Lesson 3.
1 Earthquake Types of magnitudes
Anatomy of an Earthquake
Earthquake is the shaking of the earth’s surface resulting
from a sudden release of energy.
Fault: A rock fracture
Epicenter: Earth’s surface point above the focus
Seismic waves: waves transmitting energy from an
earthquake
Focus: earth’s point where an earthquake rupture begins.
What causes an earthquake?
1. Fault movement – Fault is a planar fracture or
discontinuity, rock-mass movement.
2. Volcanism – volcano tectonic earthquakes is
caused by tectonic subduction zone.
3. Induced seismicity – earthquakes and tremors
caused by human activity, changes earth’s crust
stress and strains.
Measuring Earthquake
Ritcher magnitude scale (1930s) – describe earthquake’s
size
Surface wave magnitude (1950s) – measuring remote
earthquakes and improving precision for larger events.
Moment magnitude Scale – measure not only the
amplitude of the shock but also the seismic moment.
Seismic intensity scale of Japan Meteoroligical Agency,
Medvedev-Spnheuer-Karnic scale, and Mercalli
intensity scale – based on the observed effects and are
related shaking intensity.
Types of seismic waves
 Longitudinal P-waves (shock or pressure)
 Transverse S-waves (both body waves)
 Surface waves (Rayleigh and Love waves)
Seismometer – an instrument that responds to ground
movements including earthquakes.
Beno Gutenberg found the earth’s center in 1913.
S-waves and Surface waves do most harm than P-waves.
P-waves squeeze and expand material in the same
direction they go, while S-waves shake the ground up and
down, back and forth.
Richter Scale (ML) calculated from the wave amplitude
logarithm reported by seismographs.
Moment Magnitude (MW) is based on earthquake
physical properties obtained from analyzing all
waveforms reported from shaking.
Destructions from Earthquakes
1. Ground shaking – ground vibration during
earthquake. Body waves and surface waves
cause shaking.
2. Surface faulting – Surface fault is the diferential
displacement on the Earth’s surface. Impact a
long narrow zone whose total are is limited
relative to the total area affected by ground
shaking.
3. Ground failures
 Induced liquefaction – process that can
cause ground failure during certain
earthquakes. Occurs when seismic shear
waves travel through a saturated granular
soil layer.
 Flow failures – consists of liquefied soil or
intact material blocks riding on a liquefied
soil sheet.
 Landslides – occur in combination of
earthquakes. Earthquake-induced landslides
are rock falls and rock fractures on steep
slopes.
4. Tsunamis – water waves triggered by sudden
vertical displacement of a wide area of the
seabed during an undersea earthquake.
Lesson 3.2 Volcanic Eruptions
What makes a Volcano a Volcano?
Earth volcano – vent or fissure in the planet’s crust from
which lava, ash, rock, and gases erupt. Derived from the
name Vulcan, the god of fire in Roman mythology.
Magma can erupt from the vent, or it can flow like cup
from the volcano. Magma erupting is called lava.
Factors Affecting a Volcanic Eruption
Types of Magma (determined by chemical composition)
 Basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic
Composition of Magma
 Viscosity – flow resistance (against fluidity) depends
on magma’s composition and temp.
 Higher silica content magmas = higher
viscosity
 Lower temperature magmas = higher
viscosity
Temperature of Magma
Dissolved gases in Magma (gas gives magmas their
explosive nature, as gas volume increases as pressure
decreases)
 Mostly H2O (water vapor) and some CO2
 Trace amounts of sulfur, chlorine, and fluorine
gases
Rhyolitic magmas have higher gas content than basaltic
magmas.
Summary of factors affecting the violence of an eruption
of a volcano.
Volcanic Materials Associated with Eruptions
Lava flows – different forms of magma function
differently as lava flows, depending on temperature,
viscosity and gas content.
 Pahoehoe flows – tend to cool when exposed to low
atmospheric temperatue
 A’A Flows – often grow a smooth surface skin, easily
broken up by molten lava
 Pillow lava – lava erupts on the sea floor or other
water body, the surface skin develops quickly and,
like pahoehoe toes, inflates with molten lava.
 Siliceous lava flows – can’t floe quicky, dense
stubby flows that don’t travel away from the vent.
 Lava Domes/volcanic domes – extrusion of highly
viscous lava. Does not flow from the vent, but piles
up over the vent.
Gases
Pyroclasts – hot fragments

