40 Missionalia 24:1 (April 1996) 40-62

THE CHURCH, COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

AND LlBE,RATION
A search for answers to basic questions 1

Annalet van Schalkwyk"

INTRODUCTION

.. In post-aparthe~ South Africa, the struggle for liberation '!:las reached a stage
beyond political liberation alone. Oudiberational agenda is now headed by a
new priority, namely the restructuring and healing of our society and the
development of those individuals and communities "that need it most. The
Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP); which involves the
participation of all the public sectors as well as non-governmental
organisations and local communities, is perhaps the strongest indicator of this
new moment of trut~ or kairos in our history which urges the Christian and
broader religious community to respond actively and constructively, although
not. uncritically.
This urges us to reconsider the meaning of liberation for our present
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kairos: liberation must now be holistic and life-encompassing. Liberation now

implies a process of social change or development which. aims to bring about
healing and transformation in every sphere of life for individuals and
communities, in the fullest sense of the word. Hope and Timmel (1984:3)
formulated it as follows:

Development and education are first of all about liberating people from all that holds them back.
from a full human life. UHimately development and education are about transforming society ....
Development, liberation and transformation are all aspects of the same process. It is not a
marginal activity. It is at the core of all creative human living.

We'may add to this that development should be at the cpre of the holistic
liberation process which is now the priority for our society. This moment of truth
for the healing and restructuring of our society urgesthe church to reconsider
its participation in God's mission in our context. It specifically urges the church

1 This is a slightly revised form of a paper read at a plenary session of the 1994 Congress of the
Southem African Missiological Society. The theme of the Congress was "Towards holistic liberation."
/

• Ms Annale! van Schalkwyk teaches in the Department of Missiology, Unisa, P.O. Box 392, Pretoria
0001. .
 The church, community development and liberation 41

to reconsider its involvement in, and approach to, welfare an~ development in
Sout~ Africa. In this regard Cheryl 'Carolus (1994:20f), head of the ANC's
department re~ponsible for t~e RDP, has urged the churches to re-asseit their'
role as the conscience. of society and the champion 'of the poor and
disadvantaged, as was the case in the years of struggle against apartheid. As
the RDP is about political and economic justice, the churches are challenged
by it to contribute to the rebuilding of societal, community and family s.tructures.
It is true that the churches (and various church-related bodies) have a
hi~tory of Involvement in welfare and development. To mention ari example
from. ·the recent past: Since 1992 the South African Council of Churches
(SACC) and the· Ecumenical Foundation of South Africa (EFSA) have jointly
hosted an annual nationwide conference on Church and Development. These
fou~ conferences were attended by a large number of development workers
a,nd. ch urch workers connected to church-related development or diaconal
programmes.
My contention, however, is that there may still be a vagueness regarding
our developmental, so~iologica.1 and theological understanding of the basis of
the church's involvement in development. At the SACC/EFSA conference on
Church. and Development in ·October 1993, Canaan Banan~ (1993:54-55)
stressed the need to formulate a clear theological basis for the church's
involvement in development (Le., a .the~/ogy of development). The lack of
knowledg.e and of a sOl,Jnd basis regarding development may render the
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church vulnerable to manipulation.by other societal and id~ological forces

concerned with development. The absence of a sound developmental basis
may. also inhibit the church's creative response to the immensely complex
problemsof our society. . .
In. my practical experience, I have found ·that church members and
lea~ers want to be practically involved in development projects, but do 'not
have a sound developmental or theological basis for their involvement, which
often creates pr~blems. In this article I therefore wish to explore the following
questions that need clarification amongst church-related development workers
and interested theologians:

• What is development? And community development?

• .What is the church's theological basis for involvement in development?
• Does· 'our understanding of the ch4rch and its mission hinder or
encourage'our participation in development?
I!I If we accept that development is about liberating and transforming people
and communities, how do we understand liberation and transformatjon?
• Does our developmental approach truly aim at liberation, or are we
.simply· busy with a paternalistic domestication <?f people, to fit them into
 42 Van Schalkwyk

our concept of "the good society?"

My starting point is my past practical experience,as cor:nmunity development

worker in the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Afn~a (URCSA).21 was a
community development worker from 1989 to 1994 for (what was then) the
Dutch Reformed Church in Africa. Although I will not refer directly to my own
practical experience, I will refer to the resources and perspectives that we
gradually acquired in our practical work. In the case study, I will refer to
colleagues' experiences that relate to my own. In my presentation, I wish to
move from praxis to reflection: ' .

• In the first place I look at the former Dutch Reformed Church in Africa
(ORCA) as a case study, and specifically at its community development
programmes. The case study was constructed on the basis of interviews
with leading participants in the two programmes. It illustrates the ORCA's
various historical responses to socio-economic development. Previous
inadequate r~sponses of the ORCA can then be compared to the
URCSA's latest response to poverty and underdevelopment, which·
endeavours to realise the developmental and-theological concepts of
liberation, transformation and empowerment. The case study 'will
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hopefully iUustrate the growth in this church's,thinking on socio-economic

and developmental involvement - from a conservative, apartheid-bou'nd
stance to a transformational and liberational approach,

• I then move to a reflection on the basic developmental and theological

concepts which underlie (or do not underlie) our praxis. The case study
forms the backdrop to our search, in this second part of the paper, for,
developmental and theological concepts that are truly transformational.
The case study is. also meant to prove that a transformational approach
to development, based on liberation-theological insights, is possible and
worthwhile.

