TRINITY UNIVERSITY OF ASIA

S.Y. 2022 - 2023

Radiobiology

Lecturer: Sir Marvin Merader

Transcribed by: Aisha Sultan Ali
 RADIOBIOLOGY
February 01, 2023
LESSON 1: HUMAN EXPOSURE TO
RADIATION
1. Introduction
2. Sources of human exposure to radiation
3. Mode of human exposure to radiation
4. Classification of human exposure to radiation
INTRODUCTION
Radiation is everywhere, it is part of our daily lives. There
are good and harmful types of radiation. It can be
prevented and limited. Radiation protection is concerned
with the protection of individuals, their progeny and
mankind as a whole, while still allowing necessary
activities from which radiation exposure might result. For
human beings, animals and plants, it is impossible not to
be exposed to radiation because everywhere there is
radiation. We just have to limit our exposure to radiation
only to activities that are needed. Diagnostically exposure
to radiation is an example of revealing information of
certain diseases of the patient. We intend to expose
ourselves to radiation simply because the good effects
outweigh the harmful effects.
CONCEPTS
RADIOBIOLOGY
• It is the study of the action or effects of ionizing
radiation on living things. Radiation protection is
concerned with the protection of individuals,
their progeny and mankind as a whole, while still
allowing necessary activities from which
radiation exposure might result.
RADIATION PROTECTION
• It is concerned with the protection of individuals,
their progeny and mankind as a whole, while still
allowing necessary activities from which
radiation exposure might result.
SOURCES OF HUMAN EXPOSURE TO
RADIATION
1. NATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL RADIATION
A. Cosmic Rays
• Radiation coming from outer space
• Aircraft crews and passengers flying at an
altitude of 10,000 meters receive an extra
dosage(0.03 mSv) of cosmic radiation for every
5,000 km. jet flight every 5,000 km. jet flight.
B. External Terrestrial Radionuclides
• Its sources are principally from radium (226, 228
Ra), radon (220, 222 Rn) and carbon (14C). The
largest component of human exposure to
radiation is radon.
• The largest component of natural environmental
radiation is radon.
• Radon is a radioactive gas produced by the
natural decay of uranium, which is present in
trace quantities in the earth.
• All earth-based materials such as concrete, bricks
and gypsum wallboard (wood) contain radon. It
emits alpha particles and contributes dose to the
lungs.
C. Internal Radionuclides (40-K)
• Our own body is radioactive, it contains
radioactive radium and polonium in our skeleton,
radioactive carbon and potassium in our muscles
and radioactive noble gases and tritium in our
lungs.
2. MAN-MADE RADIATION or ARTIFICIAL
RADIATION
A. Medically employed x-rays (or other types of ionizing
radiation), both diagnostic, therapeutic and research
studies. It is the largest source of man-made radiation.
B. Radiopharmaceuticals
C. Nuclear weapons testing which caused radioactive
fallout.
D. Nuclear power generation
People who work not only in nuclear power plants but
also in coal-fired power plants, mines and several sections
of metal industry are also exposed to different levels of
man-made radiation.
E. Consumer items such as watch dials, exit signs, smoke
detectors, television receivers, camping lantern mantles
and airport surveillance systems
MODE OF HUMAN EXPOSURE TO
RADIATION
1. Irradiation - it is used to describe exposure to radiation
originating from any source.
Types of Irradiation:
A. External irradiation - it is the exposure is due to
radiation originating from external source.
Ex. Patient undergoing diagnostic procedure.
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B. Internal irradiation - it is the result of inhalation or
ingestion of radioactive materials or direct absorption
through the skin.
2. Contamination - it is the undesired presence of
radioactive materials on any substance in concentration
greater than those which occur naturally so much so as to
cause a technical inconvenience or radiation hazard cause
by spillage or breakage.
Sources:
A. Chemical reactions
B. Evaporation, aeration or spilling of radioactive
liquids.
C. Mechanical manipulations of radioactive solids
(grinding or welding).
D. Activation of loose dust particles being irradiated or
around nuclear reactor.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN EXPOSURE TO
RADIATION
1. Background Radiation Exposure
Sources:
A. Cosmic radiation
B. External terrestrial radiation
C. Internal radionuclides (radioactive elements in our
bodies {40-K}
2. Medical Exposure - it deals with intentional exposure
of patient for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes by
