Course - Slides Discrete Structure

Discrete Structures
Discrete Structures
Dr. Ferit Toska
May 19, 2022
Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Discrete Structures
Course Information
CENG 110 - Discrete Structures

Thursday 1-2 pm
Online
ferit.toska@okan.edu.tr, toskaf@gmail.com

Discrete Structures
Content
Textbook
We will use the following textbook:

Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications by Kenneth H.
Rosen, Eight Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2019.
The following resources are supplementary:
A Course in Discrete Structures by Rafael Pass, Wei-Lung,
Dustin Tseng
Applied Discrete Structures, Al Doerr, Ken Levasseur

Discrete Structures
Content
Topics - Chapters
We will cover selected sections from the following chapters:

1 Logic
2 Sets and Functions
3 Algorithms
4 Number Theory

Discrete Structures
Content
Outline
5 Induction and Recursion

6 Counting
7 Relations
8 Graphs
9 Trees

Discrete Structures
Content
Exams and Grading
Midterm: 40% (week of 4-9 April)

Final: 60% (May 23 - June 3)
Participation: 10%
Refer to Okan University academic calendar for important dates.
Make-up policy: Make-up exams are subject to departmental
approval. In case of missing an exam, you need to follow
departmental procedures.

Discrete Structures
Content
Grading Scale
AA 91 - 110
BA 86 - 90
BB 81 - 85
CB 76 - 80
CC 71 - 75
DC 66 - 70
DD 61 - 65
FD 51 - 60
FF 0 - 50
Note: Grading scale is subject to change.

Discrete Structures
Week 1: Propositional Logic
WEEK 1
Propositional Logic

Discrete Structures
Definitions
Proposition: A declarative sentence that is either true or

false, but not both.
Propositional Variables: Letters, P, Q, R, S, ... to denote
propositions.
Truth Value: The truth value of a proposition is true, if it is
a true proposition, denoted by T. The truth value of a
proposition is false, if it is a false proposition, denoted by F.
Atomic Propositions: A proposition that cannot be
expressed in terms of simpler propositions.

Discrete Structures
Examples
Raise your hand if this sentence is a proposition.

2+2=4
Istanbul is the capital of Turkey.
x +2=5
Today is not the first day of the spring semester.

Discrete Structures
Logical Operators
Compound propositions are formed from existing

propositions using logical operators.
Let P and Q be propositions.
Negation: The negation of P, denoted by ¬P is, is the
(compound) proposition “It is not the case that P”
Conjunction: The conjunction of P and Q, denoted by
P ∧ Q, is the proposition “P and Q.”
Disjunction: The disjunction of P and Q, denoted by P ∨ Q,
is the proposition “P or Q.”
Conditional Statement: The conditional statement P → Q
is the proposition “if P then Q.”
Biconditional Statement: The conditional statement
P ↔ Q is the proposition “P if and only if Q.”

Discrete Structures
Examples
P: Today is the first day of the spring semester.

¬P: Today is not the first day of the spring semester.
2 is an even number and 2 is a prime number.
Rebecca’s PC has at least 16 GB free disk space, or the
processor in Rebecca’s PC runs faster than 1 GHz.
If you get 100% from the final, then you will get an A.
You will get an A if and only if you get 100% from the final.

Discrete Structures
Truth Table: Negation
P ¬P
T F
F T

Discrete Structures
Truth Table: Conjunction
P Q P ∧Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Discrete Structures
Truth Table: Disjunction
P Q P ∨Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

Discrete Structures
Truth Table: Conditional
P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Discrete Structures
Truth Table: Biconditional
P Q P↔Q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

Discrete Structures
Biconditional vs Conjunction of Conditionals
P Q P↔Q P→Q Q→P P →Q ∧Q →P

T T T T T T
T F F F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T T T

Discrete Structures
Week 2: Logic Part II
WEEK 2
Logic Part II

Discrete Structures
Definitions
Tautology is a proposition that is always true.

Contradiction is a proposition that is always false.
Contingency is a proposition that is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction.
Logical Equivalency: Two propositions P and Q are called
logically equivalent if P ↔ Q is a tautology.