2 It is necessary to explain at the outset that the "ORC-family" in Southern Africa is involved in a
long and complex process of unifICation. The racially-defined ORC-family in South Africa previously
consisted of the ~utch Reformed Church (ORC - the "mother church) for whites and three
"daughter churches", namely the Outch Reformed Church in Africa (ORCA) for Africans. the Dutch
Reformed Mission Church (ORMC) for Coloureds, and the Reformed Church in Africa (RCA) for
Indians. The ORCA and ORMC united in 1992 to form the Uniting Reformed Church in Southern
·Africa (l.IRCSA), after starting the unification process independently of the'ORC, The ORC National
Synod and Regional Synods have recently voted for unification with the URCSA, in some cases with
reservations about the acceptance of the Belhar Confession, which is an official Confession of the
URCSA.
 The church, community development and liberation 43

• I conclude with some comments on a developmental theology which is

relevant to our context. I discuss a' few aspects of our present context of
transition which are relevant to an emerging Southern Afrh;;an theology of
development.

In this ""ay I move from praxis (case study) to reflection (developmental and
theolqgical con'cepts) and back again to praxis (concluding comments).

THE UNITING REFORMED CI:iURCH IN SOUTHERN 'AFRICA

A CASE STUDY

The apartheid legacy

Up until the formation of the ORCA in 1963, the various Reformed "Bantu
Churches" established by the Dutch Reformed Church (ORC) within South
Africa were dictated to by the mission policy and practice of the ORC (the
, "mother church"). That mission policy had important implications for the
development of a national policy of apartheid, as pointed out and analysed by
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Kinghprn (1986:86-143) and others.

In 1'956 the Tomlinson Report proposed an extended and proactive
programme of separate development in the Bantustans, which was never fully
. implemented by the state. The ORC, however, took the findings and challenge
of the Report regarding the christianising ("kerstening") of. unevangelised ,black
communities very seriously. In the years immediately after the Tomlinson
Report, the ORC's missionary activities and diaconal services3 (especially
hospitals ·and schools) in the Bantustans expanded rapidly.
. Development - as separate development - was thus actively supported
by the ORC. This they believed to be the true, even the biblically-founded,
answer to South Africa's socio-economical and political complexities.
That the ORC made aconsiderabl~ contribution'to the development o(
educational and heaHh services in the Bantustans cannot be denied; but it was
done in an overtly patemalistic way, by means of so-called "mission services.'"

3 "Diaconal" and "diaconate" are derived from diakonia, the Greek word for "service," In a broader
sense diakonia refers to the tolal ministry of the church, following the example of Christ the diakonos.
who ministered to the totality of human needs, In the limited 'sense the diaconate is the church's
, ministry or service to people's concrete and physical needs, The term "diaconate" in this sense is
v.,'ell known in the Reformed tradition and may be less familiar in other traditions. Another term that
may be uses is the "social service" ofthe church,
 44 Van Schalkwyk

These educational and· health services were, in effect, rendered for the
homeland communities, without much local participation. The young ORCA did
not benefit greatly from these services because they were not involved by the
ORC in the management and running of the diaconate (Van Schalkwyk
1991 :78-83).
In the 1960s and 1970s the mission schools and hospitals were handed
over to the Bantustan authorities, which were moving towards independence.
A time of impasse and uncertainty followed with regard to the O"RC and ORCA.
We are familiar with the gravely negative long-term consequences of the
state's apartheid policy for the black population at all levels of existence. But
the ORC could not see this, because of its close relationship with this policy.
The ORCA's membership, too, would be strongly affected by both church and
state apartheid. The ORCA leadership would eventually react vehemently
against the injustic·es of apartheid (Van Schalkwyk 1991 :158-161). Now the
"following question needs to be answered: could (and can) the ORCA and the"
newly-formed URCSA, with its inherited culture of poverty and de"pendence on
the financial resources of the ORe, find creative alternatives to this legacy?
What was the approach of the ORCA (now the URCSA) to development
in the past decade?
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Church·Action~in-Need

We now move to the Northern Province. During the 1980s a seriou's drought
hit this region. It was the plight of drought-stricken rur.al communities which
impelled the ORC and ORCA jointly to establish Church-Action-in-Need (CAN)
in 1983. Since 1985, CAN has been based at the ORCA synodical offices in
Mamelodi and operates as a subcommittee of the Committee for the Oiaconal
Services ofthe ORCA (now the URCSA), Northern Transvaal. From the outset
the aim was to support and enable people to overcome their apathy and
extreme poverty, and to regain their dignity and self-sufficiency, by means of
self-help projects. Some of the projects undertaken were food gardens,
chicken farming, creches and training programmes.
The approach was that the people themselves should initiate projects,
that they should learn from one another and that projects should be on a scale
manageable for grassroots groups. Projects were to be managed within a
URCSA congregation by a diaconal committee which wou!d include both
URCSA and community m~mbers. Grand structures anq programmes were
not the id.ea. Facilitators would sensitively accompany and support projects,
moving at the pace of the people (Bruwer 1994). "
CAN's secretary, Rev. Daniel Maluleke (1995),'has informed me that
CAN projects are progressing well and that many participants are enabled to
 The church, community development and liberation 45

make, a better living for themselves. Interestingly enough, most of the

participants ~re women. This is to be, expected, since most of the' projects are
in rural areas, where women and children form the majority of the population;
They are also the people who suffer most from ,poverty, unemployment and
a lack of education and training, as well as a lack of infrastructure. In this way
CAN. projects reach those who most neeq personal and !3conomic
empowerment - the poorest of the poor. .

