Elective-Maths For Senior High Sch. Trs 3

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
COURSE CODE:
MAT 431
COURSE TITLE:
MATHEMATICS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS III
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

First printed in 2014 by University Printing Press, Cape Coast
Printed in 2016 by Wilson Books & Stationery Ent. Ltd., Cape Coast
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC),

2014, 2016
CoDE PUBLICATIONS 2016
REVISED, 2015
All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior
permission of the copyright holder.
Cover page illustrated by R. Y. Essiam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary

education to clients, it is necessary to appreciate all colleagues and staff
of the College of Distance Education (CoDEUCC) who have
contributed in attaining this objective. The revision of this module has
been made possible through the support and commitment of several
people whose contribution in diverse ways is making CoDEUCC attain
its mission in the history of distance education in Ghana.
First, I acknowledge the hard work of the authors of the reviewed

modules. The purpose of the review was to bring to bear new
knowledge and trends in the subject content. I therefore appreciate the
work of the reviewers of this module for making the content of this
module indispensable in attaining success for all clients. Thus, much
thanks go to the following Mr. Henry Amankwah, Mr. Douglas
Darko Agyei, Mr. Samuel Mindakifoe Naandam and Mr. Francis
Eyiah-Bediako for their painstaking effort.
I also acknowledge the support of the Co-ordinator and Staff of the

Reprographic, Productions and Dispatch Unit, CoDE, who worked hard
to bring this material into print. The support of the Advisory
Committee, particularly Heads of Department and Chief Examiners has
also been invaluable.
I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ghartey-Ampiah, all UCC

Management and the various printing houses without whose support this
module would not have been produced.
Special thanks go to Victoria Hadizatu Adams for typesetting into the

house style of CoDE.
Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)
CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

ABOUT THIS BOOK
This Course Book ‘Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers III’

has been exclusively written by experts in the discipline to up-date your
general knowledge of Education in order to equip you with the basic
tool you will require for your professional training as a basic
schoolteacher and administrator.
This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been

structured to reflect the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the
University. Thus, each session is equivalent to a one-hour lecture on
campus. As a distance learner, however, you are expected to spend a
minimum of three hours and a maximum of five hours on each session.
To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly

designed to show you how this book can be used. In this study guide,
your weekly schedules are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes,
assignments and examinations.
Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings.
They are meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and
activities you are expected to perform.
Blank sheets have also been inserted for your comments on topics that
you may find difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your
course tutor during your fortnightly meetings.
We wish you a happy and successful study.
Mr. Henry Amankwah

Mr. Douglas Darko Agyei
Mr. Samuel Mindakifoe Naandam
Mr. Francis Eyiah-Bediako
CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
About this Book i

Acknowledgement ii
Table of Contents iii
Symbols and their Meanings iv
UNIT 1 ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND 1

QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
Session 1 Roots of Quadratic Equations, Nature of Roots 3

1.1 Discriminant 3
1.2 Nature of Roots 4
Session 2 Sum and Product of Roots 7

2.1 Forming the Equation 7
2.2 Forming the Sum and Product of Quadratic Roots 7
Session 3 Symmetrical Functions 11

3.1 Finding Values of Symmetrical Functions of α and β 11
3.2 Forming Equations using Symmetrical Functions of
α and β 13
Session 4 Quadratic Inequalities 17

4.1 Finding the Range by Testing a Convenient Point 17
4.2 Finding the Range by Sketching the Graph 19
Session 5 Number Line Representation of Quadratic Inequality

Solution 23
Session 6 Problems Involving Quadratic Inequalities 27
UNIT 2 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY 31
Session 1 Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent 33

1.1Revision on the Three Major Trigonometric Ratios 33
1.2 Finding the Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent 35
Session 2 General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations 41

2.1 Solutions of Trigonometric Equations, General Case 41
2.2 Solutions of Trigonometric Equations in a Specified Range 43
CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 3 Trigonometric Identities 47

3.1 Basic Identities 47
3.2 The Half Angle Identities 49
3.3 The t − formulae 51
Session 4 Other Solutions of Trigonometric Equations 55

4.1 Trigonometric Equations involving Basic Identities 55
4.2 Trigonometric Equation of the Form a cos θ + b sin θ = c 58
4.3 Using the t − Formulae to solve Trigonometric Equations 62
Session 5 Proofs of Some Trigonometric Identities 65
Session 6 The Factor Formulae 71
UNIT 3 CALCULUS III 75
Session 1 Increments and Differentials 77

1.1 Increments 77
1.2 Differentials 79
Session 2 Using Increments to Approximate a Function 81
Session 3 The Trapeziodal Rule 83

3.1 Deriving the Trapezoidal Rule 83
3.2 Using the Trapezoidal Rule 84
Session 4 Integration by Parts 89
Session 5 Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions 93
Session 6 Solving Differential Equations by Separation of Variables 95
UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS 99
Session 1 The Complex Numbers 101

1.1 Complex Numbers 101
1.2 Representation of Complex Numbers 102
Session 2 Addition And Subtraction Of Complex Numbers 105

2.1 Addition of Complex Numbers 105
2.2 Subtraction of Complex Numbers 106
iv CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Basic Education

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Session 3 The Product and Quotient of Complex Numbers 109

3.1 Multiplication of Complex Numbers 109
3.2 Division of Complex Numbers 111
Session 4 Complex Conjugate and Division of Complex Numbers 115

4.1 The Complex Conjugate 115
4.2 Division of Complex Numbers using Complex Conjugate 116
Session 5 Polar Representation of Complex Numbers 119

5.1 The Modulus of a Complex Number 119
5.2 Argument of a Complex Number 120
5.3 Polar Form of Complex Numbers 122
Session 6 De Moivre’s Formula 125
UNIT 5 MATRICES III 129

Session 1 Solving Linear Systems Using Inverse Matrix Method 131
1.1 Matrix Equations of Linear Systems 131
1.2 Inverse Matrix Method for Solving Linear Systems 132
Session 2 Elementary Row Operations 135
Session 3 Gaussian Elimination and the Row-Echelon Form 139

3.1 Expressing Argument Matrix in Row-Echelon Form 139
3.2 Row – Echelon Matrices 141
Session 4 Back Addition and Reduced Row Echelon Form 143

4.1 Back Addition 143
Session 5 Consistency and Row Rank 147
5.1 Determination of Inconsistency of a System by Gaussian
Elimination 147
5.2 Row Rank 149
Session 6 Parametric Representation of Solution Set and Application

153
6.1 Parametric Representation of Solutions 153
6.2 Application to Production Planning 155
UNIT 6 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 159
Session 1 Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random Variable 161

1.1 Random Variable 161
CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education v

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.2 Discrete Random Variable 162

1.3 Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random Variable 162
Session 2 Central Tendencies and Variance of a Discrete Random

Variable 169
2.1 Central Tendencies 169
2.2 The Variance 172
Session 3 Special Discrete Probability Distributions 175

3.1 The Binomial Distribution 175
3.2 Solving Problems Involving Binomial Experiments 176
3.3 The Poisson Distribution 178
Session 4 Probability Distribution for a Continuous Random