Discrete Structures
Logical Equivalences

Discrete Structures

Discrete Structures

Discrete Structures

Discrete Structures
Example

Discrete Structures
Example: Distributive Law

Build a truth table to show that P ∨ (Q ∧ R) is equivalent to
(P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
P Q R Q ∧R P ∨ (Q ∧ R) P ∨Q P ∨R (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F T T T T
T F T F T T T T
T F F F T T T T
F T T T T T T T
F T F F F T F F
F F T F F F T F
F F F F F F F F

Discrete Structures
Satisfiability
A compound proposition is satisfiable if it is a tautology or a

contingency.
Example: (P ∨ ¬Q) ∧ (Q ∨ ¬R) ∧ (R ∨ ¬P)
the n-Queens Problem
Sudoku

Discrete Structures
n-Queens

Discrete Structures
Predicates and Quantifiers
Predicate
Example: x is a prime number

Predicate: The second part “is a prime number” is predicate.
It attributes a property to its subject.
Propositional function P(x): x is prime number.
A propositional function becomes a proposition once we
assign a value.
P(4), P(5)

Discrete Structures
Universal Quantifier
Definition:The universal quantification of P(x) is the

statement “P(x) for all values of x in the domain”
Notation: ∀xP(x)
Example: Let P(x) be the statement “2x is even”. Is ∀xPx
true?

Discrete Structures
Existential Quantifier
Definition:The existential quantification of P(x) is the

statement “There exists an element x in the domain such that
P(x)”
Notation: ∃xP(x)
Example: Let P(x) be the statement “2x = 0”. Is ∃xP(x)
true?

Discrete Structures
Quantifiers over Finite Domains
Let the domain of discourse be {−1, 0, 1, 2}.

Let P(x) be the statement “|x| < 2”.
Let Q(x) be the statement “|x| < 3”.
∀P(x): P(−1) ∧ P(0) ∧ P(1) ∧ P(2)
∃Q(x): Q(−1) ∨ Q(0) ∨ Q(1) ∨ Q(2)
∀xP(x) is False.
∃xQ(x) is True.

Discrete Structures
Negating Quantified Expressions
¬∀xP(x) ≡ ∃x¬P(x)
¬∃xP(x) ≡ ∀x¬P(x)
Previous example: Let P(x) be the statement “|x| < 2”.
P(2) is False.
¬P(2) is True.
∃x¬P(x) is True.
¬∀xP(x) is True.
∀xP(x) is False.

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Definitions
An argument is a sequence of statements.

The last statement of an argument is called conclusion.
The preceding statements are called premises of the
argument.
A valid argument is an argument where the conclusion must
be true if all the premises are true.
A sound argument is a valid argument where all of the
premises are true.

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Modus Ponens
P
P→Q
∴Q
This is equivalent of saying
(P ∧ (P → Q)) → Q

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Rules of Inference

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Rules of Inference

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Rules of Inference

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Example 6
Step Reason
(1) ¬P ∧ Q Premise
(2) R→P Premise
(3) ¬R → S Premise
(4) S →T Premise
(5) ¬P (1) simplification
(6) ¬R (5) and (2) modus tollens
(7) S (6) and (3) modus ponens
(8) T (7) and (4) modus ponens

Discrete Structures
Rules of Inference
Example 13
Step Reason
(1) ∃x(C (x) ∧ ¬B(x)) Premise
(2) ∀x(C (x) → P(x)) Premise
(3) C (a) ∧ ¬B(a) Existensial instantiation from (1)
(4) C (a) Simplification from (3)
(5) C (a) → P(a) Universal instantiation from (2)
(6) P(a) (5) and (4) modus ponens
(7) ¬B(a) Simplification from (3)
(8) P(a) ∧ ¬B(a) (7) and (6) conjunction
(9) ∃x(P(x) ∧ ¬B(x)) Existential generalization from (8)

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
WEEK 3
Set Theory

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Definition
A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects, called elements
or members of the set.
Notation
a ∈ A: a is an element of the set A.
a∈
/ A: a is not an element of the set A.

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Examples
The set O of all odd positive integers less than 10
O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10}
Empty set { } or ∅
Singleton set {’a set with one element’}
Venn diagram

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Definition (A = B)
Two sets A and B are equal if they have the same elements. That
is,
∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B)
Definition (A ⊆ B)
The set A is a subset of B if every element of A is also an element
of B. That is,
A ⊆ B ⇐⇒ ∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B)

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Example of a theorem and its proof
Theorem
Two sets A and B are equal if and only if A is a subset of B and B
is a subset of A. That is,
A = B ⇐⇒ A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
Proof.
The proof has two parts:
(⇒) : A = B implies A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
(⇐) : A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A implies A = B

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Proof: first part
Assume that A = B.
First, we want to show that A ⊆ B. That is,
∀x(x ∈ A → x ∈ B)
Let x ∈ A be arbitrary.
Since A = B, that is ∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B), we have
x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B (by universal instantiation).
This implies that x ∈ A → x ∈ B.
Since x ∈ A, we get x ∈ B (by modus ponens).
Since x was an arbitrary element of A, we conclude that
A ⊆ B by universal generalization.
Next, we need to show that B ⊆ A. This part is similar to the
proof of A ⊆ B.
Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Proof: second part
Assume that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.