A new understanding of the diaconate

.In 1990-1991 a survey was done for the then.ORCA,by the Community Agency
for Social Inquiry (CASE). Dr Mark Orkin of CASE compiled a report entitled
Context analysis for social action on poverty and dependence in the DRCA.
During 26-?9 October 1991, a joint workshop of the diaconal commissions of
the six ORCA r'egional synods came together - for the first time - to,discuss ,
the ORCA's diaconal task in the light of the following factors reflected in the
~E~~ , •

II The situation of poverty and of dependence on the ORC, in which the

ORCA finds itself.
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II The high percentage of women in the ORCA (61 %) - a reality that is'not
reflected in the decision-making bodies of the church (including the
Oiaconal Commissions).
• The fact that the ORCA is predominantly a rural church.
II The fact that, although there is a general tendency towards some form
of dependence and subordination amongst church members, almost
60% indicated that they are ready for some kind of personal involvement
in order to improve their situation (ORCA NATIONAL WORKSHOP
1992:1-2).

A policy document was formulated at the workshop which reflects a profound

realisation of the necessity for participation and transformation in the struggle
tp overcome these restrictions of poverty and racial-cultural repression that are
inflicted on the predominantly poor, rural and female members of the ORCA
(in this instance, sexist oppression was not mentioned In the report - AvS).
According to the workshop report, the emphasis of the ORCA's diaconal
work should be on "Christian transformation, development, community
develop~ent, education and action training," which should be orchestrated in
such a way that it could lead toward transformation in the totality of people's
life situations.
The aforementioned Commission for Oiaconal Affairs, through its
~
 46 Van Schalkwyk

coordinator and commission members, is in the process of stimulating and

facilitating the growth of this transformation process in the various regional
'synods of the ORCA (Policy Document 1992:6-7). .
Apart from the Northern Transvaal and Southern Transvaal Synods, there
has been growing interest in this approach - especially in the Natal and
Southern Transvaal Synods. Other regional synods have reacted rather
cautiously, even conservatively, to this new approach. There are also instances
where, church leaders have reacted positively, but first want to see what the
Oiaconal Commission has to offer them. In these cases the old attitude of
dependency still prevails and people are not always challenged by the
empowering message and contents of the Oiaconal Commission's proposals.
In other instances, such as that of the Cape Regional Synod, the church's
response is still hampered by dependency and even apathy, resulting from
extrelJl e poverty. In the Cape synod, the Western Cape is to some extent the
exception. to this ·rul~" of poverty. Mfesane, a non-profit company aimed at
welfare and development, which is at present based in Crossroads, peveloped
out of the ORCA's efforts to respond to the economic and social needs of the
black community in the o.ld Transkei and Ciskei. It is still not clear how
Mfesane wit. fit into the URCSA's new diaconal policy. The former ORMC's
Oiaconal Service is· strongest in the Western Cape. Amongst their many
wofthwile projects are various welfare programmes and institutions as well as
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more recent cC!mmunity-based development projects. The work of Oiaconal

Service now falls within the parameters of the URCSA's new Oiaconal
Commission and diaconal policy, as I will explain. "
Another factor which has unfortunately caused some delay in the growth
of this process is the unification that is underway between the former ORCA
and the ORMC. Although the ~o churches have been formally united in the
URCSA in April 1994, many aspects of the unification process are not
complete .and take up a disproportionate amount of time of the URCSA
leadership. .
Ajoint Oiaconal Commission was formed in February 1994 at a workshop
where both the former ORCA and ORMC adopted the development-as-
transformation approach of the ORCA's Oiaconal Commission, by accepting
the 1992 Policy Document. However, the Commissio"n has yet to' combine the
different approaches and existing programmes of the two uniting churches into
a single approach. At the same time, the diaconal work of the newly
established church is hampered by the leadership's more immediate. concerns
regarding the structural unification of the regional synods. Still, the Oiacc. 1al
Commission continues to propagatelhe concept and process of developmeilt-
as-transformation and some positive results appear to/be emerging.
It remains to be' seen how this· new approach will change the overtly
"
 The church, community development and liberation 47
patriarchal leadership pattern that the URCSA h~s inherited from the ORCA
and DRMC. It would seem, however, that a small seedling oftransformation
has been firmly planted among those people who should be partiCipating in
transformation - namely the poor, often marginalised and ignored local
membership of at least some congregations of the former ORCA and DRMC.
While the plant is not yet strong, at least the URCSA',s diaconal structures are
more aware of the need for a sensitive approach in accompanying grassroots
church me~bers in their transformation (Maluleke 1995).

'Conclusion
This case study describes how the diaconal policy ot'theDRCA, now the
URCSA, developed from one that tacitly supported apartheid into one that
defines development as transfo'rmation. It may serVe to illustrate that
development-as-transformation is indeed possible - provided it is borne in
. mind that transformation is a difficult and often slow-moving procesS that
arises from a struggle for liberation and.full humanity. '
, That brings us to the developmental and theological concepts that largely
underlie the CAN projects and the URCSA's present diaconal policy.
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BASIC DEVE,LOPMENTAL AND THEOLOGICAL. CONCEPTS

In the light of th~ case study our praxis-reflection cycle now'prompts ~s to
reflect on the basic meaning of development and (specifically) of community
development. We shall also consider theological concepts which could mould
and dire~t our future practice of development (as action flowing from our
reflection).