Variable 181
4.1 Definition of Continuous Random Variable 181
4.2 Probability Distribution of a Continuous Random Variable 181
Session 5 Central Tendencies and Variance of a Continuous

Distribution 187
5.1 Central Tendencies 187
5.2 The Variance 189
Session 6 Special Continuous Probability Distributions

193
6.1 Normal Distributions 193
6.2 Determining Probabilities for a Normal Distribution using
the Standard Normal Table 196
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions 203

Appendix 216
vi CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Basic Education

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
UNIT OBJECTIVES
SESSION OBJECTIVES
DO AN ACTIVITY
NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT
TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)
REFER TO
READ OR LOOK AT
SUMMARY
SELF- ASSESSMENT TEST
ASSIGNMENT
x CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education xi

ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND UNIT 1
UNIT 1: ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND

Unit Outline
Session 1: Roots of quadratics equations, nature of roots
Session 2: Sum and products of roots
Session 3: Symmetrical functions
Session 4: Quadratic inequalities
Session 5: Number line representation of quadratic inequality solution
Session 6: Problems involving quadratic inequalities
We learnt in Mathematics for Primary School Teachers Book 2

how to solve quadratic equations by Factorisation method, using
the method of Completing the Square and also the General Formula
method. In this unit, we will discuss the nature of the roots of quadratic equations and
the relationship between the roots and the coefficients of the equations. We will also
learn how to form the equation when the roots are given. We will further learn how to
solve quadratic inequalities and problems leading to quadratic inequalities.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. describe the roots of a quadratic equation;
2. write the equation when the roots of the quadratic equation are given;
3. find the relationship between the roots and coefficients of a quadratic equation ;
4. solve quadratic inequalities;
5. represent solutions to quadratic inequalities on the real number line; and
6. solve problems involving quadratic inequalities.
CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education 1

UNIT 1 ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND
This is a blank sheet for your short notes on:

• issues that are not clear; and
• difficult topics, if any.
2 CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education

QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES SESSION 1
SESSION 1: ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS, NATURE

OF ROOTS
In Sessions two and three of Unit 1 of the Mathematics for Primary
School Teachers Book 2, we learnt how to solve quadratics equations
(roots) by using Factorisation, Completing the Squares and the general formula method
respectively. In this session, we will discuss the nature of the roots of a quadratic
equation.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
(a) find the discriminant of a given quadratic equation; and
(b) describe the nature of the roots of a quadratic equation.
Now read on …
1.1 Discriminant
Any equation of the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , where a, b and c are constants and a ≠ 0, is
called a quadratic equation. The two values of x which make ax 2 + bx + c = 0 true are
called the roots of the equation.
Using the formula to solve the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 , we see that either:
− b + b 2 − 4ac − b − b 2 − 4ac
x= or x = .
2a 2a
The expression b 2 − 4ac under the square root sign is called the discriminant of the
quadratic equation.
Example 1
Find the discriminant of the equation 4 x 2 − 7 x + 3 = 0 .
Solution
In this example a = 4, b = − 7 and c = 3, hence the discriminant is
b 2 − 4ac = (−7) 2 − 4(4)(3) = 1
Example 2
Find the discriminant of the equation x 2 − ax + a 2 = 0. Solution

UNIT 1 ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS, NATURE
SESSION 1 OF ROOTS QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
Solution
In this equation a = 1, b = a, c = a 2
The discriminant b 2 − 4ac = a 2 − 4(1)a 2 = −3a 2
1.2 Nature of Roots

We have already learnt that a quadratic equation has at least two solutions (called the
roots). In determining the nature of roots of a given quadratic equation, the discriminant
which is the term (b 2 − 4ac) , plays an important role. Three possibilities can arise
when describing the roots:
(i) If b 2 − 4ac > 0 ; a real value of (b 2 − 4ac) can be found and so the
equation has two real and different roots.
(ii) If b 2 − 4ac = 0; the equation has a repeated root or equal roots.
(iii) If b 2 − 4ac < 0 ; the equation has no real roots (i.e. the equation has
Complex roots)
Example 3
Determine the nature of roots of the equation: 4 x 2 − 7 x + 3 = 0 .
Solution
In this example a = 4, b = -7 and c = 3, hence the discriminant
b 2 − 4ac = (−7) 2 − 4(4)(3) = 1 . i.e. b 2 − 4ac > 0

So the equation has two distinct real roots.
Example 4
Describe the nature of the roots of the equation: 49 x 2 + 42 x + 9 = 0 .
Solution
Here a = 49, b = 42, c = 9.
The discriminant b 2 − 4ac = (42) 2 − 4(49)(9) = 0
Since b 2 − 4ac = 0, the equation has a repeated or equal root.
Example 5
Example 5
Determine the nature of the roots of the equation x 2 − ax + a 2 = 0.
Solution
In this equation a = 1, b = a, c = a 2

The discriminant b 2 − 4ac = a 2 − 4(1)a 2 = −3a 2
As a 2 is positive irrespective of the value of a, " b 2 − 4ac" < 0

So the equation has no real roots.
Example 6
Example 6
Find the value of k if 2 x 2 − kx + 8 = 0 has equal roots.
Solution
We have a = 2, b = −k and c = 8
For the roots of 2 x 2 − kx + 8 = 0 to be equal, b 2 − 4ac = 0
Therefore
(−k ) 2 − 4(2)(8) = 0
⇒ k 2 − 64 = 0
⇒ k 2 = 64
⇒ k = ±8
Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. Determine the nature of the roots of the following equations but do not solve the
equations.
(i) x 2 − 6 x + 9 = 0 (ii) 4 x 2 − 12 x − 9 = 0 (iii) x 2 − 6 x + 10 = 0
2. Find a if x 2 − 5 x + a = 0 has equal roots.
3. The roots of 3 x 2 + kx + 12 = 0 are equal. Find k .
4. For what value of k does the equation 4 x 2 − 8 x + k = 0 have two equal roots?
5. Find the values of a for which the expression (2a + 3) x 2 − 6 x + 4 − a is a perfect
square. (Hint: A quadratic equation is a perfect square if it has two real equal roots)

UNIT 1 ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS, NATURE
SESSION 1 OF ROOTS QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES


SESSION 2: SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS
In Session 1 we learnt how to describe the nature of the roots of quadratic

equations. We will now learn how to write equations with given roots.
We will also study the relations between roots and coefficients of quadratic equations
and learn also how to write a quadratic equation of which the sum and products of the
roots are known.
Objectives
By the end of this session you should be able to:
(a) write the equation of a quadratic equation when given the roots; and
(b) form the sum and product of the quadratic roots.
Now read on …
2.1 Forming the Equation

If it is required to write down an equation whose roots are known as α and β , it may
be written as:
( x − α )( x − β ) = 0
Therefore,
x 2 − αx − βx + αβ = 0
So x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ = 0 is the quadratic equation whose roots are α and β .
Example 7
If the roots of a quadratic equation are 3 and − 4 , find the equation.
Solution
From the question, α = 3 and β = −4 . Therefore, we have
α + β = 3 − 4 = −1; and αβ = (3)(−4) = −12 .
Therefore, the quadratic equation will be written as:

x 2 − (−1) x + (−12) = 0
⇒ x 2 + x − 12 = 0
2.2 Forming the Sum and Product of Quadratic Roots

