, i.e., within the Kwanza Basin (Torsvik et al., 2009; Unternehr et al.,

564 2010). The formation of transitional crust and the original ocean basin provided space for the

565 Aptian salt layer to flow, while the subsidence of the cooling crust increased the slope of the

566 basement and caused gravity gliding of the salt layer. Under the superposition of gravity spreading

567 and gravity gliding, salt mainly moved downslope, but also underwent lateral migration in other

568 directions (Fig.17a). Our modeling suggests that, within the extensional and translational zones,

569 faults began to develop in the supra-salt layers, resulting in the appearance of local high-velocity

570 areas in the salt layer with a large, vertically upward velocity component, such that a part of the

571 salt upwelled into the overlying layers. In different parts of the basin, the relative degrees of

572 gravity spreading and gravity gliding were different, leading to the faults in the extensional and

573 translational zones having different densities and development periods (Fig.15; Fig.16). Faults

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574 developed most densely along with the formation of complex patterns of salt tectonics in the

575 extensional zone, whereas they were relatively sparse in the translational zone. Salt in the

576 translational zone was, nonetheless, crucial for later salt deformation. Simultaneously, magma

577 from the expansion center continuously intruded into the salt basin, forming the embryonic form

578 of the outer high (Blaich et al., 2011). In the Early Albian, new oceanic ridges formed and the

579 unified salt basin eventually split into two (Kukla et al., 2018). Salt still had sufficient flow space

580 in the Kwanza Basin. Our modeling indicates that, in addition to the main seaward movement, a

581 velocity component from the salt-rich side to salt-scarce side (from north to south) developed

582 (Fig.17a). The salt layer exhibited local high-velocity areas (especially in the translational zone)

583 with a vertically upward velocity component, which were dominated by the growth of salt diapirs.

584 Referring to studies of Miocene salt tectonics in the Red Sea Basin (Augustin et al., 2014; Feldens

585 et al., 2015; Jackson and Hudec, 2017), salt deformation appears to have been synchronized with

586 the expansion of the oceanic basin: salt rocks at the spreading center were dissolved by hot water,

587 and underwent plastic flow towards the expansion center; this can provide reference for the study

588 of the Late Aptian-Early Albian salt deformation in the Kwanza Basin.

589 From the Late Albian until the Cenomanian, the extensional activity of the basement

590 weakened. Furthermore, from our modeling, due to the blocking of the outer high and increasing

591 thickening of the overburden, the velocity of salt deformation decreased and a large volume of salt

592 accumulated under the slope. Part of salt in contact with the outer high had a vertically upward

593 velocity component, was contractional thickening and gradually formed thrust structures. Thus far,

594 salt tectonics formed the zonal characteristics of the extension, translation, and contraction zones

595 (Fig.17b).

596 In the Campanian, the thick salt plateau was raised due to local basement uplift on the

597 seaward side (Hudec and Jackson, 2004), and salt was thrust onto the outer high to form the thrust

598 nappe. Laterally, from our modeling, the thrust velocity of the salt layer gradually increased from

599 the narrow end to the wide end of the basin (from south to north), and a velocity component of

600 movement also developed from south to north (Fig.17c).

601 From the Eocene until the Miocene, the basin experienced stable thermal subsidence and

602 large-scale uplifts near the land (Jackson et al., 2005, 2008), which increased the slope and

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603 enhanced gravity gliding in the salt layer. Our modeling shows that, the velocity was greater on

604 the slope, and gradually became smaller along the slope, before decreasing sharply at the foot of

605 the slope. The foot of the slope - “hinge” in the basement here is a very important feature in

606 localizing shortening structures as salt and overburden encounter it, and pass through it (Dooley et

607 al., 2007). Consequently, salt tectonics in the extensional zone were deformed again (Fig.17d)

608 with reactivated fractures in the supra-salt layers, and became relatively stable in the contractional

609 zone. In addition, from the Middle to Late Miocene, the basement was slightly uplifted in the

610 central and coastal parts of the basin (Hudec and Jackson, 2004). This caused the velocity

611 magnitude of salt motion to increase in the contractional zone (Fig.17d). In general, the Eocene

612 and Miocene can be considered inherited developmental stages from the original salt tectonics, as

613 their zonal characteristics were more obvious. Since then, the salt-tectonic deformation has tended

614 to be more stable.

615
616 Fig. 17. 3D kinematic model of salt deformation. (a-b) Regional deformation during the Late Aptian to Albian. (c-

617 d) Inherited developmental deformation during the Campanian and Eocene to Miocene.