Developmental concepts
From modemisation to transformation
. '

Development in general terms can be viewed as a process of directed social

change leading to a specific set of desirable outcomes - such as economic
growth, more democratic leadership structures, more freedom and equity
(Mouton 1992:57).. '
Development can be a problematic term. It immediately implies the
underdevelopment of certain communities as opposed to the development or
even superdevelopment of others. The reasons for underdevelopm~nt or
 48 Van Schalkwyk

development also· vary considerably, dependin.9 on whether. one vie.ws

development as modernisation or as radical sOCial cha~ge. This confu~lng
. state of affairs exists in a particularly concentrated form In the South Afncan
society, which could be described as a microcosm of global socie.ty. Given this
complex situation, we have all the more reason to clanfy our own
understanding of development. .
In order to understand development as a holistic and transformative
process; we need to note the various approaches. After World War II,
development as modernisation (which meant technical and economical
development within the Western capitalist fram.ework) was considered to be
the panacea for all socia-economic problems ..
The deficiencies of this approach soon came to light, especially in the
context of Third World development. This has led to a more consistent view of
dev~lopment as a comprehensive social process, that includes the
interdependence of economic, social, political and cultural factors, both
nationally and internationally. .
To view development as a comprehensive social process necessarily
implies a human and therefore an ethical dimension. Thus the former I
viewpoint is extended to a humanistic, or people-centred perspective' on
development - for example, the human-scale development of Max-Neef,
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Elizalde & Hopenhayn (1989:18-39).

But this ethical dimension again brings a change of perspective:
development is now viewed not as gradual change, but as liberation. Liberation
now refers to the inescapable moment of radical change to the oppressive
status quo. This perception allows for the conflict impliCit in the process of
social change to become explicit. The root· causes of poverty and
underdevelopment must be attacked. These inc;lude the deep economic,
social, political and cultural dependence of some countries (or some segments
of a society) upon' others, which expresses the domination of some social
classes by others. Only in the context of liberation can meaningful
development be brought about (Gutierrez 1973:29).
In the South African context this approach was, and still is, of particular
importance in the struggle against apartheid as a complex of exploit~tive sexist,
racial, class, economic·and legal structures.The anti-apartheid movement's
strategic aim was, first and foremost, the breaking down and radical changing
of these structures. ..
However, it is not enough simply to break down negative structures. This
brings us to the fourth approach to development, namely development as
social transformation. This implies the start of a major propess:building up a
new society with' an entirely different set of values ,,!S' well. as alternative
economic, political, legal and ed~cational structures which will create a just
 The church, community development and liberation 49

and equitable order (Hope 1992:332f).

Transformation, in·this sense, flows from liberation. The humanist theme
which prevails in the three last-mentioned approaches becomes rich and
meaningfulwithin this liberational and transformational framework. It is now
possible to combine the insights of all the approaches, in the service of holistic
liberation. In the words of Peter Berger (cited by Mouton 1992:57),:it now
becomes possible to speak of development as "a vision of transformation and
·salvation."

Community Development

We now need to clarify the difference, and the relationship, between

development and community development.
Whereas development is a process of directed social change (within the
limits of the status· quo, or by completely changing it) community development.
is one method of planned change within the broader developmental
framework. Development might ·include state policies and planning, the
interaction between major economic and social role players within a society,
and so forth. But community development scales' development down to a
process manageable by a local community. Community development may be
described as the process or method whereby'a community would, collectively
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and on its own initiative and responsibility, attempt to realise self-identified

needs, according to pre-established procedures in order to reach set goals. An
external agent can act as a facilitator or animator in this process (Kotze &
SwanepoeI1983:1-7). An animator will make use of a problem-posing method
to let a group participate in this process (see the description of Paolo Freire's
problem~posing method in the following paragraphs), whereas a facilitator will
guide and enable a group, without the use of a probiem-posing approach.
Note the importance of the community's ·felt needs. We shall return to
human needs in a moment. Community development can of course be
approached in different ways, depending on the operative view of
development. . .
Paulo Freire's theory and work on education and literacy programmes are
expounded in his seminal book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (Freire 1972).11')
this work he provid~ practitioners in the Iiberational and transformational field
with an incisive method to use in education or, in our case, in the process of
. community development. .
According to Freire, community development should be practised as an
"awakening" or conscientising process. The animator gets groups actively
engaged and enables them to break through their apathy by means of a
problem-posing and conscientising approach. Such groups become critically
 50 Van Schalkwyk

aware of the causes of problems in their society. Jhis critical awareness leads
to action, in an effort to challenge the root problems and implement possible
solutions. The group· critically evaluates these actions and plans to change
their future actions accordingly (Hope & TimmeI1987:6-12, based on Freire).
This process can be illustrated by means of Freire's action-reflection cycle.

REFLECTION

ACTION
DIAGR~M 1

An aspect of the community development process on which we should

elaborate, in order to understand its holistic nature, is the centrality of human
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Me~, .

Human needs

A team of Latin-American researchers, Max-Neef et al. (1989:18-39), compiled

a matrix of nine fundamental human needs which may serve as a model both
for a better understanding of human needs and for adion planning. They
make a distinction between human needs and satisfiers:

• Human needs are immaterial, finite, classifiable and unvarying throughout

history and across different cultures ..
• Satisfiers are what people do to satisfy needs.