We need to show that A = B.
So, we need to show that ∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B).
Let x be arbitrary.
First assume that x ∈ A and show x ∈ B.
Since A ⊆ B, x ∈ B follows by the definition of subset.
Thus, x ∈ A → x ∈ B.
Similarly, we can show that x ∈ B → x ∈ A.
Since x was arbitrary, ∀x(x ∈ A ↔ x ∈ B) follows.
Hence, by the first and second parts we have proven the theorem.

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Cardinality and Power set
Definition (Cardinality)
Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct elements of S for
some n ∈ N, we say that S is a finite set with the cardinality n.
The cardinality of S is denoted by |S|
A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.
Definition (Power set)

Let S be a set. The power set of S, denoted by P(S), is the set
of all subsets of S.
P(S) = {A | A ⊂ S}

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
More Definitions
Definition
Cartesian Product: A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Union: A ∪ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)}
Intersection: A ∩ B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)}
Difference: A − B = {x | (x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈
/ B)}
Complement: Ā = {x ∈ U | x ∈
/ A} where U is the universal
set.

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Set Identities

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Set Identities

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 3: Set Theory
Representation of subsets of Natural Numbers
Any subset of natural numbers can be represented with an infinite

string of 0’s and 1’s.
∅ = 00000....
N = 11111...
{1, 5, 8} = 010001001000000...
{n ∈ N | n is even } = 1010101010...
{n ∈ N | n is a prime number} = 0011010100010100....
A = n0 n1 n2 ... where ni = 1 if i ∈ A and ni = 0 if i ∈
/ A.

Discrete Structures
Week 4
WEEK 4
Functions

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Relations
Definition
Let A and B be sets. A relation R is a subset of A × B.
Example
Let A = {Istanbul,Ankara,Izmir, Adana} and
B = {London, Berlin, Athens}. Then,
F = {(Ist,Lon),(Ist,Ber),(Ist,Ath),(Ank,Ber),(Ank,Ath),(Izm,Ber)}
is a relation.
London Berlin Athens
Istanbul x x x
Ankara x x
Izmir x
Adana
Discrete Structures
Week 4

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Functions
Definition
Let f be a relation from A to B. Then,
f is said to be a function if for all x ∈ A there exists a unique
y ∈ B such that (x, y ) ∈ f . In other words,
if (x, y1 ), (x, y2 ) ∈ f , then y1 = y2 .
If (x, y ) ∈ f , we write f (x) = y and say that y is the image
of x and x is a preimage of x.
A is called the domain of f .
B is called the codomain of f .
The range of f is the set of all images of elements of A.

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Example
Let f : Z −→ Z be a function that maps each integer to its
square. That is, f (x) = x 2 . Then,
The domain of f is the set of integers.
The codomain of f is the set of integers.
The range of f is the set of perfect squares {0, 1, 4, 9, 16, ...}.

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Mouse dataset
By Chire - Own work, Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=11765684

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Injection, Surjection, Bijection
Definition
Let f be a function from A to B. Then,
f is said to be one-to-one, or an injection, if
∀a1 ∀a2 (f (a1 ) = f (a2 ) → a1 = a2 ) or equivalently
∀a1 ∀a2 (a1 6= a2 → f (a1 ) 6= f (a2 )).
f is said to be onto, or a surjection if
(∀b ∈ B)(∃a ∈ A)(f (a) = b)
f is called a bijection if f is both one-to-one and onto.

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Example: Lazy Copying Machine
Let f : {0, 1}∗ −→ {0, 1}∗ be a function that maps each string
u = abc where |a| = |b| = |c| to a. That is, f (u) = a. Then,
The domain of f :
The codomain of f :
The range of f :
Is f an injection, surjection,bijection?

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Inverse functions
Definition
Let f be a function from A to B. Then, If f is a bijection, then the
inverse function of f is a function, denoted by f −1 , such that
f −1 (b) = a
when f (a) = b.