We have seen that the equation whose roots are α and β is written as:
x 2 − (α + β ) x + αβ = 0 (1)

UNIT 1 SYMMETRICAL FUNCTIONS
SESSION 2
Suppose also that α and β are the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,

which may be written as
b c
x2 + x+ =0 (2)
a a
Then Equations (1) and (2), having the same roots, must be precisely the same equation,
written in two different ways; since the coefficients of x 2 in both cases is unity (1).
Therefore
(a) the coefficients of x in the two equations must be equal
b
ie. α + β = − ;
a
(b) the constant terms in the two equations must also be equal
c
ie. αβ = ;
a
Thus, the equation may be written as
x 2 − (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) =

0
Notice the sum and product expresses the relationship between the roots and
coefficients of a quadratic equation. The following 3 examples illustrate this concept.
Example 8
Write down the sum and product of the roots of the equation 3 x 2 − 2 x − 7 = 0 .
Solution
In this equation a = 3, b = −2 and c = −7 . The sum of the roots is
b 2
α +β =− =
a 3
and the product of roots is
c 7
αβ = =− .
a 3
Example 9
Write down the equation, the sum and product of whose roots are 7 and 12,
respectively.
Solution
The general equation is of the form x 2 − (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) =
0.

The sum of the roots from question is 7 and product of roots is 12. We now substitute
these values in the general equation. This gives x 2 − 7 x + 12 = 0 . Therefore, the
equation is x 2 − 7 x + 12 = 0 .
Example 10
The roots of the equation 2 x 2 − 7 x + 4 = 0 are α and β . Find an equation with integral
α β
coefficients whose roots are and .
β α
Solution
7
Since α , β are the roots of the equation 2 x 2 − 7 x + 4 = 0 , we have α + β = and
2
α
αβ = 2 . The required equation may be formed if the sum and product of and
β
β
are expressed in terms of α + β and αβ . So
α
α β α 2 + β 2 (α + β ) 2 − 2αβ
+ = =
β α αβ αβ
Substituting the values for α + β and αβ for the given equation, we have
2
7 49
  − 2(2) −4
2 4 33
= =
2 2 8
33
Therefore the sum of the roots is . Also
8
α β
× =1
β α
α β
Therefore the product of the root is 1. Hence the equation with roots and is
β α
33
x2 − x +1 = 0.
8
Multiplying through by 8, in order to obtain integral coefficients, the required equation
is
8 x 2 − 33 x + 8 = 0 .

SESSION 2
Example 11
The roots of the equation 3 x 2 − 4 x − 5 =0 are α and β . Find the values of
1 1
(a) + (b) α 2 + β 2
α β
Solution
1 1
Both + and α 2 + β 2 can be expressed in terms of α + β and αβ .
α β
4 5
From the question, we have α + β =− and αβ = − .
3 3
4
−
1 1 β +α 4 3 4
(a) + = = 3 = × = .
α β αβ 5 3 5 5
−
3
(b) α 2 + β 2 = α 2 + 2αβ + β 2 − 2αβ

= ( α + β ) 2 − 2αβ
2
4 5 16 10
=  −  − 2 −  = +
 3  3 9 3
46
=
9

Exercise 1.2
1 If α and β are the roots of the equation 2 x 2 + 8 x + 7 = 0, write down the values of
the expressions (i) α + β (ii) αβ (iii) α 2 + β 2
2 Find the sums and products of the roots of the following equations:
1
(i) 2 x 2 − 11x + 3 = 0 (ii) x 2 + x = 1 (iii) x + = 4
x
3 If the roots of the equation 3x 2 −5 x + 1 = 0 are α and β . Find the value of

(α + 1)( β + 1)
4 If the roots of the equation x 2 − 5 x − 7 = 0 are α and β , find the equation whose
roots are α + 1, β + 1.

SESSION 2


SESSION 3: SYMMETRICAL FUNCTIONS

In this session, we will discuss how to calculate the values of symmetric
functions of α and β when the values of α + β and αβ
for a given equation are known. We will extend our lesson to writing of equations for
such symmetric functions whose roots are given.
Objectives
(a) find the values of other symmetric functions of α and β when α + β and
αβ are known; and
(b) write the equation whose roots are the symmetric functions of α and β .
Now read on …
3.1 Finding Values of Symmetrical Functions of α and β

The functions of α and β that will be used in this session all show a certain symmetry.
Consider for example,
1 1 α β
α + β , αβ , + , α 2 + β 2, + .
α β β α
Notice that if α and β are interchanged,
1 1 β α
β + α , βα , + + ,
, β 2 +α 2,
β α α β
the resulting functions are the same. When α and β are interchanged, it is called a
symmetrical function of α and β . Therefore a symmetric function of α and β is one
in which, if α and β are interchanged, the function is the same or multiplied by -1.
For example, α 2 + β 2 is a symmetric function since when α and β are interchanged
the result remains the same. Also α 2 − β 2 is a symmetric function since when since
when α and β are interchanged, α 2 − β 2 becomes – (α 2 − β 2 ) ; but 2α 2 + β 2 is not a
symmetric function.
Such functions occurring in this session may be expressed in terms of α + β and αβ , as

in the following illustration.

SESSION 3
Illustration 1:
Express the following in terms of α + β and αβ :
(i) α 3 + β 3 , (ii) (α − β ) 2
Solution
(i) As we have already learnt in Session 5 of the Mathematics for the Basic Teachers
Book 3 how to expand Binomial Expressions, we will recall that α 3 and β 3 occur in
the expansion of (α + β ) 3 .
Thus, (α + β ) 3 = α 3 + 3α 2 β + 3αβ 2 + β 3
So α 3 + β 3 = (α + β ) 3 − 3α 2 β − 3αβ 2
Therefore, α 3 + β 3 = (α + β ) 3 − 3αβ (α + β )
(ii) Similarly , (α − β ) 2 = α 2 − 2αβ + β 2 (3)

and (α + β ) 2 = α 2 + 2αβ + β 2
⇒ α 2 + β 2 = (α + β ) 2 − 2αβ (4)
Substituting (4) into (3), we obtain
(α − β ) 2 = (α + β ) 2 − 2αβ − 2αβ
= (α + β ) 2 − 4αβ
Now it is worth taking note of the following useful relationships:

(i) α 2 + β 2 = (α + β ) 2 − 2αβ
(ii) ( α − β ) 2 = (α + β ) 2 − 4αβ
(iii) α 3 + β 3 = (α + β ) 3 − 3αβ (α + β )
1 1 α +β
(iv) + =
α β αβ
1 1 α 2 + β 2 (α + β ) 2
(v) + = =
α2 β2 α 2β 2 α 2β 2
The following example will show us how to find the values of the symmetric functions
of α and β when α + β and αβ are known from a given equation.