technically qualified medical and paramedical personnel.
3. Occupational Exposure - it is the exposure obtained
by radiation workers as a result of the nature of their work
particularly in the radiation area.
4. Exposure of the members of the general public - it
is the exposure which might be received by individual
members of the population, as a result of their visit to a
hospital or walk by a hospital or live or work near one
where there is a presence of any radiation sources.
SYNTHESIS
Radiation exposure is part of our routine in this world -
it has existed all along. Naturally occurring radioactive
materials are present everywhere, the floors and walls
of our homes, schools, or offices and in the food we eat
and drink. There are radioactive gases in the air we
breathe. Even our own bodies - muscles, bones, and
tissue - contain naturally occurring radioactive
elements. Human has always been exposed to natural
radiation arising from the earth as well as from outside
the earth such as cosmic rays.
We also receive exposure from man-made radiation,
such as x-rays and gamma rays, radiation used to
diagnose and treat diseases. Fallout from nuclear
explosives testing, small quantities of radioactive
materials released to the environment from coal and
nuclear power plants, and consumer items we used
everyday are also sources of radiation exposure to man.
REFERENCES:
• https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-
engineering/radiation-protection/sources-of-
radiation/
• https://sites.google.com/site/radioactivityinbasel/
home/sources-of-background-radiation
• Radiologic Science for Technologist, 11th
edition, Mosby Elsevier, Inc.
• Practical Radiation Protection and Applied
Radiobiology, S. Dowd, 2nd Edition, 2016
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Date:
LESSON 2: RADIATION QUANTITIES AND
UNITS
1. Introduction
2. Radiation Quantities and Units
3. Conversion from old to SI Units
INTRODUCTION
The five human senses are not capable of detecting
radiation, especially harmful ionizing radiation. There are
various instruments that are available for detecting and
measuring radiation with corresponding units or
quantities. Recommendations regarding dosimetric
quantities and units in radiation protection dosimetry are
set forth by the International Commission on Radiation
Units and Measurements (ICRU). The recommendations
on the practical application of these quantities in radiation
protection are established by the International
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). The
operational quantities are defined for practical
measurements both for area and individual monitoring. In
radiation protection radiation should be monitored daily,
weekly, monthly and/or annually.
RADIATION QUANTITIES AND UNITS
1. EXPOSURE (X)
• It is the charged liberated by ionizing radiation
(low-energy photons) per unit mass of air.
• The old unit for radiation exposure or intensity in
air is Roentgen(R).
• The S.I. (Systeme Internationale) unit is coulomb
per kilogram (c/kg)
1 R = 2.58 X 10^-4 c/kg
1 c/kg = 3,876 R
1 exposure unit = 1 c/kg
Note:
Exposure units are an accurate measure only for photon
energies between 1 keV and 1,000 keV (1 MeV).
The unit for exposure rate in S.I. unit is coulomb per
kilogram.second.
(c/kg.s or c.{kg.s}^-1)
2. ABSORBED DOSE
• It is the energy deposited by ionizing per unit
mass of irradiated material.
• The old unit for radiation absorbed dose is Rad.
• The S.I. unit is Gray (Gy).
1 Rad = 100 ergs/gram
1 Rad = 0.01 Gy = 1 X 10^-2
1 Gy = 100 Rad
1 Gy = 1 joule/kg (1 J.kg^-1)
• The unit for radiation absorbed dose rate is Gy/s
(Gy.s^-1).
3. KERMA ( Kinetic Energy Released per unit Mass)
• It is the kinetic energy of charged ionizing
particles liberated per unit mass of the specified
material by uncharged ionizing particles.
• The common derived unit of kerma is joule per
kilogram (J/kg or J.kg ^-1) with the special name
Gray (Gy).
• The unit of kerma rate is Gray per second (Gy/s
or Gy.s^-1).
• Air kerma and tissue kerma differ by less than
10%.
Note:
The difference between absorbed dose and kerma lies in
the fact that kerma measures all the energy transferred to
charged particles by uncharged particles.
4. DOSE EQUIVALENT
• It is used to express the amount of exposures
received by a radiation worker.
• The old unit is REM (roentgen equivalent man).
• The S.I. unit is Sievert (Sv).
• The S.I. unit for dose equivalent rate is Sievert
per second (Sv/s or Sv.s^-1)
1 Rem = 0.01 Sv = 1 X 10-2 Sv
1 Sv = 100 Rem
Dose equivalent is equal to the absorbed dose multiplied
by a quality factor and other modifying factors.
H = D.Q.N
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Where:
H = dose equivalent
D = absorbed dose
Q = quality factor
N = other modifying factor