Discrete Structures
Week 4

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Compositions of functions
Definition
Let g be a function from A to B and f be a function from B to C .
Then, the composition of the functions f and g , denoted by
f ◦ g , is the function from A to C defined by
(f ◦ g )(a) = f (g (a))

Discrete Structures
Week 4
(Game of life: https://playgameoflife.com/)

f : {1, . . . , 9} −→ {1, . . . , 9} defined on the grid with the rules:
Move right; if not possible move up; if not possible move left, if
not possible move down.
“itinerary” of x:
7 8 9
4 5 6
1 2 3

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Sequences
Definition
A sequence is a function from a subset of integers to a set S. We
use the notation an to denote the image of the integer n. We call
an a term of the sequence.

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Examples
1
an = n
bn = 2 · 3n
cn = 7 + 2 · n
dn = 5 + (−1)n · dn−1 and d0 = 1 (range of this function?)
Fibonacci sequence
Ackermann function

Discrete Structures
Week 4
more examples

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Recurrence
Definition
A recurrence relation for the sequence {an } is an equation that
expresses an in terms of one or more of the previous terms of the
sequence.

Discrete Structures
Week 4
Summation
Consider a finitely many terms of a sequence am , am+1 , ..., an . We

use the notation
Xn
aj
j=m
to denote the sum am + am+1 + ... + an .

Discrete Structures
Week 4
more examples

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
WEEK 5-6
Algorithms

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Algorithm
Definition (Algorithm)
An algorithm is a finite sequence of instructions for performing a
computation or for solving a problem.
Example
Define an algorithm for finding the largest apple in a basket.

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Properties of Algorithms
Input
Output
Definiteness
Correctness
Finiteness
Effectiveness
Generality

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example
Input A basket of apples.

Output The largest apple in the basket.
Definiteness Each step in the algorithm is precisely defined.
Correctness All apples are compared (how?) and the largest
one is found.
Finiteness At most finitely many comparisons were
performed.
Effectiveness Each step requires finite amount of time.
Generality Given a basket of apples (different size, shape and
number) we can follow the same instructions to find the
largest one.

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cDA3_5982h8

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Searching Algorithms
9 17 6 52 4 25 8 23
The Linear Search
The Binary Search
4 6 8 9 17 23 25 52

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Sorting Algorithms
The Bubble Sort:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=semGJAJ7i74
The Insertion Sort:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EdIKIf9mHk0

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
A nice animation:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kPRA0W1kECg
There are many nice facts on sorting algorithms. Visit Wikipedia!
Post on the discussion board!

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Read the following topics (from the textbook):

Greedy algorithms
Halting problem
Post questions, comments, interesting facts on the discussion
board.

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Growth of Functions
Definition (Big-O)
Let f and g be functions from the set of integers or the set of real
numbers to the set of real numbers. We say that f (x) is O(g (x))
if there are constants C and k such that |f (x)| ≤ C |g (x)|
whenever x > k.
Informally, the definition says f (x) grows slower than g (x).

If you can find a pair of constants C and k, you can find
infinitely of them.

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example
Let f (x) = x 2 + 5x + 3. Then, f (x) is O(x 2 ).

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example
Let f (x) = x 2 + 5x + 3. Then, f (x) is O(x 2 ).
We need to find a pair of witnesses C and k. For all x > 1

(implies x 2 > x > 1)
0 ≤ x 2 + 5x + 3 ≤ x 2 + 5x 2 + 3x 2 = 9x 2
=⇒ |f (x)| < 9|x 2 | for all x > 1.
We have witnesses C = 9 and k = 1.
f (x) is also O(x n ) for any n ≥ 2.
f (x) is not O(x).

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example: Growth of Functions

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Big-Omega
Definition
numbers to the set of real numbers. We say that f (x) is Ω(g (x))
if there are constants C > 0 and k such that |f (x)| ≥ C |g (x)|
whenever x > k.
f (x) is Ω(g (x)) if and only if g (x) is O(f (x)).

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Big-Theta
Definition
numbers to the set of real numbers. We say that f (x) is Θ(g (x))
if f (x) is O(g (x)) and f (x) is Ω(g (x)).
In that case, we say that f (x) and g (x) are of the same order.
f (x) is of Θ(g (x)) if and only if g (x) is of Θ(f (x))

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Complexity of Algorithms
Introduction
How can we analyze the efficiency of algorithms?