Example 12
If α and β are the roots of the equation 2 x 2 − x − 2 = 0, find the values of the
following:
1 1
(i) α 2 + β 2 (ii) + 2 (iii) (α − β ) 2
α 2
β
Solution
Comparing the given equation 2 x 2 − x − 2 = 0, with the general equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 we have ; a = 2, b = −1, c = −2 .
b 1 c
Then, α +β =− = and αβ = = −1 .
a 2 a
2
 1 1 9
(i) α + β = (α + β ) − 2αβ =   − 2(−1) = + 2 =
2 2 2
2 4 4
2
1
  − 2(−1)
1 1 α +β
2 2
(α + β ) − 2αβ  2 
2
9
(ii) + 2 = = = =
α 2
β α β
2 2
(αβ ) 2
(−1) 2
4
2
1 1 17
(iii) ( α − β ) 2 = (α + β ) 2 − 4αβ =   − 4(−1) = + 4 =
2 4 4
Remarks: The trick is to express the given expression into sums and products of α and
β before substituting their values. If you have fractions, first find the L.C.M.
3.2 Forming Equations using Symmetrical Functions of α and β

Determining the equation using symmetrical functions of α and β can be illustrated
as follows:
Illustration 2:
Suppose α and β are the roots of the equation 3 x 2 + 5 x − 1 = 0 , then we could find
equations whose roots are:
1 1
(i) , (ii) α 2 , β 2 (iii) α + 1, β + 1
α β
Solution
As we have learnt in Session 2
x 2 − (sum of roots) x + (product of roots) =
0

SESSION 3
5
From the given equation, 3 x 2 + 5 x − 1 = 0 ; sum of roots = (α + β ) =
− and product of
3
1
roots = αβ = − .
3
1 1
(i) Sum of the new roots = +
α β
α +β
=
αβ
5
−
= 3
1
−
3
=5
1 1 1 1
Product of new roots = × = = −3 =
α β αβ − 1
3
Hence the new equation is x − 5 x − 3 = 0
2
(ii) Sum of the new roots

2
5 1 25 2 31
= α + β (α + β ) − 2αβ =  −  − 2 −  =
2 2 2
+ =
 3  3 9 3 9
2
1 1
Product of the new roots = α β = (αβ ) =  −  =
2 2 2
 3 9
31 1
Hence the new equation is x 2 − x + = 0
9 9
Multiplying through by 9 gives: 9 x − 31x + 1 = 0
2
5 1
(iii) Sum of the new roots = ( α + 1) + ( β + 1) =(α + β ) + 2 =− + 2 =
3 3
Product of the new roots is
1 5
( α + 1)( β + 1) = αβ + (α + β ) + 1 =  −  +  −  + 1 = −1
 3  3
1
Hence the new equation is x 2 − x − 1 =0 .
3
Multiplying through by 3 gives 3 x 2 − x − 3 =. 0

Exercise 1.3
1. Find the sums and products of the roots of the following equations:
(i) 2 x 2 − 11x + 3 = 0 (ii) 3 x 2 = 7 x + 6
2. The equation 4 x 2 + 8 x − 1 = 0 has roots α , β . Find the values of :

1 1
(i) 2 + 2 (ii) α 3 β + αβ 3
α β
3. The roots of the equation x 2 − px + 8 = 0 are α and α + 2 . Find two possible

values of p.
4. The equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has roots α , β . Find equations whose roots are:

(i) − α , − β ; (ii) α 2 , β 2 ; (iii) α + 1, β + 1.

SESSION 3


SESSION 4: QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES

In Mathematics for Primary School Teachers Book 2, we learnt how to
solve quadratic equations. In this session we will learn how to solve
quadratic inequalities. Any inequality relationship that involves a quadratic function is
called a quadratic inequality. A quadratic inequality can be written in one of these
forms ax 2 + bx + c ≥ 0 , ax 2 + bx + c ≤ 0 , ax 2 + bx + c > 0 , ax + bx + c < 0 .
Objectives
(a) determine the range of values that satisfy a given quadratic inequality by testing a
convenient point; and
(b) determine the range of values that satisfy a given quadratic inequality by sketching
the graph.
Now read on …
4.1 Finding the Range by Testing a Convenient Point

To solve any quadratic inequality, we need to determine the range of values that satisfy
the inequality. The range of values can be found by:
(a) Testing a convenient point to identify the range which satisfies the inequality; or
(b) Sketching the graph of the quadratic function and identifying parts of the curve
that lie below or above the x − axis . The method of graph sketching is treated
under sub-Session 4.2.
To find the range by testing a convenient point, ( i.e. By the method stated in ‘a’), the
following steps should be followed.
(i) Factorize the quadratic expression

(ii) Determine the roots of the equation. These give the end points of the inequality
(iii) Test a convenient point (by choosing a value within the end points) to see if it
satisfies the inequality
(iv) Write the solution set to be the range between the end points if the test in (iii) is
true, otherwise the solution set is the range outside the end points.
Example 13
Find the range of values of x for which 2 x 2 + x − 1 ≥ 0

UNIT 1 QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
SESSION 4
Solution
Given that 2 x 2 + x − 1 ≥ 0 , we first factorize the quadratic expression. Thatis,
1
(2 x − 1)( x + 1) ≥ 0 . Now the roots of the equation (2 x − 1)( x + 1) = 0 are x = −1 and .
2
These give the end points of the inequality. Test x = 0 to see whether it satisfies the
inequality. This gives (-1)(1) ≥ 0; but ( − 1) < 0 . So a value of x within the range
1
x = −1 and does not satisfy the inequality. Therefore the solution set lies outside the
2
1 1
range x = −1 and . Hence the solution set is  x : x ≤ −1 or x ≥  .
2  2
Example 14
Solve the inequality x 2 − x − 2 ≤ 0
Solution
Given that x 2 − x − 2 ≤ 0 , we first factorize the quadratic expression. That is
( x − 2)( x + 1) ≤ 0 .
Now the roots of the equation ( x − 2)( x + 1) = 0 are x = −1 and 2 . These give the end
points of the inequality. We then choose a value of x within the end points for the test.
That is, test x = 0 to see whether it satisfies the inequality. This gives (-2)(1) ≤ 0 (which
is true). Then a value of x within the range x = −1 and 2 does satisfy the inequality.
Therefore the solution set is the range between x = −1 and 2 . Hence the solution set is
{x : −1 ≤ x ≤ 2}.
4.2 Finding the Range by Sketching the Graph
In session 4 of Unit 1 of the book 2, we learnt how to draw quadratic graphs which are
also known as parabolas. You will also recall further in the same session that, a
parabola is  - shaped if the leading coefficient (i.e. the coefficient of x 2 )is a positive
number; this also means that the curve is a minimum curve. The curve on the other
hand is a maximum curve, if the leading coefficient is a negative number; in this case
the parabola is  - shaped. We have also learnt how to sketch curves in the
Mathematics for Senior Secondary Teachers during Book 2 during our lessons on
Calculus.
Another method used to determine the range of values that satisfy a given inequality, is
by sketching the graph of the quadratic function and identifying parts of the curve that
lie below or above the x-axis.