As diagram 2 indicates, needs can be categorised according to the four

existeritial categories of being, having, dOing and interacting on the one hand,
and according to the nine axiological categories of subsistence, protection,
affection, understanding, participation, idleness, creation, identity and freedom
on the other hand. And all this amounts to happiness! Sjltisfierscan.now be
organised within the grids of this matrix. The researche~ stress that this is· only
one possible categorisation and that it can be adapted.
. .
 The church,community development and liberation 51
Table " Matrix o( needs ~rid satisfiers·

~
. . . OOC<O,.....
.

No .•.
according
lo •• illen!i ••
categorl,'
Bei'!9 Having Doing Interacting
IO •• IOIOOicll
cltegorl••
11 21 JJ 41
Subsistence- Physical h.a'th 6 Food. sheltar. Feed. procreele. living ~nviron-
mentel h ••hh. wort ,e.l"work ment-Iocie'
equilibrium. '.Iting
senle a. humour.
adaptability
5/ 6/ 71 8/
Protection Cere.adaptabilily. Insurance Iyslem.,· Cooperate.: Living apace, _
autonomy,equilib- .avlngs••oci., ... pr~t.pl.n. lOCi" environ-
rium, solidarity curity. heahh sYI- take eIIr. 01. cure.. ment.dweUing
tems,tight•• h.elp
'.mily, work'
91 101 111 121
Affection Self-esteem. sol;" Friendships. M.keIO'tle.caress. Prlvacy,lntimacy.
darity. respect..oJ. 'emily. pertne,- •• pres.emalions, . home. splICes 01
otance,generos· • hips, rel.tion· eh.re. t.k.care of• logether,...,
ity. receptiveness, .hips with n.ture . cultivat••• ppred·
passion,det.rmi· II.
nalion, sensuelity,
senseofhumour
lJJ w 15/ 16/
Understanding C,itic.1 con.cience. Ute"ture. teach.r.. InWttigace••tudy, Seulngso'fo·rma.
receptiven.s•• curl· method••duc.· exp.rim.nt. edu· live inlerlltlion.
ositY,lStoni.h· ,ion.' polici.s. c.t•• an.lys•• m.di. achoOIs. uni\/el1li.
ment.diseiplin.. . communication t ••• ti••• K.dem'..,.
intuition.r.tlonality policies orouPl·communi.
ties. family
171 18/ 191 201
Participalion Adaptability. recep. Rights. responsi- a.com••tfili•••st. Settlng.o. p.rtici·
liven.... eolidarity. biliti ••• duti ••• cooperat••·propo••• p.tiwintar.dion.
willingness. d.t.r- privileg." YoOrk ,her•• di.sent, p.rtl.....soei••
min.tion, d.diee· obey. int.rect, tion., church•••
tion. ~••pect. p ... .gre.on••• pre.. communi"•••
sian. tense of opinion. neighbourhoOds.
humour family
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211 221 2JJ 241

~~;~!~=:!r:.
Idleness Games.,.pectacle,. Oay.dr.am. brood. Privacy. Intimacy.
clubs. partin. dream. recall old speces ol.dose·
reckl.ssne... sense peaceo'~nd lim.s.givewaylO ness. free time.
of humour. Iran· 'antllies. remem- surrounding,.
quility, .. nsuality b.r, rele•• hBVII fun. landscapes
ploy
25/ 261 271 28/
Creation Passion, determina· Abilities. skills. \'\.brk, invent. build. Producliveend
tion,lnlUilion. im- m.thod. work d.sign. compose. feedback ,eUings,
aginelion. boldness, interpret workshops. CUllUr.1
rationality, auton- . groUps, eudiences.
omy, inventi\/eness. spaces for e.pre,-
curio.ity sion.lemporel f,...
dom
291 301 311 321
Senseo' belonging. Symbols.languag•• Commiloneself. Social rhythm"
. consistenCY.differ. religion, h.bits. Integrate one.elf• everyday setUngs.
entieUon, self· customs. r.ference confront. decide on.. ,eltingswhich one
esteem.asserti\/e- groups. ,.xuality, gellOknowoneself. belongs 10. metu-
..ss values. norms• recognize one.elf. ration'tege,
hi.torical m.mory. ectuslize oneself.
wort grow
3JJ :w 35/ 361
Freedom Autonomy.....• Equal right. Dis,eru. choose. "mporallspetlal
este.m, delermina- b.diffentnlfrom. plasticity
lion. passion. essert- runrisks.develop
ivaness. open- awar.ness.commit
mindedn.". bold- on.self,dl.obey
ness. rebellious-
nes", tolerance
• The column 01 BEING regls.ers Btlribu'es. personal or collecti\/e.that.re e.pres'ed as noun,. The column of HAVING
regis.e" inllirution•. norms. mechanisms. rool. (not In • malerial sense). I6ws. ele. thai can be expressed in on. or
mar. words. The column of DOING registers lICtion,. personal or collecti\/e. thet een be •• pressed es \/erbs. Th.
column of INTERACTING regi.lers loc.Nions and milieu. en tim.s .nd .paces). h .land. for the Spanish ESTAR or
th. German BEFINOEN. in the sense of tim. and space. Since th.,.i. no corre.pondingword In English. INTERACTING
wes chosen 'j faul d. mi.u.·,