Computational Complexity
Time Complexity
Space Complexity

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Introduction - Time Complexity
an analysis for time required to solve a problem

not measuring the actual time
counting the number of operations involved
express this count relative to the size of the input

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example
Consider the example we had about finding the maximum element

in a list of integers.
Input size is n, the length of the input a1 , a2 , ..., an .
assign the max value to a1 (1 operation)
compare max value to a2 (2nd operation)
assign the larger value of the the max value (3rd operation)
do the last two steps n − 1 times in total (2(n − 1) operations)
In total we get 1 + 2(n − 1) = 2n − 1 operations.

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Linear Search
Input: list of integers of length n and another integer M to be

searched
Compare a1 and M
worst case: compare M and all an
takes “roughly” n steps
Θ(n)

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Worst Case
Analyze the binary search algorithm.
Assume that the input size is n = 2k and x is searched.
Worst case: The algorithm runs “all the way” and exits
without finding x.
1 Is there a middle element am ?
2 Compare x and am
3 Update the end points
Repeat steps 1-3 until there is no middle point.
Each time we reduce the length of the list to its half.
2k , 2k−1 , ..., 21 , 20 .
That is k = log 2k = logn repeats.
worst case Θ(logn) time complexity.
Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
important notions
brute-force algorithms
greedy algorithms
polynomial complexity
tractable & intractable problems
class NP: non-deterministic polynomial time
NP-complete problems
decidable (solvable) & undecidable problems

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example: Growth of Functions

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Common Complexity Notions

Discrete Structures
Week 5: Algorithms
Example

Discrete Structures
Week 7: Number Theory
WEEK 7
Number Theory

Discrete Structures
Modular Arithmetic
Division
Definition
Let a, b ∈ Z. We say that a divides b, denoted by a | b if
(∃m ∈ Z)(a · m = b).
Example
Let n ∈ Z. List the positive integers d such that d | n.
n = 2: {1, 2}
n = 6: {1, 2, 3, 6}
n = 7: {1, 7}
n = 12: {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12}

Discrete Structures
Modular Arithmetic
Theorem
Let a, b, c ∈ Z such that a 6= 0. Then,
(i) if a | b and a | c, then a | (b + c)
(ii) if a | b, then a | m · b for all m ∈ Z
(iii) if a | b and b | c, then a | c.

Discrete Structures
Modular Arithmetic
Proof

Discrete Structures
Modular Arithmetic
Corollary
If a, b, c ∈ Z where a 6= 0, such that a | b and a | c, then for all
m, n ∈ Z, a | (mb + nc).

Discrete Structures
Modular Arithmetic
Theorem (The Division Algorithm)

Let a be an integer and d a positive integer. Then there are unique
integers q and r , with 0 ≤ r < d such that a = d · q + r .
d: divisor
a: dividend
q: quotient
r : remainder

Discrete Structures
Modular Arithmetic
Modular Arithmetic
Definition
If a, b, m ∈ Z where m > 0, then a is congruent to b modulo m
if m | (a − b). We write a ≡ b (mod m).
Theorem
a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if the remainder from the division of a
to m, and the remainder from the division of b to m are equal.
Theorem
a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if ∃k ∈ Z such that a = b + km

Discrete Structures
Representations of Integers
Theorem
Let b, n ∈ N where b > 1. Then n can be expressed uniquely in the
form
n = ak b k + ak−1 b k−1 + ... + a1 b + a0
where k is nonnegative integer, a0 , a1 , ..., ak are nonnegative
integers less than b, and ak 6= 0.
Example (Binary Expansion)
(101101)2 = 1 · 25 + 0 · 24 + 1 · 23 + 1 · 22 + 0 · 21 + 1 · 20
= 32 + 8 + 4 + 1 = 45
Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Prime Numbers
Definition
An integer p greater than 1 is called prime if the only positive
factors of p are 1 and p. A positive integer that is greater than 1
and is not prime is called composite.
Theorem (THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ARITHMETIC)

Every integer greater than 1 can be written uniquely as a prime or
as the product of two or more primes.
Example
198 = 2 · 3 · 3 · 11

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Theorem
If n is a composite integer, then n has a prime divisor less than or
√
equal to n.

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Example (Trial Division)

Find the prime factorization of 2235.

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
The Sieve of Eratosthenes

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Theorem
There are infinitely many primes.