5. ACTIVITY (A)
• It is the disintegration of atoms per unit of time
by a radioactive material
• The old unit is Curie (Ci).
• The S.I. unit is Becquerel (Bq)

1 Ci = 3.7 X 10^10 dps

1 Ci = 3.7 X 10^10 Bq

1 dps = 1 Bq

Note:
In diagnostic radiology wherein x-ray is used, it is
considered to assume 1 R = 1 Rad = 1 Rem or 2.58 X 10^-
4 c/kg = 0.01 Gy = 0.01 Sv. But with other types of
radiation this generalization is not true.

SYNTHESIS

These are the following conversion units that are

commonly used in radiation measuring principles.

1 R = 2.58 X 10-4 c/kg

1 Rad = 0.01 Gy
1 Rem = 0.01 Sv
1 Ci = 3.7 X 1010 Bq
1 Rad = 1,000 mRad
1 Gy = 100 cGy
1 Sv = 1,000,000 μSv = 1 x 106 μSv
1 MBq = 1,000,000 Bq = 1 X 106 Bq
1 GBq = 1,000,000,000 Bq = 1 X 109 Bq
1 Ci = 1,000 mCi

REFERENCES:
• Radiologic Science for Technologist, 11th
edition, Mosby Elsevier, Inc.
• Practical Radiation Protection and Applied
Radiobiology, S. Dowd, 2nd Edition, 2016

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2. NON-IONIZING RADIATION- radiation that are

Date: not capable of removing electrons from the orbital shell
LESSON 3: TYPES OF RADIATION of an atom.
1. Introduction
2. Types of Radiation IONIZATION - is the process of removal of electrons
3. Types of Electromagnetic Radiation from the orbital of an atom.

EXCITATION - is the temporary removal of electrons

from the orbital of an atom or vibration of one or more
INTRODUCTION electrons in the orbital shell.

TYPES OF IONIZING ELECTROMAGNETIC

Radiation is the energy emitted and transferred through
RADIATION:
matter and/or space in the form of waves(photons) or
particles. There are two general classification of radiation
1. X-RAY
namely, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation. Ionizing
• ionizing electromagnetic radiation.
radiation are radiation capable of removing/ejecting
electrons from the orbital shell of an atom. While non- • no mass or charge.
ionizing radiation are not capable of removing/ejecting • travels at the speed of light in free space.
electrons from the orbital shell of an atom. It is a relatively • produced outside the nucleus of an atom(electron
low energy radiation that does not have energy to ionize cloud).
atoms or molecules. It’s located at the low end of the
electromagnetic spectrum. Non-ionizing radiation Speed of light in free space = c = 186, 282 miles/second
sources include radio waves, microwaves, visible light, = 300,000 km/sec = 3 X 10 8 m/sec
infrared radiation, lasers and power lines.
Note: X-rays and gamma rays are the same in
characteristics except their origin.
CONCEPTS
TYPES OF EM RADIATION ACCORDING TO ITS
ELECTROMAGNETISM WAVELENGTH (from the shortest to the longest
• It is a branch of physics that involves the study of wavelength):
electromagnetic force (EMF) which occur with
electrically charged particle. 1. gamma ray (shortest)
2. x-ray
RADIATION 3. ultraviolet ray
• It is the energy emitted and transferred through 4. visible light
matter and/or space in the form of 5. infra-red ray
waves(photons) or particles. 6. microwave
7. radio waves (longest)
TYPES OF RADIATION:
WAVELENGTH - is the distance between two
1. PARTICULATE RADIATION succeeding wave crests or throughs. The shorter the
• ionizing radiation wavelength, the greater the energy or vice versa. It also
• with mass and/or charge refers to as the quality of radiation or the penetrating
• travels at the speed of light in free space capability of radiation.
• originate in the nucleus of an atom
• exs. alpha, beta and neutron particles

TYPES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC(EM)
RADIATION:

1. IONIZING RADIATION - radiation capable of

removing electrons from the orbital shell of an atom.

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ALPHA PARTICLES
• positively charged helium nuclei
• can be deflected by magnetic and electric fields
• show small penetration
• produces great ionization
BETA PARTICLES
• electrons (β+ and β-)
• can be deflected by electric and magnetic fields
• show more penetration than alpha
• produces less ionization than alpha
GAMMA RAYS/X-RAYS
• highly penetrating electromagnetic radiation
• can not be deflected by magnetic and electric
fields
• produces little ionization
• no mass and/or charge
SYNTHESIS
Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to produce ions
in matter at the molecular level. If that matter is a human
significant damage can result including damage to DNA
and other molecules or cells. These types of radiation
are still use in medical for diagnostic and therapeutic
purposes. The beneficial advantage of ionizing radiation
always outweighs the harmful effects that may cause
clinical human risks.
Although considered less dangerous than ionizing
radiation, overexposure to non-ionizing radiation can
cause health issues. Different biological effects are
observed for different types of non-ionizing radiation.
International agencies state that there could be some
risk from non-ionizing radiation to humans but it was
not consistent with observed incidence. One thing that
is definite, prolong and repeated exposure to non-
ionizing radiation would definitely yield biological
effects to humans. Therefore, strict compliance on how
to properly use equipments with emission of non-
ionizing radiation must be strictly be followed.
REFERENCES:
• Radiologic Science for Technologist, 11th
edition, Mosby Elsevier, Inc.
• Practical Radiation Protection and Applied
Radiobiology, S. Dowd, 2nd Edition, 2016
• https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images
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