DIAGRAM 2
 52 Van Schalkwyk

Ann Hope has simplified this diagram, by representing the basic needs as
spikes in a "wheel of fundamental human needs." This simpler diagram also
illustrates the holistic nature of human needs.
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HAVING-

INTEI:.AC..TING- t
, ·DIAGRAM3

Human needs can further be described as bipolar in character - as deprivation

and potential. '

DEPRI~ATION, NEED POTENTIAL

< Deprivation leads to poverty,

Continuous deprivation
Human-scale developmen>"
aims at the realisation of
leads to pathology potential
DIAGRAM 4
 The church, community. development and liberation· 53

For example, the·need for affection is also the potential for affection. Wh~n
any of these nine needs are ignored, however, a need becomes a deprived
condition. This leads to the poverty and breakdown ofthe whole person. We
can therefore speak of nine poverties. Continuous deprivation turns poverties
into pathologies; in other words, products of profound hon-satisfaction of one
or more fundamental human needs. It is readily apparent that pathologies can
infest a whole segment of society. For example: Violence is a pathology
caused by the non-satisfaction of the need for ·subsistence, protection,
freedom and participation (Max-Neef et al. 1989: 21).
Needs as potential can only truly be realised or satisfied through the
critical awareness and self-initiated actions of a community itself. The
. realisation of a need or needs, based on the self-awareness and self-reliance
of people, leads to a synergic and coherent realisation of further needs. Thus
the potential of a community can be progressively realised.
Satisfiers which are beyond the control of a community, soon become
pseudo-satisfiers, inhibiting or even destroying true satisfiers (Max-Neef et al..
"1989:34-39).. . ..
This explanation of human needs touches on the very essence of human
nature. It also explains what development and community development are
about, namely the synergic and coherent (or.holistic) realisation of human
needs. This explanation of development in terms of human beings and their
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needs within a particular context gives us a real~life framework within which

holistic liberation can be realised. It understands development as a holistic,
people-centred, liberating and transforming process in which local
communities consciously and actively take pait. Development therefore aims
at the synergic and holistic realisation of human needs and potential.

A theological fra~ework for the church's

involvement in development

We now continue our quest for a theological framework for the involvement of
churches. and Christian communities in development. It is interesting to note
that quite a few theological concepts correspond to the aforementioned
developmental concepts. What follows is only a very basic framework - other
relevant themes certainly need to be added.
 54 Van Schalkwyk

Our basis: the dynamic process of creation-recreation within history

CREATION RECREATION RECREATION RECREATION

DIAGRAM 5

There are not two histories, the one profane and 'the other sacred. Christ's
saving work was and i~ done in the midst of historic reality, through his life,
death and· resurrection and the continuous re-enactment of this death-
resurrection, or creation-recreation cycle inhuman and natural life. .
This does not mean that we abandon our faith in the eschatological
coming of a 'new creation. We know thi;lt within 9ur.present· reality, through our
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daily sharing in the death and resurrection of Christ, we are working and
struggling for a new day. We can only ,work for a new and just creation if we
analyse and understand our reality, and deal with 'it in order to change it, as
illustrated by the pastoral cycle of Holland and Henriot (in Cochrane et' al.
. 1991 :13ff); The pastoral cycle .of social involvement ,corresponds closely to the'
praxis-reflection cycle of Freire (see Hope & Timmel, Book 3,1984:50). This
explains in faith language what development, as a process of social change,
is about. .

Our starting point: a church-of-the-poor

Our theology of development must emanate from the poor themselves. The
poor are those who are deprived of .the satisfaction or realisation of their
fundamental needs. • "
Such a theology of development is. possible if the church is based at
grassroots level, among the poor. In this church model; God's option for the
poor, powerless, voiceless and destitute is taken seriously. A church-of-the-
poor is constituted by the very people it tri~s to serve. Ip this church model,
there is a strong awareness of Christ as servant (diakonos), who established
·the church as his 'body through suffering servi~e. Church members
demonstrate their shared membership of the community of Christ's body
 The church, community development and liberation 55

through loving service to one another. They witn~ss to the broader. community
by also serving the needs of that broa'der community. This does not mean that'
the church loses its identity as the body of Christ. By commemorating and
embodying Christ, the su.ffering servant of the church and Of all t~at lives, the
church actually strengthens its identity as body-of-Christ (Lobinger 1981 :30f,
38-41). .
The church, in its social analysis and pr.actical.involvement, should
therefore listen patiently to the experienc~s, insights and Wisdom of ordinary
church and community members. - women and men, children, youth arid the
elderly - who do not normally have much of a voice. The church should also
take cognisance of the material and immaterial conditions of local (often poor)
communities and should follow the initiative of the people themselves to
change these conditions. Leadership in the church should therefore be based
on partnership with the poor and not on·a paternalistic guidance ofthe poor
(Cochrane et al. 1991 :26-35; 60-64).
. f,uthority resides in each member's power to serve. This serving church- .
of-the-poor is a sign of the household of"eedom (RusseIl1t89:20-230). Such
an ecclesiological model stands in contrasUo others, such as:

• the church as a life-bOat for the saved or ali institute for personal
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salvation (Hope & Timmel, Book 3,1984:52)

• 'the church as a patriarchal and hier~rchical structure (Russell 1989:20).

Our aim: liberation in the household offreedom

We hav~ .already seen that holistic liberation is the aim of a transformational

approach to development. Holistic liberation can also be stated as the goal of
mission in the broadest sense of the word .. In the words of de Gruchy
(1991 :30f):

. Liberation, properly understood, includes and integrates the nidel'Qption and renewal of the
whole of life, whether personal, psychological and spiritual, or societal, political and
environmental. Nothing can be more fundamental to the biblical message of the Kingdom of
God. .