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Example (Mersenne primes)

There are primes of the form 2p − 1 where p is a prime number.
The largest Mersenne prime found is 282,589,933 − 1, having
24,862,048 digits.
Example (Goldbach’s Conjecture)

Every even number greater than 2 is the sum of two prime
numbers.
Example (The Twin Prime Conjecture)

There are infinitely many primes that differ by 2 (pairs of primes of
the form p and p + 2). For example, p = 3, 5, 11, 17.

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Definition (gcd)
Let a, b be non-zero integers. The largest integer d such that d | a
and d | b is called the greatest common divisor of a and b, and
denoted by gcd(a, b).
Example
Find gcd(60, 210)
divisors of 60: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60}
divisors of 210:
B = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 21, 30, 35, 42, 70, 105, 210}
max(A ∩ B) = 30.

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
Definition
The integers a and b are relatively prime if gcd(a, b) = 1.
Definition (lcm)
The least common multiple of two positive integers a and b is
the smallest positive integer that is divisible by both a and b, and
denoted by lcm(a, b).
Theorem
Let a be b be positive integers. Then ab = gcd(a, b) · lcm(a, b)

Discrete Structures
Prime Numbers
The Euclidean Algorithm
Find gcd(216, 150).

216 = 150 · 1 + 66
150 = 66 · 2 + 18
66 = 18 · 3 + 12
18 = 12 · 1 + 6
12 = 6 · 2 + 0

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Week 8:
Induction and Recursion

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Peano Axioms
Robinson Arithmetic
1 ∀x (0 6= S(x))
2 ∀x, y (S(x) = S(y ) → x = y )
3 ∀x (x + 0 = x)
4 ∀x, y (x + S(y ) = S(x + y ))
5 ∀x (x · 0 = 0)
6 ∀x, y (x · S(y ) = x · y + x)
+ Mathematical Induction
7 For any propositional function P(n) (in the language of
arithmetic)
(P(0) ∧ ∀k (P(k) → P(k + 1))) → ∀n P(n)

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Examples
n(n+1)
1 + 2 + ... + n = 2
1 + 2 + 22 + ... + 2n = 2n+1 −1
2n < n!, for all n ≥ 4

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Mistaken Proofs
Every set of lines in the plane, no two of them are parallel, meet in
a common point.

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Strong Induction
To show that P(n) is true for all n ∈ N, complete

Basis Step: P(0) is true
Inductive Step: (P(0) ∧ P(1) ∧ ... ∧ P(k)) → P(k + 1)

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Example
Show that if n is an integer greater than 1, then n can be written

as the product of primes.

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Well Ordering Property
Every nonempty set of nonnegative integers has a least element.

Example
Division Algorithm: If a, d ∈ Z where d > 0, then there are
unique integers q and r with 0 ≤ r < d and a = dq + r .

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Recursively Defined Functions
To define a function on N recursively

Define f (0) = y0
Define a rule R such that for k > 0, f (k) = y where
R(0, 1, ..., k − 1) = y

Discrete Structures
Week 8
example
Give a recursive definition for an where a ∈ R such that a 6= 0 and

n ∈ N.

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Recursively defined Sets
Definition
The set {0, 1}∗ of strings is defined recursively by
λ ∈ {0, 1}∗ where λ is the empty string.
If w ∈ {0, 1}∗ and a ∈ {0, 1}, then wa ∈ {0, 1}∗ .
Example
Let u ∈ {0, 1}∗ be fixed. Then u ∗ is defined recursively by
u ∈ u∗
If w ∈ u ∗ , then wu ∈ u ∗

Discrete Structures
Week 8
Recursively Defined Algorithms
Example
A recursive algorithm for gcd(a, b) where 0 ≤ a < b:
if a = 0 then return b
else
find q, r such that b = a · q + r where 0 ≤ r < a
return gcd(r , a)

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Week 9:
Counting
Relations

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Product Rule
Suppose that a procedure can be broken down into a sequence of

two tasks. If there are n1 ways to the first task and for each of
these ways of doing the first task, there are n2 ways to do the
second task, then there are n1 n2 ways to do the procedure.
Example (p.417, pr.4)
A particular brand of shirt comes in 12 colors, has a male version
and a female version, and comes in three sizes for each sex. How
many different types of this shirt are made?

Discrete Structures
Week 9

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Sum Rule
If a task can be done either in one of n1 ways or in one of n2 ways,

where none of the set of n1 ways is the same as the set of n2 ways,
then there are n1 + n2 ways to the task.