The following steps will help to identify the range of values that satisfy a given
quadratic inequality:
(i) Factorize the quadratic expression

(ii) Determine the roots of the equation. These give the end points of the inequality
(iii) Sketch the graph of the quadratic function and identify parts of the curve that
lie below or above the x-axis.
If the inequality sign is ≥ or > , the solution is the range of values of x corresponding to
parts of the curve above the x − axis . If the inequality sign is ≤ or < , the solution is the
range of values of x corresponding to parts of the curve below the x − axis .
Example 15
Find the range of values of x for which 2 x 2 + x − 1 ≥ 0
Solution
Given that 2 x 2 + x − 1 ≥ 0 , we first factorize the quadratic expression. That is,
(2 x − 1)( x + 1) ≥ 0 .
1
Now the roots of the equation (2 x − 1)( x + 1) = 0 are x = −1 and . These give the end
2
points of the inequality. Let f ( x) = (2 x − 1)( x + 1). The diagram following shows a
sketch of f (x). The curve has a minimum turning point since the coefficient of x 2 is
positive.
f (x )
x
1
−1
2

SESSION 4
We see that f ( x) ≥ 0 for part of the curve above the x − axis . Therefore the solution set
1
is  x : x ≤ −1 or x ≥  .
 2
Example 16
Solve the inequality x 2 − x − 2 ≤ 0
Solution
Given that x 2 − x − 2 ≤ 0 , we first factorize the quadratic expression. That is,
Now the roots of the equation ( x − 2)( x + 1) = 0 are x = −1 and 2 .These give the end
points of the inequality. Let f ( x) = ( x − 2)( x + 1). The diagram below shows the sketch
of f (x). The curve is a minimum curve since the coefficient of x 2 is positive.
f (x )
x
−1 2
We see that f ( x) ≤ 0 for the part of the curve below the x − axis . Therefore the solution
set is the range between x = −1 and 2 .
Hence the solution set is {x : −1 ≤ x ≤ 2}

Exercise 1.4
1. Find the set of values of x that satisfy the following inequalities:

(i) x 2 +3 x − 28 ≥ 0 (ii) x 2 − 4 x > 5
2. Find the ranges of values of x for which 2 x 2 + 5 x − 12 is positive.

SESSION 4


ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND
UNIT 1
SESSION 5: NUMBER LINE REPRESENTATION OF

QUADRATIC INEQUALITY SOLUTION
In the preceding session, we have learnt how to solve quadratic

inequalities. The solutions to these inequalities could be represented on a
number line. In this session we shall discuss how to represent the solutions of quadratic
inequalities on the number line.
Objective
By the end of this session, you should be able to illustrate the solution of a quadratic
inequality on a number line.
Now read on …
Illustration 3
Given that the solution set for the quadratic inequality 2 x 2 + x − 1 ≥ 0 is
 1
 x : x ≤ −1 or x ≥  ,
 2
then we can consider two ranges:

1 1
(i) The range of values greater or equal to (Here is inclusive).
2 2
(ii) The range of values less or equal to −1 ( −1 is inclusive)
These two ranges do not intersect, so we treat them independently. Illustrating these
ranges on a number line we have:
1
x≥
2
x ≤ −1
−2 −1 0 1 1 2
2
Remarks: We need to note that the circles are shaded in both situations because the
1
ranges which satisfy the inequality include both end points  i.e. − 1 and  .
 2

UNIT 1 NUMBER LINE REPRESENTATION OF
SESSION 5 QUADRATIC INEQUALITY SOLUTION
Illustration 4
If the solution set of the inequality x 2 − x − 6 < 0 is {x : −2 < x < 3}, then here we can
consider only one range ie. {− 2 < x < 3} which is the intersection of the ranges x > −2
and x < 3.
Illustrating this on the number line we have:
−3 − 2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Note that in this case both circles are not shaded because both end points ( −2 and 3) do
not satisfy the inequality so do not belong to the range of the solution. Now let us look
at the example below
Example 17
Solve the inequality ( x − 2)(2 x + 1) > 0 and represent your result on the number line.
Solution
1
The roots of the equation ( x − 2)(2 x + 1) = 0 are x = − and 2 .These give the end
2
points of the inequality. We then choose a value of x within the end points for the test.
That is, test x = 0 to see whether it satisfies the inequality. This gives (−2)(1) > 0 which
implies that −2 > 0 ; but we know that − 2 < 0 . Then a value of x within the range
1
x = − and 2 does not satisfy the inequality. Therefore the solution set lies outside the
2
1 1
range x = − and 2 . Hence the solution set is  x : x < − or x > 2  . Here the two
2  2 
ranges x < −1 and x > 2 do not intersect, hence will be represented differently on the
1
number line. Again the solution does not include the end points  − , 2  , so we do not
 2 
shade them to exclude them from the range of possible values of x. The corresponding
number line is shown below:

ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND
UNIT 1
−2 −1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−
2
Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 1.1
1. Represent the range of values of x on the number line
1  7
(i)  x : x < − or x ≥ 3 (ii) 
 x : ≤ x ≤ 5
 2   2 
2. State the range of values of x for which 2 x 2 + 5 x − 12 is negative and represent your
result on the number line.
3. Find the truth set of x 2 + 2 x ≤ 15 and represent it on the number line.

UNIT 1 NUMBER LINE REPRESENTATION OF
SESSION 5 QUADRATIC INEQUALITY SOLUTION


SESSION 6: PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC

INEQUALITY
In Session 1 of this unit we learnt how to determine the nature of roots
when given a quadratic equation. Furthermore in Sessions 4 and 5 we
learnt how to solve quadratic inequalities and the representation on the number line. In
this last session of this unit we will learn how to apply our knowledge on the nature of
roots of quadratic equations as well as our knowledge on inequalities to solve problems
involving quadratic inequalities.
Objective
By the end of this session you should be able to solve problems involving
quadratic inequalities.
Now read on . . .
Before we apply our knowledge of nature of roots and inequalities to solving problems,
we need to remember the following facts which will be useful in one problem or the
other.
1) The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots if b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0
2) The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real and distinct roots if

b 2 − 4ac > 0
3) The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has complex roots if b 2 − 4ac < 0
4) A perfect square can never be negative.
We will now proceed to look at some examples.
Example 18
Find the ranges of value(s) of k for which the roots of the equation
x 2 − kx + (k + 3) = 0
are real.
Solution
For x 2 − kx + (k + 3) = 0 to have real roots, we must have b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0 . We also know
from the given equation that a = 1, b = − k , c = k + 3 . Therefore

PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC
UNIT 1
INEQUALITY
SESSION 6
( − k ) 2 − 4(1)(k + 3) ≥ 0
⇒ k 2 − 4k − 12 ≥ 0
⇒ (k − 6)(k + 2) ≥ 0
Now the roots of the equation (k − 6)(k + 2) = 0 are k = 6 and k = −2 . These give the
end points of the inequality. We test k = 0 to see whether it satisfies the inequality.
That is (−6)(2) = −12 < 0 . Thus a value of k within the range k = 6 and k = −2 does
not satisfy the inequality. Therefore the equation x 2 − kx + (k + 3) = 0 has real roots if
the value of k lies in either of the ranges k ≥ 6 or k ≤ −2.
Example 19
Find the range of values of k for which the quadratic equation x 2 − 2 x − k = 0 has real
roots
Solution
If x 2 − 2 x − k = 0 has real roots, then b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0 , where a = 1, b = −2 and c = −k .
So
(−2) 2 − 4(1)(−k ) ≥ 0
⇒ 4 + 4k ≥ 0
⇒ k ≥ −1.
Therefore the equation x 2 − 2 x − k = 0 has real roots when k ≥ −1
Example 20
Find the range of value(s) of k for which the roots of the equation x 2 + (k − 3) x + k = 0
are real distinct roots.
Solution
For x 2 − (k − 3) x + k = 0 to have real distinct roots, we must have b 2 − 4ac > 0 .
ie. (k − 3) 2 − 4k > 0
⇒ k 2 − 10k + 9 > 0
⇒ (k − 1)(k − 9) > 0
The roots of the equation (k − 1)(k − 9) =0 are k = 1 and k = 9 . These give the end
points of the inequality. We test k = 2 to see whether it satisfies the inequality. That is,
(2 − 1)(2 − 9) = (1)(−7) = −7 < 0 .