618

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619 6 Conclusions

620 In petroleum exploration and salt tectonic studies, seismic interpretation, analogue and

621 numerical modeling are highly important research methods: seismic data can reflect the true

622 characteristics of salt tectonics, and forms the basis of any study; analogue modeling can directly

623 show salt deformation under actual material conditions, leading to the development of easily

624 verifiable geological hypotheses (single or multiple control factors); numerical modeling can

625 refine salt deformation processes and allow a superior understanding of kinetmatics; and 3D

626 modeling improves the analysis of lateral deformation in salt bodies. It can be concluded that:

627 (1) From our analogue modeling study, salt tectonics in the Kwanza Basin formed basin-scale

628 zonal characteristics of extension, translation, and contraction due to the superposition of gravity

629 spreading and gravity gliding. The decisive factor of the zonation is basement structural activity

630 (or basement morphology), with three main factors identified here: early post-salt basement

631 extension, initial presence of local variation of base of salt gradient and more recent differential

632 subsidence between landward side and seaward side. In addition, more recent basement uplift and

633 syn-deposition are also important influencing factors, promoting the further development of salt

634 tectonics.

635 (2) Analogue and numerical modeling show that salt deformation has characteristics

636 evidencing episodic activity in the Kwanza Basin:

637 a. Regional deformation (Late Aptian to Albian): the initiation of basin-scale salt tectonic

638 zonation. Due to gravity spreading and gravity gliding, the salt layer was rapidly deformed,

639 initiating extension-translation-contraction zonation within the basin. Within the extensional and

640 translational zones, faults began to develop in suprasalt layers, resulting in the appearance of local

641 high-velocity areas in the salt layer with large vertical upward velocity components. Generally

642 speaking, faults became densely developed together with the formation of complex patterns of salt

643 tectonics in the extensional zone, whereas they were relatively sparse in the translational zone

644 (although these tectonics became the initial channels of salt diapirs). Subsequently, due to the

645 blocking of the outer high and increased loading of the overburden, the velocity of salt motion

646 decreased downslope and a large volume of salt was contractional thickening. Part of the salt in

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647 contact with the outer high developed a vertical upward velocity component and gradually formed

648 thrust structures.

649 b. Two stages of inherited developmental deformation (Campanian, and Eocene to Miocene):

650 inherited development of salt tectonics, during which gravity gliding was dominant. During the

651 Campanian, salt was thrusted onto the outer high to form the thrust nappe. From the Eocene until

652 the Miocene, the velocity of salt layer was largest on the slope, gradually becoming smaller along

653 the slope, and decreased sharply at the foot of the slope. Salt tectonics in the extensional zone

654 were strongly deformed again, and became relatively stable in the contractional zone. During the

655 Middle to Late Miocene, the velocity magnitude increased in the contractional zone, and the thick

656 salt layer downslope gradually spread onto the slope.

657 (3) From comprehensive 3D analysis, salt is shown to have obvious characteristics of lateral

658 deformation, the main factors involved in which are the accommodating space of the basin and the

659 initial morphology of the salt layer. Initially, due to extension of the basement, there was sufficient

660 flow space for the salt layer with a velocity component from the salt-rich side to salt-scarce side

661 (from north to south). In the later stages, however, the salt layer was blocked by the outer high at

662 the narrow end of the basin and developed velocity component to the wide end of the basin (from

663 south to north). This caused the gradual accumulation of salt in the north, at which location it

664 reached its maximum thickness.

665

666 Acknowledgements

667 This work was supported by the National Major Science and Technology Projects of China

668 (2016ZX05033002; 2016ZX05033001). Thanks for the overseas seismic data provided by the

669 Sinopec Petroleum Exploration and Production Research Institute and the equipments and

670 materials of analogue experiments provided by the Key Laboratory of Tectonic Controls on

671 Mineralization and Hydrocarbon Accumulation, Ministry of Land and Resource, Chengdu

672 University of Technology.

673

674 Appendix 1

675 Stratigraphic chart of the Kwanza Basin (data source: modified after IHS database (2012)).

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676

677 Appendix 2

678 This figure shows the loading of synsedimentary layers during numerical modeling (the color of

679 the salt layer and pre-kinematic layer is slightly different from that in Figure 8, in order to achieve

680 a better visual presentation; this has no effect on the results). In addition, one can note the decrease

681 of the topographic height of the outer high (c & f), the increase of slope angle (e) and progradation

682 (e).

683

684 References
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686 Systems from the Rift Basin to Modern Continental Margin. Exploration & Production-Oil & Gas Review, 6(11), 94-97.

687 Augustin N, Devey C W, van der Zwan F M, et al, 2014. The rifting to spreading transition in the Red Sea. Earth and Planetary Science

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689 Beniest A, Koptev A, Burov E, 2017. Numerical models for continental break-up: Implications for the South Atlantic. Earth and Planetary

690 Science Letters, 461, 176-189.

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691 Blaich, O. A., Inge, F. J., Filippos, T., 2011. Crustal Breakup and Continent-Ocean Transition at South Atlantic Conjugate Margins.

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