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Subtraction Rule
If task can be done in either n1 ways or n2 ways, then the number

of ways to the task is n1 + n2 minus the number of ways to the
task that are common to two different ways.

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Example (p.417 pr.22)

How many positive integers less than 1000 are divisible by 7 but
not by 11?

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Division Rule
A task can be done in n/d distinct ways, if it can be done in n

ways, but for each way of doing the task, there are d equivalent
ways of doing it.
Example (p.418 pr.47)
How many ways are there to seat six people around a circular table
where two seatings are considered the same when everyone has the
same two neighbors without regard to whether they are right or
left neighbors?

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Pigeonhole Principle
If k is a positive integer and k + 1 or more objects are placed

into k boxes, then there is at least one box containing two or
more of the objects.
If N objects are placed into k boxes, then there is at least one
box containing at least dN/ke objects.
Example (p.427, pr.27)

There are 38 different time periods during which classes at a
university can be scheduled. If there are 677 different classes, how
many different rooms will be needed?

Discrete Structures
Week 9

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Relations
Definition
Let A and B be sets. A relation R is a subset of A × B.
Example
Let A = {Istanbul,Ankara,Izmir, Adana} and
B = {London, Berlin, Athens}. Then,
F = {(Ist,Lon),(Ist,Ber),(Ist,Ath),(Ank,Ber),(Ank,Ath),(Izm,Ber)}
is a relation.
London Berlin Athens
Istanbul x x x
Ankara x x
Izmir x
Adana
Discrete Structures
Week 9

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Properties of Relations
A relation R on a set A is called

reflexive if (a, a) ∈ R for every element a ∈ A.
symmetric if (b, a) ∈ R whenever (a, b) ∈ R, for all a, b ∈ A.
transitive if whenever (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then
(a, c) ∈ R for all a, b, c ∈ A.
antisymmetric if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R implies a = b, for
all a, b ∈ A.

Discrete Structures
Week 9
p.608 pr.3
For each of these relations on the set {1, 2, 3, 4}, decide whether it
is reflexive, whether it is symmetric, whether it is antisymmetric,
and whether it is transitive.
a) {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
b) {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
c) {(2, 4), (4, 2)}
d) {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
e) {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (4, 4)}
f) {(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]}

Discrete Structures
Week 9

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Equivalence Relation
Definition
A relation on a set A is called an equivalence relation if it is
reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.
Definition
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all
elements that are related to an element a of A is called the
equivalence class of a, denoted by [a]R .
[a]R = {x ∈ A : (a, x) ∈ R}

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Example
What are the equivalence classes of congruence modulo 3?
[0] = {
[1] = {
[2] = {

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Theorem
Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. These statements for
elements a and b of A are equivalent:
(i) aRb
(ii) [a] = [b]
(iii) [a] ∩ [b] 6= ∅

Discrete Structures
Week 9

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Order Relations
Definition
A relation R on a set S is called a partial order if it is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive.
Example
(Z, ≤)
(P(A), ⊂)
(Z+ , a|b)

Discrete Structures
Week 9
Definition
The elements a and b of a poset (S, ) are called comparable if
either a b or b a.
Definition
If (S, ) is a poset and every two elements of S are comparable, S
is called a totally ordered or linearly ordered set, and is called
a total order or a linear order.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Week 10:
Graph Theory

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Graph Terminology

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Definitions
A graph G = (V , E ) consists of V , a nonempty set of

vertices and a set of edges E ⊂ {{u, v } | u, v ∈ V }
Two vertices u and v are adjacent if {u, v } ∈ E .
For v ∈ V , the neighborhood of v , denoted by N(v ) is
{u ∈ V | {u, v } ∈ E }.
The degree of a vertex v is the cardinality of N(v ) and
denoted by deg (v ).

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Simple Results
Let G = (V , E ) be a graph with m edges. Then,

X
2m = deg (v )
v ∈V
An (undirected) graph has an even number of vertices of odd

degree.

Discrete Structures
Week 10

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Examples: Special Graphs
Complete Graphs: K1 , K2 , ...

Cycles: C3 , C4 , ...

