Power System Control – 2

2019 (2nd Semester)

Course Code: EE-2421

4th Grade Electrical Engineering Department

Prepared by
Dr. Mohammad E. Rizk
 Exciter and Voltage Regulator
• Exciter function: is to increase the excitation current for voltage drop and decrease it for
voltage rise.

• The voltage change is defined as,

∆𝑉 = 𝑉𝑡 − 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓

• where 𝑉𝑡 is the terminal voltage and 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference voltage.

• Exciter ceiling voltage: The maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter with
specified conditions of load.

• Exciter response: The rate of increase or decrease of the exciter voltage, when a change
in this voltage is demanded.
 Exciter and Voltage Regulator
• Exciter build up: depends upon the field resistance and changing it by cutting or adding.

• The greatest possible control effort is the complete shorting of the field rheostat when
maximum excitation current is reached in the field circuit. This can be done by closing the
contactor shown in the Figure.
 Block Schematic of Excitation Control
• The figure shows a typical excitation control system where the terminal voltage of
the alternator is sampled, rectified and compared to a reference voltage.

• The difference is amplified and fed back to the exciter field winding to change the
excitation current.
 Automatic Voltage Regulators for
Alternators
• For an isolated generator feeding a load, the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) functions
to maintain the bus bar voltage constant.

• For dynamic, interconnected systems, the AVR has the following objectives:

1. keep the system voltage constant so that the connected equipment operates
satisfactorily;

2. obtain a suitable distribution of reactive load between machines working in parallel;

and

3. improve stability.
Analysis of Generator Voltage Control

The figure shows the Typical Arrangement of AVR System

 Analysis of Generator Voltage Control
Vref + e eA ef Vt
Amplifier Exciter Generator
– V
Sensor
(Rectifier + Filter)

• The figure shows a simplified block diagram for AVR System

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 − 𝑉 = 𝑒 → Error in voltage

𝐾𝐴
• Amplifier Model: 𝐸𝐴 𝑠 = ∙𝐸 𝑠 (1)
1+𝑠∙𝜏𝐴

• For a step change in 𝑒, 𝐸 𝑠 =𝑒 𝑠 .

 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• where 𝐾𝐴 is the amplifier gain, and 𝜏𝐴 is the amplifier time constant.

• If the amplifier action is assumed to be instantaneous, then 𝜏𝐴 = 0.

In this case, 𝐸𝐴 𝑠 = 𝐾𝐴 ∙ 𝐸 𝑠 .

• Exciter Model: The input to the exciter field (𝑒𝐴 ) will be applied to the resistance (𝑅𝑒 ) and
𝑑
inductance (𝐿𝑒 ) of the field windings of the exciter so that, 𝑒𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒 ∙ 𝑖𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 ∙ 𝑖𝑒
𝑑𝑡

(2)

• where 𝑖𝑒 is the field current of the exciter. If a change in this field current ∆𝑖𝑒 = 1 (A) produces
𝐾1 (V) change in the output,

then ∆𝑒𝑓 = 𝐾1 ∙ ∆𝑖𝑒 (3)

 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• By substituting from (3) into (2)

1 𝑑
𝑒𝐴 = ∙ 𝑅𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑓 + 𝐿𝑒 ∙ 𝑒𝑓 (4)
𝐾1 𝑑𝑡

• By Applying Laplace transform,

1 1 + 𝑠 ∙ 𝜏𝑒
𝐸𝐴 𝑠 = ∙ 𝑅𝑒 + 𝐿𝑒 ∙ 𝑠 ∙ 𝐸𝑓 𝑠 = ∙ 𝐸𝑓 𝑠
𝐾1 𝐾1
𝑅𝑒

𝐾1
𝑅𝑒 𝐾𝑒
𝐸𝑓 𝑠 = ∙ 𝐸𝐴 𝑠 = ∙ 𝐸𝐴 𝑠 (5)
1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑒 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑒

where 𝐾𝑒 is the exciter gain, and 𝜏𝑒 is the exciter time constant.

 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• Generator Model: The input voltage signal (𝑒𝑓 ) to the generator field, when applied to the
𝑑
circuit results in the following Kirchoff's voltage equation, 𝑒𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓 ∙ 𝑖𝑓 + 𝐿𝑓𝑓 ∙ 𝑖𝑓 (6)
𝑑𝑡

• 𝑅𝑓 and 𝐿𝑓𝑓 are the alternator field resistance and self inductance, respectively.

• 𝑖𝑓 is the change in the field current of the alternator.

• Taking Laplace transform, 𝐸𝑓 (𝑠) = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠 ∙ 𝐿𝑓𝑓 ∙ 𝐼𝑓 (𝑠) (7)

• The output RMS voltage changes by ∆ 𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) for a change in the field current of the

2
alternator ∆𝐼𝑓 𝑠 as ∆𝐼𝑓 𝑠 = ∙ ∆ 𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) (8)
𝜔𝐿𝑓𝑎
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• where 𝐿𝑓𝑎 is the mutual inductance between the field and stator phase winding, and 𝜔 is the
angular velocity of the rotor (field current).

