4.

8 Functions and
Relations
Goal: Decide whether a relation is a
function and use function notation
 Definitions
Relation - Any set of ordered pairs

Function -A type of relation

where there is exactly one
output for every input. For
every x there is exactly one y.
 x y x y
1 6 1 6
2 7 2 7
Not a Function Function
 y = 2x
x-y chart mapping
xy input output
-2 -4 -2 -4
-1 -2 -1 -2
0 0
00 1 2
12 2 4
24 Function
Determine whether the equation is a function.

y x x y
x y input output x y input output
-2 2 -2 0 2 -2 0 -2
-1 1 -1 1 -1 -1
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2

Function Not a Function

 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function

y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function

y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function Not a

Function
y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function Not a Function

Function
y y y y

x x x x
 Vertical Line Test - Functions
y y y y

x x x x

Function Function Not a Function

Function
y y y y

x x x x

Not a Function Not a Not a

Function Function Function
Tell whether the relation below is a function.
1) input output 3) y
0
1 x
Not a
5 Function
2 Function
3
2) x y 4) input output
-3 -1 -2 3
-3 0 4
Not a -1 Not a
-3 1 Function 5
0 Function
-3 2 6
 Function Notation
y  2x  3 f (x)  2x  3
when x  1, y  5 f (1)  5
when x  2, y  7 f (2)  7
when x  3, y  9 f (3)  9
when x  4, y 11f (4)  11
f ( 4)  5
 g(x)  x 2
h(x)  3x  2
Evaluate the following.
1) g(4)  16 5) h(4)  g(1) 
10  1  11
2) h( 2)  8 6) h( 5)  g( 2) 
17  4  68
3) g( 3)  9 7) g  h(3)  
g(7)  49
4) h(5)  13 8) h  g(2)  
h(4)  10
Evaluate the function over the domain,
x = -1, x = 0, x = 2.
1) f (x)  4x
{4, 0, 8 }
2) g(x)  3x  9
{12,  9,  3 }
3) h(x)  x  1
2

{ 0,  1, 3 }
Graph the linear function.
f (x)   x  3 f(x)
x f (x)
-3 6
-2 5
-1 4
x
0 3
1 2
2 1
3 0
 DERIVATIVES ARE
FUNCTIONS TOO !
First of all, let us see how many consequences are
implied by the statement
The derivative of f at a exists.
Recall that the statement means:

1. f is defined at a , that is exists.

2. exists.

3. is defined in an open interval containing .

f a
 If we change the symbol a to something
else, say (it’s a free country !), we still get
the notion of
the derivative of f at , namely .
Now, if we change the symbol to something
else, say x (it’s a free country !), we get the
notion of
the derivative of f at x as another function,
variously denoted by
So, given a function we have
manufactured a new one, .
Note that if D denotes the domain of ,
the domain of may be smaller
(missing those points where does NOT
have a derivative, we’ll find a few soon.)
There are deep relationships between
and . Here is one that is simply defining
a word:
If exists we say that
 f is differentiable ata . (We could have said
that f is “well-behaved at a “ , or “cool ata
“ or something else, but the convention is to
say it is differentiable, must have to do with the
fact that the limit of the difference quotient
exists!)
Here is a first important (if trivial) consequence
of differentiability.
f a f
Theorem. If ais differentiable at then
is continuous at .

Proof. (We use purely mathematical language)

 (ready?)

QED
You have seen the verification of the following
trivial statement (in everyday language)
If a fraction has a finite limit, and the bottom
goes to 0, the top has to go to 0 also. (Duh!)
The theorem we just proved helps us decide
where in its domain a function might not be
differentiable, namely at any point where
continuity fails.
Any other places where differentiability might
not be? Let’s see …. The definition says
 f differentiable at a means that

exists. So

both and

exist and are equal. Therefore

differentiability fails at any a where
(naturally we assume continuity at a .)
A. Either one or both of the one-sided limits
fail to exist
or
B. Both exist but are not equal
Remark. We will give examples where situation
A obtains and also where situation B obtains. In
fact it’s easy to verify that for the function

the left-hand limit is , the right-hand DNE !