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Bipartite Graphs
Let G = (V , E ) be simple graph. The graph V is called

bipartite if there is a partition of V = V1 ∪ V2 such that
whenever there is an edge connecting u and v then they are
not in the same partition.
A simple graph is bipartite if and only if it is possible to assign
one of two different colors to each vertex of the graph so that
no two adjacent vertices are assigned in the same color.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Adjacency Matrix
1 2 0 1
2 0 3 0
0 3 1 1
1 0 1 0

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Graph Isomorphism
Definition
The simple graphs G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) are
isomorphic if there exists a bijection f between V1 and V2 with
the property that
{u, v } ∈ E1 ⇐⇒ {f (u), f (v )} ∈ E 2
A property preserved by isomorphism is called a graph invariant.

For example,
same number of edges
degree of vertices

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Example

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Path
Let G = (V , E ) be a (simple) graph.

A path of length n from u ∈ V to v ∈ V is a sequence
x0 = u, x1 , ..., xn = v of vertices such that for i = 1, ..., n,
{xi−1 , xi } ∈ E .
A path is called simple path if it does not contain the same
edge (vertex for simple graphs) more than once.
A path is called a circuit if it begins and ends at the same
vertex.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Erdős Number

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Definition
A graph is called connected if there is a path between every pair of
vertices of the graph.
Theorem
There is a simple path between every pair of distinct vertices of a
connected graph.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Bridges of Konigsberg

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Euler circuit and path
An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing

every edge of G .
An Euler path in G is a simple path containing every edge of
G.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Results
Theorem
A connected multigraph with at least two vertices has an
Euler circuit if and only if its vertices has an even degree.
A connected multigraph has an Euler path but not an Euler
circuit if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Hamilton Paths and Circuits
Definition
A simple path in a graph G that passes through every vertex
exactly once is called a Hamilton path.
A simple circuit in a graph G that passes through every vertex
exactly once is called a Hamilton circuit.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Shortest Path Problems
Graphs that have a number attached to its edges are called
weighted graphs.

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Dijkstra’s Algorithm

Discrete Structures
Week 10

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Dijkstra’s Algorithm

Discrete Structures
Week 10

Discrete Structures
Week 10
The Traveling Salesperson Problem

Discrete Structures
Week 10
Final exam is on Thursday, May 26

at 11 am

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Week 12:
Trees

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Definition
A tree is a connected graph with no simple circuits.
Theorem
An undirected graph is a tree if and only if there is a unique simple
path between any two of its vertices.

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Two Examples

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Rooted Trees
Definition
A rooted tree is a tree in which one vertex has been designated as
the root and every edge is directed away from the root.
Important notions:
parent
child
siblings
ancestors
descendants
leaf
internal vertices
subtree
Discrete Structures
Week 12
Rooted Tree

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Properties of Trees
Theorem
A tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges.
Theorem
A full m-ary tree with i internal vertices contains n = mi + 1
vertices.
Theorem
There are at most mh leaves in an m-ary tree of height h.

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Applications
Binary Search
Decision Trees
Prefix Codes
Huffman Coding

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Tree Traversal
Preorder traversal
Inorder traversal
Postorder traversal

Discrete Structures
Week 12

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Spanning Trees
Definition
Let G be a simple graph. A spanning tree of G is a subgraph of
G that is a tree containing every vertex of G .
Theorem
A simple graph is connected if and only if it has a spanning tree.

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Depth-First Search

Discrete Structures
Week 12
Breadth-First Search

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Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska

May 19, 2022

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

CENG 110 - Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

We will use the following textbook:

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

We will cover selected sections from the following chapters:

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

5 Induction and Recursion

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Exams and Grading

Midterm: 40% (week of 4-9 April)

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Note: Grading scale is subject to change.

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Proposition: A declarative sentence that is either true or

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Raise your hand if this sentence is a proposition.

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Compound propositions are formed from existing

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

P: Today is the first day of the spring semester.

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Truth Table: Negation

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Truth Table: Conjunction

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Truth Table: Disjunction

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Truth Table: Conditional

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Truth Table: Biconditional

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Biconditional vs Conjunction of Conditionals

P Q P↔Q P→Q Q→P P →Q ∧Q →P

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Tautology is a proposition that is always true.

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Example: Distributive Law

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

A compound proposition is satisfiable if it is a tautology or a

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Example: x is a prime number

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Definition:The universal quantification of P(x) is the

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Definition:The existential quantification of P(x) is the

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Quantifiers over Finite Domains

Let the domain of discourse be {−1, 0, 1, 2}.

Dr. Ferit Toska Discrete Structures

Negating Quantified Expressions