Thus a value of k within the range k = 1 and 9 does not satisfy the inequality. Therefore
the equation x 2 + (k − 3) x + k = 0 has real and distinct roots if k < 1 or k > 9 .
Exercise 1.6
1. Find the ranges of value(s) of p for which the roots of the equation
px 2 + 4( p − 1) x + 9 = 0 are real roots.
2. Find the range of values of s for which the quadratic equation

x 2 − x(2 − s ) + (4 − 2 s ) = 0 has real roots.
3. Find the ranges of value(s) of x for which the roots of the equation
kx 2 + kx − 2 = 0 are real.

PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC
UNIT 1
INEQUALITY
SESSION 6


ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY UNIT 2
UNIT 2: ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY
UNIT OUTLINE
Session 1: Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent
Session 2: General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations
Session 3: Trigonometric Identities
Session 4: Other Solutions of Trigonometric Equations
Session 5: Proofs of Some Trigonometric Identities
Session 6: The Factor Formulae
In Unit 3 of Mathematics for Primary School Teachers (2), you were

introduced to trigonometry functions of acute angles and some of its
applications. In the Unit 5 of the Book 3, we did further studies on
trigonometric ratios of obtuse and reflex angles; compound angles and double angles. In
both Units of the two Books, we focused on the major trig ratios; i.e. sine, cosine, and
tangent. In this unit we shall learn more about the minor trig ratios namely; secant,
cosecant and cotangent. We shall also look at different methods in solving
trigonometric equations. Furthermore, we will study some more trig identities and their
proofs.
The unit contains six sessions, which deals with definition of the minor trig ratios,
general solutions of trig equations, trig identities, other solutions of trig equations,
proofs of some trig identities and the factor formulae.
The materials covered in this unit assume knowledge of what has been covered in
Books 2 and 3. You are therefore advised to review them before starting this unit.
Unit Objectives :
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. find the secant, cosecant and cotangent of given angles;
2. apply the general solution methods to solve trigonometric equations;
3. derive some trigonometric identities ;
4. solve trigonometric equations using other solutions;
5. prove some trigonometric identities; and
6. solve some problems involving the factor formulae.

UNIT 2 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY


UNIT 2
ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY SESSION 1
SESSION 1: SECANT, COSECANT AND COTANGENT
In the Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers Book 2, we learnt

Trigonometric functions of acute angles. We talked about the Sine,
Cosine and Tangent. These are known as the major trigonometry ratios. The 3 major
trigonometry ratios are used more frequently and consequently a lot of attention tends to
concentrate on them (in most situations) than the minor ratios. The Reciprocal (Minor)
ratios namely Cosecant, Secant and Cotangent however, must not be overlooked
completely. In this session, we will revise the major trigonometry ratios. We will also
learn how to find the minor ratios of any given angles.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
(a) find the sine, cosine and tangent of acute angles; and
(b) find the Secant, Cotangent and Cosecant of any given angles.
Now read on …
1.1 Revision on the Three Major Trigonometric Ratios

You may recall that given the triangle below we defined the three trigonometric ratios
as follows:
A
C a B
Figure 1: A right-angled triangle.

UNIT 2
SESSION 1 SECANT, COSECANT AND COTANGENT
Side opposite angle A a

sin A = =
Hypotenus c
Side adjacent to angle A b

cos A = = and
Hypotenus c
Side opposite to angle A a

tan A = = .
Side adjacent to angle A b
These are known as the 3 major trigonometric ratios. So
Example 1
8
Given that sin A = and that A is an obtuse angle, find cos A and tan A without
17
using tables.
Solution
You will have noticed that this type of problem is often solved by drawing the
appropriate right – angled triangle and using Pythagoras’ Theorem as you studied in the
Mathematics for Primary School teachers Book 2.
Since A is an obtuse angle it implies A is in the second quadrant, therefore cosine and
tangent are both negative. From the right-angled triangle (see figure below) drawn for
8
sin A = , we can find the side (i.e. the adjacent), by using the Pythagoras theorem
17
A
17
A
C B
Thus the third side = 17 2 − 8 2 = 289 − 64 = 225 = 15 . Therefore we can find

UNIT 2
15 8
cos A = − and tan A = −
17 15
1.2 Finding the Secant, Cosecant, and Cotangent

It must however be noted that for any acute angle θ , there are six trigonometry ratios,
each of which could be defined by referring to the right-angled triangle containing θ
below.
lution
As we have already seen in the
AB
= sin e θ usually written as sin θ
OB
OA
= cos ineθ usually written as cos θ
OB
AB
= tan gentθ usually written as tan θ , then we can also define the following as:
OA
OB 1
1) = = cos ecantθ or cos ecθ
AB sin θ
OB 1
2) = = sec antθ or sec θ
OA cos ineθ
OA 1
3) = = cot angentθ or cot θ
AB tan gentθ
1 1 1
Thus cos ecθ = , sec θ = and cot θ = are known as Minor
sin θ cos θ tan θ
(Reciprocal) ratios.

UNIT 2
Example 2
Express sec 309 0 in terms of the ratio of an acute angle.
Solution
1
Now sec 309 0 =
cos 309 0
We can again refer to session 2, unit 5 of the Mathematics for Basic School Teachers
Book 3 to recall our lesson on Trigonometric Ratios of Obtuse and Reflex Angles.
We will realise that 309 0 is in the fourth quadrant; therefore its cosine ratio is positive as
shown below.
The associated acute angle with the x − axis is 510 . Therefore
1
sec 309 0 = = sec 510 .
cos 510
Example 3
Find the value of sec120 0
Solution
120 0 is in the second quadrant, therefore its cosine ratio is negative. The associated
acute
angle with the x − axis is 60 0 .