We can see trivially that and it’s

easy to show that

Quick proof:

The graph of the function is shown in the next

slide
Of course we can play the game again, to get
the
Derivative of the derivative, usually called the
second derivative, and denoted variously by

As they say in Casablanca, play it again Sam,

we’ll get the third derivative, denoted by
Why stop when we’re having fun. Let’s go for
the fourth derivative, the fifth, and so on …

Right now our trouble is that we officially

don’t know how to compute derivatives, other
than by the laborious method of applying the
definition!
Let’s compute the first derivative of
Here we go.

Much to the chagrin of your High School

h is x, not
Math teacher, what changes here
! Now

Do some 7th grade algebra to get

 (after you have cleared the smoke!)

and therefore
 Limit
We say that the limit of f ( x) as x approaches a is L and write
lim f ( x)  L
x a

if the values of f ( x) approach L as x approaches a.

y  f ( x)
L

a
 Limits, Graphs, and Calculators
 x 1 
1. a) Use table of values to guess the value of lim  2 
x 1 x  1
 

x 1
b) Use your calculator to draw the graph f ( x)  2
x 1
and confirm your guess in a)
Graph
2. Find the following limits
1
 sin x 
a) lim   by considering the values
x 0
 x 
x  1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.001. Thus the limit is 1.
sin x
Confirm this by ploting the graph of f ( x) 
x
Grap
3) Use your calculator to evaluate the limits

 4( x 2  4)  Answer : 16
a. lim  
x2
 x  2 

1, if x  0 Answer : no limit

b. lim g ( x), where g ( x)  
x 0
1, if x  0
1
c. lim f ( x), where f ( x)  2 Answer : no limit
x 0 x
 1 x 1 
d. lim   Answer : 1/2
x 0 x
 
 The  - Definition of Limit
We say lim f ( x)  L if and only if
x a
given a positive number  , there exists a positive  such that
if 0 | x  a |  , then | f ( x)  L |  .

L 
L
L 
a
y  f ( x)
a  a 
This means that if we are given a
small interval ( L   , L   ) centered at L,
then we can find a (small) interval (a   , a   )

such that for all x  a in (a   , a   ),

f ( x) is in ( L   , L   ).
Examples
1. Show that lim(3x  4)  10.
x 2
Let   0 be given. We need to find a   0 such that
if | x - 2 |  , then | (3 x  4)  10 |  .
But | (3 x  4)  10 || 3 x  6 | 3 | x  2 | 
 
if | x  2 | So we choose   .
3 3
1
2. Show that lim  1.
x 1 x

Let   0 be given. We need to find a   0 such that

if | x  1|  , then | 1  1|  .
x
x 1 1
But | 1  1|| | | x  1| .
x x x What do we do
with the x?
 1
If we decide | x  1| , then 1  x  3 .
2 2 2 1/ 1 3/
1
And so <2. 2 2
x
1
Thus | 1  1| | x  1| 2 | x  1| .
x x

 1 
Now we choose   min  ,  .
3 2
One-Sided Limit
One-Sided Limits
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals L
written: lim f ( x )  L
xa

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
right of a.
y  f ( x)
L

a
 More Examples
 x  1, if x  0
2. Let f ( x)  
 x  1, if x  0. Find the limits:

a) lim f ( x)  lim(
x 0 
x  1)  0 1  1
x 0
b) lim f ( x)  lim(

x  1)  0  1  1
x 0 x 0

c) lim f ( x)  lim(

x  1)  1  1  2
x 1 x 1

d) lim f ( x)  lim( x  1)  11  2

x 1 
x 1
 A Theorem
lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L.
x a x a x a

This theorem is used to show a limit does not

exist.
 x  1, if x  0
For the function f ( x)  
 x  1, if x  0.
lim f ( x) does not exist because lim f ( x)  1 and lim f ( x)  1.
x 0 x 0 x 0