Where this freedom is practised, the reign of God takes on concrete form
within our reality. Our eschatological hope is that this reign will one day be fully
realised. The reign of God may also be described as shalom - ' as the
restored, wholesome, peaceful and just life of women and men, in communion
with one another and with God and nature. . .
The feminist theologian Letty Russell uses the metaphor "household of
 56 Van Schalkwyk ,

freedom" as an alternative translation of the phrase "kingdom/reign of God."

Feminist and liberation theologians appeal to God's present and future action.
to create the world as a "household of freedom" where both humanity and
nature can live in a community of responsibility, partnership and freedom. This
stands in stark contrast to the structures of domination that perpetuate
suffering in our tattered and tom creation - as well as in the midst of the
church (Russell 1989:20). When "'Ie do transformational development work,
it is a present realisation of ~od's future household of freedom.

Our theological moc/el:'a pastoral-herineneuticc,l circle

.
Here I want to refer to the "pastoral-hermeneutical circle" of Holland and
Henriot, in which pastoral praxis, hermeneutics and theological reflection are
integrated in an ongoing cyclical process in the life of the church-in-its-context
(Cochrane et al. 1991 :13). The pastoral-hermeneutical circle involves' the
--following ,moments or aspects:

'. InSertion of the development worker/s into the reality of the context in
'which the church exists and 'witnesses.
• Analysis of the root causes of problems in our social and ecclesial
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context; the consequences of problems, the linkages between them, and

important role-players in the context
• Theological reflection on our context, Which, involves the following, in the
words of Holland and Henriot (in Cochrane et al. 1991 :19): "An effort to
understand more broadly and deeply the analysed experience in the light
of living faith, scripture, social teaching and the resources of tradition. The
Word of God brought'to bear upon the situation raises new questions;
suggests new insights, and opens new responses."
• ' A discel'!'ling and empowering spirituality enabling us to be practically yet
reflectively involved in our context. Our spirituality will "fuel" our
transformative faith and praxis.
• Finally, the crucial stage: pa,storal planning in the pastoral-hermeneutic
circle. Here the faith community decides what they now discern to be
God's will for them, what they are called to be as the pec;>ple of God, and
what action this requires in their context (Cochrane,et al. 1991 :13-25).

Through the above process, we are enabled to enter into the pastoral-
hermeneutic circle again at a deeper level: our insertion into our context is '
deepened, our understanding of our context may change and become more
profound~ our spirituality is strenghtened, and we are better able to plan a fresh
involvement in our context.
 The church; community development.and liberation 57

This pastoral-hermeneutic circle overlaps with the praxis-reflection cycle of

Freire used in education and community develop'ment (as described above).
This overlap is expressed by diagram 6. Developmental programmes do not
have to be strictly separated from the church's Mnormalft activities. Church and
development can rather stand in a mutually enriching relationship - referring
back to our starting point and context for doing development, namely the
church-of-the-poor.

PASTORAL-HERMENEUTICAL CIRCLE I CYCLE

PRAXIS-REFLECTION CYCLE
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DIAGRAM 6

Our spirituality: insertion in history / reflection on history

We cannot afford to have a ~spirituality of a higher plane,ft in the church's social

involvement and development work. We are constanUy engaged in a process
bfsocial change which requires involvement in and commitment to our human
and social condition. We can only be involved in social tra·nsformation if we
. ourselves are constantly renewed and transformed through an empowering
spirituality. Our spirituality is the core and basis of our continuous involvement -
in liberating praxis and reflection in the midst of our context (Cochrane et al.
1991:83) .
We therefore continuously re-enact Chrisfs death and resurrection (or. the
creation-recreation cycle) in the midst of social realities. To be part of.this
process or cycle.is.painful, but it leads daily to a deeper un~erstanding of
Chrisfs salvific-liberational work in the midst of the human condition. This is a
realistic but hopeful way of bearing the cross, while we work'towards our aim,
namely full liberation in the household of freedom.
This spirituality is empowering. It is nota spiri~uality of escapism but of
grappling with our reality, understanding it and coming to terms with it, even
 58 Van Schalkwyk

while we are changing it. It is also humorous, because humour means that we
are free and perceptive enough to see and name our reality for what it is.

ASPECTS OF A THEOLOGY OF DEVELOPMENT

IN A TIME OF TRANSITION

To conclude this article, .Iet m~ retLirn to the URCSA case study with which I
started, in order to complete an action-reflection~action circle within this article
itself.

The important role of the churches

The churches and their development agencies are a potentially potent force
in the total development spectrum in South Africa. In a time of social change
and transition, a transformative as well as sustainable devel9pment process
is one of the most permanent and co,lstructive ways of achieving
reconstruction, justice and peace. For the South African society the "Christian
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community and churches have a str,ong message of transformation and truly

holistic liberation, underpinned by a strong theological and spiritual basis (such
as I have spelt out in this paper). This spiritual !?ource of transformation is our
Christian contribution to the transformation process in South Africa.
In order to play this important role, the churches should however have a·
very clear grasp of what a transformational approach to development entaiis.
For example, the URCSA Policy Report on ·Partnership in Diaconal Service"
(formulated in qctober 1992; updated in February 1994) spells out such a
message of development-as-transformation in a clear and compelling way.
Indeed, the CAN projects and the URCSA's diaconal policy pOint the way for
the whole URCSA and other churches. . .