UNIT 2
y
1200
1 1 1
So cos 120 0 = − cos 60 0 = − . Therefore sec120 0 = = = −2
2 cos120 0
1
−
2
Example 4
5
Find without using tables or calculator, the value of sec θ if tan θ = − and θ is
12
obtuse.
Solution
Since the value of tan θ is negative it is in the second quadrant as shown.
Applying the Pythagoras’ theorem we can find:
1
Hypotenuse = (−12) 2 + (5) 2 = 144 + 25 = 13. Now sec θ = .
cos θ

UNIT 2
12
Since cosine is negative in the second quadrant, cos θ = − . Therefore
13
1 13
sec θ = =−
12 12
−
13
Exercise 2.1
1. Express in terms of the ratios of acute angles
(i) cot 406 0 (ii) cos ec 684 0
2. Find the values of the following , leaving surds in your answers

(i) cot 210 0 (ii) cos ec 240 0 (iii) sec 585 0
3. Find, without using tables or calculators, the values of:

15
(i) cot θ , if sin θ = and θ is acute.
17
20
(ii) sec θ , if cot θ = and θ is reflex.
21

UNIT 2
SESSION 2: GENERAL SOLUTION OF TRIGONOMETIC

EQUATIONS
If at least one term in an equation contains a trigonometry ratio, it is

called a trigonometric equation. Most equations in algebra have a finite
number of roots, but in many cases trigonometric equations have an unlimited number.
For instance, the equation sinθ =0 is satisfied by θ = 0 0 , ± 180 0 , ± 360, ± 540 and so
on, indefinitely. The full, or general, solution to this simple equation sinθ = 0 (when θ
is any multiple of π ) is therefore the infinite set of angles θ = nπ , where n is any
integer. Sometimes it is necessary to extract certain specific values of θ from the
infinite set. Consider, for instance, a modified form of the above problem, sin θ = 0 for
− π ≤ θ ≤ π . This time the finite solution set is θ = − 180 0 , 0, 180 0 or − π , 0, π . In this
session we shall study how to solve trigonometrical equations first in the general case,
and secondly within a specific range.
Objectives
(a) determine general solutions of trigonometric equations; and
(b) determine solution of trigonometric equations in a specified range.
Now read on …
2.1 Solutions of Trigonometric Equations, General Case

The first step in solving a trigonometric equation is to find the principal solution which
1
is the principal value of θ . For instance if sinθ = , then the principal solution is
2
π
θ= (i.e. the sin inverse of 1 2 ) .
6
1
If sinθ = − , then the principle solution is
2
π
θ = − (i.e. the sin inverse of −1 2 )
6
1
If cos θ = , then the principle solution is
2

GENERAL SOLUTION OF TRIGONOMETIC
UNIT 2
EQUATIONS
SESSION 2
π
θ= (i.e. the cos inverse of 1 2 )
3
1
If cos θ = − , then the principle solution is
2
2π
θ= (i.e. the cos inverse of −1 2 )
3
If tanθ = 1 , then the principle solution is
π
θ= (i.e . the tan inverse of 1)
4
If tanθ = −1 , then the principle solution is

π
θ = − (i.e . the tan inverse of −1)
4
Having defined the principal solution, we can now define the general solutions of the
trigonometric ratios sine, cosine and tangent as follows:
1) The general solution of sin θ = a is θ = nπ + (−1) n α , where α = sin −1 a (in

radians), is the principal solution or θ = 180n + (−1) n α , where α = sin −1 a
(in degrees).
2) The general solution of cos θ = b is θ = 2nπ ± β , where β = cos −1 b (in

radians), is the principal solution or θ = 360n ± β , where β = cos −1 b (in
degrees).
3) The general solution of tan θ = c is θ = nπ + γ , where γ = tan −1 c (in

radians), is the principal solution or θ = 180n + γ where γ = sin −1 c (in
degrees).
Note that n = 0,1, 2,3, 
Example 5
Find the general solutions of the following equations:
(i) sinθ =1 (ii) cos θ = 1 2 (iii) tan x = 1

UNIT 2
Solution
i) The principal solution of the equation sinθ =1 is θ = π 2 or 900 . So the
π
general solution is θ = nπ + (−1) n in radians or 180n + (−1) n 90 in
2
degrees.
1
ii) The principal solution of the equation cos θ = is θ = π 3 or 600 . So the
2
general solution is=
θ 2nπ ± π 3 in radians or 360n ± 60 in degrees.
iii) The principal solution of the equation tan x = 1is x = π 4 or 45 . So the
π
general solution is x = nπ + in radians or 180n + (−1) n in degrees.
4
Example 6
Find the general solutions of the following equations.
1 1
(i) 2 cos x = 1 (ii) cos 2 x =
2 2
Solution
1 1 1 1 1
(i) If 2 cos x = 1 . Then cos x = . Let x = θ , then cos θ = , the principal
2 2 2 2 2
1 π
solution of the equation =
cos θ = is θ or 60 . So the general solution is
2 3
θ 2nπ ± π 3
=
which implies that 1 = 2 x 2nπ ± π 3 . Hence the general solution is

=x 4nπ ± 2π 3 in radians or 1= 2 x 360n ± 60 which implies that
x = 720n ± 120 in degrees.
(ii) Let 2 x = θ , then cos θ = 1 2 . Then the principal solution of the equation
1 π
=cos θ = is θ or 60 . So the general solution is = θ 2nπ ± π 3 . This
2 3
implies that = 2 x 2nπ ± π 3 . Hence the general solution is = x nπ ± π 6 in
2 x 360n ± 60 which implies that x = 180n ± 30 in degrees.
radians or =

UNIT 2
EQUATIONS
SESSION 2
2.2 Solutions of Trigonometric Equations in a Specified Range

So far we have seen cases of trigonometrical equationsthat have unlimited number of
solutions. In this session we will look at examples in which the range of values for
which the roots are required will be specified. We still however make use of the general
solution methods for the trigonometry ratios as learnt earlier.The following examples
will illustrate this concept.
Example 7
Solve the equation sin θ = −1 2 for 0 0 < θ < 360 0
Solution
We are using the general solution, θ = 180n + (−1) n (−30) , with sin −1 ( −1 2 ) =
−30 .
When n = 0, θ =180(0) + (−1)0 (−30), θ =−30 . Since − 30 does not lie within the
range given, we discard this value of θ .
When n = 1, θ= 180(1) + (−1)1 (−300= = 2100
) 180 + 30
When n = 2, θ= 180(2) + (−1) 2 (−300= = 3300
) 360 − 30
When n > 2 , the value ofθ will be greater than 360 0 , which will fall outside the range,
so we end at n = 2 . Therefore θ is 210 or 330 .
Example 8
Solve the equation sin (θ −=
15 ) 1 2 for 0 < θ < 180.
Solution
We are using the general solution, (θ − 15) = 180n + (−1) n (30) , and noting that
sin −1 (1 2 ) = 30.
When n = 0, (θ − 15)
= 180(0) + (−1) (30), ⇒ θ − 15
= 30 ⇒ θ
= 45
= 180(1) + (−1)1 (30=
When n = 1, (θ − 15) = 150 ⇒ θ= 165
) 180 − 30
When n = 2, θ − 15=

180(2) + (−1) 2 (30= = 390 ,
) 360 + 30
⇒ θ = 390 + 15= 405 > 180 .
Therefore θ is 45 or 165 .