• Hence, the transfer function for the generator block could be obtained from Equations (7) and (8)
as follows,

2
∆𝐸𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑅𝑓 + 𝑠 ∙ 𝐿𝑓𝑓 ∙ ∙ ∆ 𝑉𝑡 𝑠
𝜔𝐿𝑓𝑎

𝐿𝑓𝑓 2∙𝑅𝑓
∆𝐸𝑓 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑠 ∙ ∙ ∙ ∆ 𝑉𝑡 𝑠 (9)
𝑅𝑓 𝜔∙𝐿𝑓𝑎

∆ 𝑉𝑡 𝑠 𝐾𝑔𝑓
= (10)
∆𝐸𝑓 𝑠 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑔𝑓
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
𝐿𝑓𝑓
• 𝜏𝑔𝑓 = is the direct axis open circuit time constant, also denoted more commonly by
𝑅𝑓

𝜏𝑑𝑜 (s).

−1
2∙𝑅𝑓
• 𝐾𝑔𝑓 = is the gain of the generator field winding.
𝜔∙𝐿𝑓𝑎

• Sensor Model: Let the gain and the time constant of the rectifier and filter are
respectively 𝐾𝑆 and 𝜏𝑆

𝐾𝑆
∆𝑉 𝑠 = ∙ ∆ 𝑉𝑡 𝑠 (11)
1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑆
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

• The voltage regulator loop can be represented by the block diagram shown in the Figure above.

𝐾𝐴 ∙𝐾𝑒 ∙𝐾𝑔𝑓
𝐺 𝑠 = (12)
1+𝑠∙𝜏𝐴 ∙ 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑒 ∙ 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑔𝑓

𝐾𝑆
𝐻 𝑠 = → (Feedback) (13)
1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑆
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

• Open loop Transfer Function

𝑉 𝑠
𝑇𝑜 𝑠 = =𝐺 𝑠 ∙𝐻 𝑠 (14)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠

𝐾𝐴 ∙𝐾𝑒 ∙𝐾𝑔𝑓 ∙𝐾𝑆

𝑇𝑜 𝑠 = (15)
1+𝑠∙𝜏𝐴 ∙ 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑒 ∙ 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑔𝑓 ∙ 1+𝑠∙𝜏𝑆
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

• Closed Loop Transfer Function

𝑉𝑡 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
𝑇𝑐 𝑠 = = (16)
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 1+𝐺 𝑠 ∙𝐻 𝑠

𝑉𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑇𝑐 𝑠 ∙ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 (17)
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
 Steady State Performance Evaluation of AVR

• The control loop must regulate the output voltage 𝑉𝑡 so

that the error becomes zero, 𝐸 = 0 .

• It is also imperative that the response must be

reasonably fast, yet not cause any instability problem.

• For an input voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 → the error ∆𝐸 𝑠 in

the output voltage is the difference between the input

 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
• Using the final value theorem, the steady-state error is given by taking
the limit 𝑠 → 0 in the following formula,

𝐺 𝑠
∆𝐸𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠 ∙ ∆𝐸 𝑠 = lim 𝑠 ∙ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 ∙ 1−
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 1+𝐺 𝑠 ∙𝐻 𝑠

1+𝐺 𝑠 ∙ 𝐻 𝑠 −1
∆𝐸𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠 ∙ 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 ∙ (19)
𝑠→0 1+𝐺 𝑠 ∙𝐻 𝑠

1
• For a step input voltage 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 = , and by substituting from
𝑠

(12) and (13) into (19) and taking the limit 𝑠 → 0 , we get
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
1+𝐾𝐺 ∙ 𝐾𝐻 −1
∆𝐸𝑠𝑠 = → The steady-state error of a unit-step
1+𝐾𝐺 ∙𝐾𝐻

input

where 𝐾𝐺 = 𝐾𝐴 ∙ 𝐾𝑒 ∙ 𝐾𝑔𝑓 = 𝐾𝐴 , 𝐾𝐻 = 𝐾𝑆 = 1
 Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
 Dynamic Response of Voltage Regulation Control

𝐺 𝑠
• Since 𝑉𝑡 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 ∙ 𝑇𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑠 ∙
1+𝐺 𝑠 ∙𝐻 𝑠

• The response of the AVR depends upon the roots of the characteristic
equation, 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 ∙ 𝐻 𝑠 = 0.

• For fast response of the AVR and smaller steady-state error, it is required
to increase the gain of the controller.

• On the other hand, the increase in the gain is allowable to the stability
limit because increasing the gain may move the roots of the
characteristic equation to the right side of the s-plane (unstable region.)