Magma Type Basaltic Types of proclastic materials:

Solidified
Basalt  Ash and dust – fine, glassy fragments
Rock
 Pumice – frothy, air-filled lava
45-55% (by weight) SiO2, high in Fe,
Chemical C.
Mg, ca, Low in K, Na  Lapilli – walnut-sized particles
Temperature 1000 to 1200ºC Blocks – hardened lava
Viscosity Low Bombs – ejected as hot lava
Gas Content Low  Cinders – pea-sized particles with voids

Types of Volcanic ejection mode (VEM):

Magma Type Andesitic
 Fall deposits – stuff thrown into an eruption column
Solidified Andesite
inevitably falls down to earth’s surface
Rock
Chemical C. 55-65% (by weight) SiO2,  Pyroclastic flows –
Intermediate in Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K Nuee Ardente – magma directed outward instead of
Temperature 800 to 1000ºC
upward, a side-blast can occur.
Viscosity Intermediate
Gas Content Intermediate Principal Types of Volcanoes

 Cinder cones – simplest kind, consist of congealed

Magma Type Rhyolitic lava particles and blobs expelled from a single vent.
Solidified Rhyolite  Composite volcano – large-scale steep-sided,
Rock symmetrical cones made of alternating layers of lava
Chemical C. 65-75% (by weight) SiO2, flows
low in Fe, Mg, Ca, high in Na, K
 Shield volcano – consist entirely of fluid lava flows.
Temperature 650 - 800ºC
Flow flows out in all directions from a central summit
Viscosity High
vent or group of winds, gently sloping flat, profile
Gas Content High
similar to a warrior’s shield.
 Lava dome – fromed by thin, bulbous lava masses too
viscous to flow any great distance
Eruption Styles
 Hawaiian – low-viscosity basaltic magma
- produces a fire source firing incandescent lava
- eruption is considered non-explosive
 Strombolian – create incandescent bomb near the
vent, creating small tephra
- moderately explosive and low-level eruption
 Vulcanian – continuous vent explosions of solidified
highly or viscous andesite or rhyolite magma.
- explosive
 Plinian – continuous ejection of andesitic to rhyolitic
magma. Produce wide-spread fall deposits with
thickness decreasing from the vent. Explosive.
 Pelean – result from the collapse, with or without a
direct blast. Create glowing avalanches
 Phreatomagmatic – magma comes into contact with
shallow groundwater, causing groundwater to flash
and be expelled from the magma
 Phreatic – magma meets shallow groundwater
flashes to steam, explosively expelled
Lesson 3.3 Folds and Faults: Rocks Deformation and
Mountain Building
Folds constitute rock twists and bends.
Faults are detachment planes that occur when rocks on
either side slip past each other.
Folding vs. Faulting
Folds
- describe as a rock bend, a response to compressive
forces.
 Monocline – this fold requires a slight bend in
parallel rock layers.
 Anticline – convex-up fold in rock that resembles an
arch
 Syncline – rock layers bent downwards
 Recumbent fold – fold center changes from vertical
to horizontal
Faults
- displacing once-connected rock blocks along a fault
plane.
 Normal faults – dip-slip fault with the block above
the fault sliding down relative to the block below.
 Reverse or thrust faults – dip slip fault where the
upper block goes up and down above the fault plane.
 Strike-slip or transform faults – rocks moving
horizontally, with little or no vertical movement.
Mountain building at Convergent boundaries
 Ocean-ocean convergence – mainly produces
volcanic mountains
 Ocean-continental convergence – produces volcanic
and folded mountains
 Continental-continental convergence – result to
folded mountains
Mountain building at Divergent boundaries
- results fault-block mountains
Types of mountains
 Volcanic mountains – series of volcanoes forming
near a subduction zone where a sinking oceanic plate
crust melts and drags water with the subducting crust.
- composite volcanoes, stratovolcanoes, and shield
volcanoes
 Fold mountains – plates collide/subduct, the plates
appear to buckle and fold
Example: Himalayan Mountains, Alps in Europe
 Plateau mountains – Large flat areas pushed above
sea level by earth’s forces or formed by lava layers.
 Fault-block Mountains – raising or tilting a fault-
block
 Dome mountains – magma moves the crust up but
hardens before erupting onto the earth.
Factors affecting rock deformation
Deformation – modifications in a rock body’s original
shape and scale.
Temperature and pressure
Rocks deform in 2 ways:
1. brittle deformation – temperature and pressures are
low, typically behave like brittle solids or crack after
exceeding power
2. ductile deformation – solid-state flow that changes
object size and shape without fracturing the object. High
temperature and pressure.
Rock Type
Rock’s mineral composition and shape also significantly
influence how it deforms.
Time – small stresses applied over a long time spans.
 Lessin 4.1 Ocean Water and Ocean Life
Water “universal solvent”
Salt is around 3.5% of the ocean water mass.
Plenty of evaporation and little water circulation, salinity
can be much higher.
Seawater density (mass per volume) is greater than fresh
water because it contains so many dissolved substances.
Natural processes Affecting Salinity
Decrease salinity
LESS hear from Sun near the poles – LOW temperature –
HIGH density – water SINKS
MORE heat from Sun in the tropics – HIGH temperature
– LOW density – water RISES
Classification of Marine Organism
Plankton
 Phytoplankton is plant-like plankton. Photosynthesis,
photic zone. Algae
 Zooplankton – animal-like plankton with tiny
animals and larvae. Eat phytoplankton.