But
lim f ( x)  2 because lim f ( x)  2 and lim f ( x)  2.
x 1 x 1 x 1
 Limit Theorems
If c is any number, lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M , then
x a x a

a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
x a x a

c) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M
x a
d)
x a 
lim f ( x)
g ( x)   L , ( M  0)
M

e) lim  c  f ( x)   c  L f) lim  f ( x)   Ln
n
x a
x a

g) lim c  c h) lim x  a
x a x a

i) lim x n  a n j) lim f ( x)  L , ( L  0)
x a xa
Examples Using Limit Rule
Ex. lim  x 2  1  lim
x3
x 2  lim1
x3
x 3

   lim1
2
 lim x
x 3 x 3

 32  1  10

2x 1 lim  2 x  1 2 lim x  lim1

x 1
Ex. lim   x 1 x 1
x 1 3 x  5 lim  3 x  5  3lim x  lim 5
x 1 x 1 x 1

2 1 1
 
35 8
 More Examples
1. Suppose lim f ( x)  4 and lim g ( x)  2. Find
x 3 x 3

a) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim
x 3
f ( x)  lim g ( x)
x 3
x 3
 4  (2)  2

b) lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x 3
x 3 x 3

 4  (2)  6
 2 f ( x)  g ( x)  lim 2 f ( x)  lim g ( x) 2  4  (2) 5
c) lim    x 3 x 3
 
x 3
 f ( x) g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x) 4  (2) 4
x 3 x 3
 Indeterminate Forms

Indeterminate forms occur when substitution in the limit

results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or rationalize the
expressions.
0
x5 Notice form
Ex. lim 2
x 5 x  25 0
x5
 lim Factor and cancel
x 5  x  5  x  5 
common factors
1 1
 lim 
x 5  x  5  10
 More Examples
 x 3  ( x  3)( x  3) 
a) lim  
 = lim  
 x 9   ( x  9)( x  3) 
x 9 x 9

 x 9   1  1
 lim   6
x 9 
 lim
x 9 ( x  9)( x  3)
   x 3

 4  x2   (2  x)(2  x) 
b) lim  2  = lim 
x 2 2 x  x 3
  
x 2
 x 2
(2  x ) 
 2 x
= lim  
 x 
x 2 2

2  (2) 4
  1
(2) 2
4
 The Squeezing Theorem
If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) when x is near a, and if
lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  L, then lim g ( x)  L
x a x a x a

Example: Show that lim x 2 sin   0.

x 
 x  DNE!
x 0
Note that we cannot use product rule because lim sin 
x 0

But  1  sin  x  
 1 and so  x 2  x 2 sin   x 2 .
x
Since lim x 2  lim( x 2 )  0, we use the Squeezing Theorem to conclude
x 0 x 0

 x   0.
lim x 2 sin 
x 0

See Graph
 Continuity

A function f is continuous at the point x = a if

the following are true:
i ) f (a ) is defined
ii) lim f ( x) exists
x a

f(a)

a
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if
the following are true:
i ) f (a ) is defined
ii) lim f ( x) exists
x a
iii ) lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a f(a)

a
Examples At which value(s) of x is the given function
discontinuous?
x 9
2

1. f ( x)  x  2 2. g ( x) 
x3
Continuous everywhere
Continuous everywhere
lim( x  2)  a  2
x a
except at x  3

and so lim f ( x)  f (a) g (3) is undefined

xa
4

6 2

4 -6 -4 -2 2 4

-2

2
-4

-6
-4 -2 2 4

-2 -8

-10
  x  2, if x  1 1, if x  0
3. h( x)   4. F ( x)  
1, if x  1 1, if x  0

lim F ( x)  1 lim F ( x)  1
lim h( x)  1
x 1
and lim h( x)
x 1
3 x 0 an x 0

Thus h is not cont. at x=1. Thus F is dnot x  0.

cont. at
F is continuous
h is continuous
everywhere else
5
everywhere else
3
4

3 2

2
1

-10 -5 5 10

-2 2 4
-1
-1

-2
-2

-3 -3
 Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f  g , fg , and f
g  g (a)  0  are continuous
at x  a

A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at

every point x.