The transformation of the churches themselves

Before a church can spread this message of transformation in word and. deed,
it should first transform itself and its own leadership structures. The case of the
URCSA demonstrates this priority. AlthougJ'l the flame of transformation is
already burning in some sectors of the church, the spreading of this flame is
hindered by leadership structures and attitudes that cling to the status quo of
conselVative, patriarchal and authoritative leadershiP. .Ironically, these
leadership structures depend for their survival on the old, paternalistic financial
 The church, ,community development and liberation 59

relationship between the DRC and the DRCAlDRMC, :These structures

hamper a genuine transformation process among all the church's members:'
This situation underlines the urgency of thoroughgoing unification in the "DRC
family"(especially between the former DRCA and DRMC) and the need for a
transformational approach to unification.
In this regard Dr Mary James (1992:77-78) of Africa Enterprise identifies
the churches' tendency to exercise some form of hierarchical authority over its
members and to' export or project its own vested interests onto society, as
perhaps the greatest obstacle ,to the church's meaningful participation in
development. This prevents the church from becoming the church-of-the-poor
and part of development as a people's movement.
The above resonates lJ\iith a feminist critique ofthe church. Ifthe church
is not only to playa meaningful role in development but, more' fundamentally,
to be truly a servant church, it must first of all transform its leadership patterns
into ones of partnership and participation.
The'churches should also step down from their ecclesiastical pedestals
and become active, vitai and serving members of the sOt:iety in which they
exist. In this way they can become churches of the poor and the rich by
developing liberating, equal and empowering relations of authority within,the
household of freedom. '
.,
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The churches' awareness of

the context of transition

We need to have an acute awareness of our present" context of transition as

a moment of tru.th for the church's involvement ir:l development. We need to
be aware of our society's situation of brokenness and pain, in which we have
to act out our vision of healing and recreation. ,
At the SACC/EFSA Church and Development Conference in October
1993, Prof FranciS Wilson (1993:108-110) took a critical look at development
in South Africa. He points out that our economy has created wealth but also
poverty, economic and social marginalisation and environmental catastrophe.
The'violence in' our country springs from the fragmentation of a, society of
which a 'major part live in conditions of poverty, impossible pressures on family
and communal life, political pressure, rivalry and uncertainty, hopelessness
and despair. And this is a society with over a century of "development- behind
it This is the society in which the church has to play an active role with regard
the following aspects:
 Van Schalkwyk
60

Local structures

The political levelling of the playing fields (especially at local government level)
and the creation of equal opportunities, in order that transformational
development may take place and not just be a continuation of .under- versus
superdevelopment. In this regard, the local elections of November 1995 have
to be followed by the establishment of soulld, ·effective local government
structures and Local Development Forums in order that the RDP can start
delivering to local communities. Churches and church agencies should play
a constructive role in local RDP-related structures.

Involvirig hitherto marginalised groups

MarQinal groups such as women (who form the majority of the 40% of South
Africa's population who live under the poverty line), rural and squatter
communities, hostel communities .and the marginalised youth need the special
attention of the church (Wilson and Ramphele 1989:170-185). I· want to
mention women and development as a special priority because women in a
very real sense are a binding and nurturing presence in otherwise broken
communities. They play this role despite tremendously difficult circumstances
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ofsexist, racial and economic oppression (see Wilson & Ramphele 19.89:177-
180). . .
The CAN projects, which are to a large extent undertaken by women, are'
an example of transformation that starts with the poorest of the poor. They are
. situated where transformation matters most - in rural, peri-urban and urban
grassroots communities. Transformative development at this level will ensure
a basis for a further transformation process. Women should be involved in
development programmes with a so-called subsistence goal as well as a more
strategic goal at political empowerment.

Development and environment

I

Francis Wilson (1993:109f), refers to the environmental catastrophe (in the

natural as well as the social sense) into which South Africa has been plunged
after 100 years of "development." This calls for a radical.reconsideration of our
developmental approach. Development should be sustainable in terms of our
natural resources as well as our social well-being. Socio-economic
development depends on our harmonious cQ-existence with nature.
 The church; community development and liberation 61

The church's public profile

The church should direct a critical challenge regarding responsible

stewardship, integrity and incorruptibility to other sectors in the broader
development and political spectrum. It'should be an active and independent
role-player and opinion-maker within the development spectrum. It should be
sufficiently equipped, informed and confident of its own support base (in
spiritual terms as well as in terms of an active membership) to do so. In order
to p.lay this critical and informed role, the church should give much more
attention to the training of theological students. and other members in
development and community dev~lopment

Conclusion

To conclude this attempt at cr~ating a theologically-based approach to

gevelopment which could lead to holistic liberation of both humanity and
nature, I quote from the URCSA Policy Document (1994), which provides a
good theological basis for a transformational approach to the church's
diaconal and development work (except that it has omitted the aspect of
sexism):
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In Christ we find our true identity.

The event of His death and resurrection we regard as
the turning point in our own lives.
We therefore believe that Christian transformation is
as real and powerful as a plant growing out of a seed.

We therefore commit ourselves within the' reality of the country we live in

to a process of transformation in order to -
bring racism, classism and tribalism to an end in order to
build a new society where there is opportunity and satisfaction in more
equal sharing and self-reliance.
 62 Val) Schalkwyk

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