 Precipitation – precipitation and river input decrease Nekton

salinity because freshwater dilutes the salts in
Living things swimming across water. Live in depth,
seawater.
photic or aphotic zone.
 Ice melting – melting glaciers and icebergs release
fresh water Benthos
 Runoff from land – watershed discharges include
freshwater floats on seawater Ocean-floor living creatures. Stick to rock and remain in
one location.
Increase salinity
Ocean layering
 Evaporation – ocean saltwater evaporates, the salt in
the water is left in the water casing saltwater to Surface zone
become heavily laden with salt
- shallow (about 300-450 meters)
 Sea ice formation – cold, polar regions, changes in
salinity effect ocean density more than changes in - zone of mixing
temperature.
- Sun-warmed zone
Such temperature-changing water properties:
Transition zone
 Cold water is denser than warm water, tending to fall.
Between surface and deep zone
 Cold water contains more dissolvable gasses like
carbon dioxide - thermocline and pynocline
 Water temperature can affect the productivity of
species. - falling sea water temperatures and increased
density thermoclines
Molecules widespread = density increases
- layer in an ocean or body of water in which
Water cools, it contracts = becoming denser water density increases rapidly with depth is Pynocline
Ocean Density Variation Deep zone
Density – how heavily a certain quantity of matter is - sunlight never reaches this zone
packed into a volume.
- temperature; few degree freezing
Low evaporation (high rainfall) – low salinity – low
density – water rises - constant high density water

HIGH evaporation (LOW rainfall) – HIGH salinity – Marine life zones

HIGH density – water SINKS
Sunlight availability
HIGH salinity + low temp = HIGH density – water sinks
 Photic zone – upper part of the ocean into which
sunlight penetrates
Shore distance

 Intertidal zone – the strip of land where the land

and ocean meet and overlap, zone between high
and low tides
 Neritic zone – marine-life zone that extends from
low-tide line out to the shelf break.
 Oceanic zone – marine-life zone beyond the
continental shelf

Water depth

 Epipelagic zone – surface to 200 meters.

Sunlight zone, as this where most visible light
occurs.
 Mesopelagic zone – ranges from 200 meters to
1,000 meters. Also called twilight zone or
midwater zone. Light penetrating is extremely
small.
 Bathypelagic zone – also called midnight zone
or dark zone. Ranges from 1,000 m to 4,000 m.
visible light is created by creatures themselves.
 Abyssopelagic zone – known as abyssal zone.
Ranges from 4,000 – 6,000 m. comes from the
Greek word “no bottom”. Water temperature is
zero, with no light at all.
 Hadalpelagic zone – beyond abyssopelagic
zone. Ranges from 6,000 m to the depths of the
ocean. Mostly contained with deep water
trenches and canyons.