A rational function R( x)  p( x) q( x) is continuous

at every point x in its domain.
Example

Given f ( x)  3x  2 x  5,
2

Show that f ( x)  0 has a solution on 1, 2.

f (1)  4  0
f (2)  3  0

f (x) is continuous (polynomial) and since f (1) < 0

and f (2) > 0, by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there exists a c on [1, 2] such that f (c) = 0.
 Limits at Infinity
1 1
For all n > 0, lim n  lim n  0
x x x x

1
provided that n is defined.
x
3x  5 x  1
2 3  5  1
 lim
x x 2 Divide
Ex. xlim 2
 2  4x 2 x  2 4 by x
x2

lim 3  lim 5
x  x 
 x   lim  1 x   3  0  0   3
x 
2

lim 2
x 
 x2  lim 4
x 
04 4
 More Examples
 2 x3 3x 2 2 
 2 x3  3x 2  2   3
 3  3 
1. lim  3
x 
 x  x 2
 100 x  1

  lim  3 x 2 x x 
x  x
  x  100 x  1 
 3 
x x 3
x 3
x 3


 3 2 
 2  x  x3 
 lim 
x  1 100 1 
 1  2  3 
 x x x 

2
 2
1
  4 x  5 x  21 
2  x2  2 x  4 
2. lim  3  3. lim  
x  7 x  5 x 2  10 x  1
 
x 
 12 x  31 
 x2 2x 4 
 4 x 2 5 x 21
 3 3
    
 3   lim  x x x
 lim  3 x x x 
2
x 
 12 x  31 
x  7 x
 5 x 10 x 1   x x 
 3  3  3  3 
 x x x x 
 4 5 21   4
 x2 x 
 
 x x 2 x3 
 lim    lim 
31 
x  5 10 1
7  2  3  x 
 x x x   12  
0  x 
 2
7 
12
0 
 4. lim
x 
 x 1  x
2


 lim 
 x2  1  x  x 1  x 
2


x 
 1 x2  1  x 
 

 x2  1  x2 
 lim  
x 
 x 1  x 
2

 1 
 lim  
x 
 x 1  x 
2

1 1
  0
 
 Infinite Limits 20

For all n > 0, 15

10

1 5

lim 
 x  a
n
x a
-8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5

-10

-15
40
-20
30

20
1
lim   if n is even 10

 x  a
n
x a
-2 2 4 6

-10

20
-20
15

10

1
  if n is odd
5
lim
 x  a
n
x a -8 -6 -4 -2
-5
2

-10

-15

-20

More Graphs
 Examples
Find the limits
 3x 2  2 x  1   3 2  1 2  3   
1. lim   = lim 
x x   
x 0
2 x 0 
  2
 2x  
2

 2x 1 
2. lim  
x 3  2 x  6 
 2x 1 
 = lim   
x 3  2( x  3) 
 
40

20

-8 -6 -4 -2 2

-20
 Limit and Trig Functions
From the graph of trigs functions
f ( x)  sin x and g ( x)  cos x
1
1

0.5 0.5

-10 -5 5 10 -10 -5 5 10

-0.5 -0.5

-1
-1

we conclude that they are continuous everywhere

limsin x  sin c and limcos x  cos c
x c x c
 Tangent and Secant
Tangent and secant are continuous everywhere in their
domain, which is the set of all real numbers
x  
2
,  3
2
,  5
2
,  7
2
, y  sec x
15
30

y  tan x 20
10

5
10

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-5
-10
-10
-20

-15
-30
 Examples
a) lim  sec x   b) xlim sec x 
 

x   2 2

c) lim

x  3 

tan x   d) lim

x  3 

tan x  
2 2

e) lim cot x   f) lim tan x  1

x 
x  4

cos x 0
g) lim cot x  x lim  0
x  3   3 2  sin x 1
2
 Limit and Exponential Functions
y  a , a 1
x

10
10
y  a , 0  a 1
x

8
8
6
6

4
4

2
2

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2

The above graph confirm that exponential

functions are continuous everywhere.
lim a  a
x c
x c
 Examples
Find the asymptotes of the graphs of the functions

x 1
2
1. f ( x)  2 (iii) lim f ( x)  1.
x 1 x 
(i) lim f ( x)   Therefore the line y  1
x 1
Therefore the line x  1
is a horizonatl asymptote.
10

is a vertical asymptote. 7.5

(ii) lim f ( x)  . 2.5

x 1 -4 -2 2 4

Therefore the line x  1

-2.5

-5

-7.5
is a vertical asymptote. -10