UNIT 2
Exercise 2.2
1. Solve the following equations for angles in the range 0

≤ θ ≤ 2π (or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360) .
1 1 2
( i) cos θ = (ii) tan θ = − (iii) sin θ =
2 3 2
2. Solve the following equations for angles in the range 0

≤ θ ≤ 2π (or 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360) .
i) sec θ = −3 ii) cot θ = 2 iii) cos ecθ = 4
3. Find the general solution of the following equations

1
i) cos θ = 0 ii) tan θ = − 3 iii) cot θ =
2
4. Find the general solution of the following equations

i) cos θ = 0.371 ii) sec θ = 1

UNIT 2
EQUATIONS
SESSION 2


UNIT 2
SESSION 3: TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

In the previous session we learnt that any one angle is associated with
six different trigonometric ratios and that a particular value of one
trigonometric ratio applies to an infinite set of angles. It is not surprising, therefore, to
find that the relationships exist between the various circular functions. Some of these
are very useful in the development of trigonometry. This session deals with the
derivations of some of these identities. The session will concentrate mainly on the basic
identities, the half angle identities and the t − formulae.
Objectives
a) derive the basic identities
b) derive the half angle identities; and
c) derive the t − formulae.
Now read on …
3.1 Basic Identities

Consider, for instance, the simple relationship between sine, cosine and tangent of any
angle.
PQ OQ PQ
For any angle θ we have sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = . But
OP OP OQ
sin θ PQ OQ PQ OP PQ
= = × = = tan θ
cos θ OP OP OP OQ OQ
Thus for all angles
sin θ
tan θ =
cos θ

UNIT 2
SESSION 3 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Applying the Pythagoras’ theorem on the right angled triangle OPQ, we have
OQ 2 + PQ 2 = OP 2 (1)
Dividing (1) through by OP 2 we have:
OQ 2 PQ 2 OP 2
+ = =1 (2)
OP 2 OP 2 OP 2
So Equation (2) becomes
PQ OQ
cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1, since sin θ = , cos θ =
OP OP
Dividing (1) through by OQ 2 we have:
OQ 2 PQ 2 OP 2 1
2
+ 2
= 2
= 1 + tan 2 θ = (3)
OQ OQ OQ cos 2 θ
So Equation (3) becomes
PQ
1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ , since tan θ =
OQ
Dividing (1) through by QP 2 we have:
OQ 2 PQ 2 OP 2 1 1
2
+ 2
= 2
= +1 = (4)
PQ PQ PQ tan θ
2
sin 2 θ
So Equation (4) becomes:

1 1
cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ec 2θ , since = cot θ and = cos ecθ
tan θ sin θ
The above relationships are valid for any position OP, i.e. for any angle θ , so for all
angles:
(i) cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1
(ii) 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ
(iii) cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ec 2θ
These identities are very useful in the solution of certain trig equations. (We shall look
at examples of such equations in session 4). Other applications of the standard identities
include derivation of a variety of further trigonometric relationship and proofing of
some trig equations. We shall also look at some examples of such proofs in session 5.

UNIT 2
3.2The Half -Angle Identities

We have already learnt from our lessons on Double angles (Mathematics for Basic
school Teachers 3, Unit 5 and Session 4) that:
sin 2 A = 2sin A cos A
cos
= 2 A cos 2 A − sin 2 A
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A
Let us consider the double angle identity
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A (5)
Now cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1, so substituting sin 2 A = 1 − cos 2 A in Equation (5), we obtain
cos 2 A = cos 2 A − 1 + cos 2 A

∴ cos 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1
Solving cos 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1 for cos 2 A we obtain
2 cos 2 A − 1 = cos 2 A
2 cos 2 A = 1 + cos 2 A
1 + cos 2 A
cos 2 A =
2
1 1 1 + cos θ 1
Now, if A = θ , then 2 A = θ and cos 2 θ = . If θ is in Quadrant I or IV,
2 2 2 2
then
1 1 + cos θ
cos θ = (6)
2 2
1
If θ is in Quadrant II or III, then
2
1 1 + cos θ
cos θ = − (7)
2 2
We can now summarize the results by writing
1 1 + cos θ
cos θ = ± (8)
2 2

UNIT 2
And this is known as the half-angle identity for cosine. To find the half-angle identity
for sine we substitute cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A in (5) and obtain
cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A − sin 2 A

∴ cos 2 A = 1 − 2 sin 2 A
Solving cos 2 A = 1 − 2 sin 2 A for sin 2 A we obtain
2 sin 2 A = 1 − cos 2 A
1 − cos 2 A
sin 2 A =
2
1 1 1 − cos θ 1
Now, if A = θ , then 2 A = θ and sin 2 θ = . If θ is in Quadrant I or II,
2 2 2 2
then
1 1 − cos θ
sin θ = (9)
2 2
1
If θ is in Quadrant III or IV, then
2
1 1 − cos θ
sin θ = − (10)
2 2
We can now summarize the results by writing
1 1 − cos θ
sin θ = ± (11)
2 2
We must however take note that the sign + or − as in identities (8) and (11) is chosen
according to which quadrant 1 2 θ is in. The formula requires either + or − , but not
both. The half-angle identity for the tangent is given as:
1 1 − cos θ
tan θ = (12)
2 sin θ
The derivation is left as an assignment for you to do. If you face any problem in
deriving this identity discuss with your Course Tutor.
Example 9
Find the exact value of cos 9π 8 .

UNIT 2
Solution
9π 1 9π 9π
Here we can write as ⋅ (where θ = ) and apply the half angle-identity for
8 2 4 4
cosine to obtain
9π 1 9π
cos = cos( ⋅ )
8 2 4
We choose a negative sign, since 9π 8 is in Quadrant III, and the cosine is negative in
this quadrant.
9π
1 + cos
Therefore cos 9π 8 = − 4
2
π
1 + cos
=− 4
2
2
1+
=− 2
2
2+ 2
=−
4
1
=− 2+ 2
2
3.3 The t − Formulae
2 tan A
We may recall again from our lesson on Double Angles that tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A
2 tan A 1 − tan 2 A
We could also show that sin 2 A = and cos 2 A = . (We will look at
1 + tan 2 A 1 + tan 2 A
the proofs of these identities in session 5). If we replace 2 A by θ then A could also be
replaced by θ 2 . We will have for
1
2 tan θ
tan 2 A = tan θ = 2
1
1 − tan 2 θ
2

UNIT 2
1
2 tan θ
sin 2 A = sin θ = 2
1
1 + tan 2 θ
2
1
1 − tan 2 θ
cos 2 A = cos θ = 2
1
1 + tan 2 θ
2
1
If we use t to denote tan θ , the three identities will reduce to
2
2t 2t 1− t2
tan θ = , sin θ = ; and cos θ =
1− t2 1+ t2 1+ t2
These three identities are known as the t -formulae. They allow all the trig ratios of
any one angle to be expressed in terms of a common variable t. It is useful in solving
some trig equations. We shall solve examples of such trigonometric equations in the
next session.
Exercise 1.3
1 1
1) Simplify +
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ
1 1
2) Simplify +
1 − sin θ 1 + sin θ
sec θ tan θ
3) Simplify i. (1 − cos 2 θ ) sec 2 θ ii − iii. sec θ − sin θ tan θ
cos θ cot θ
1 1 − cos θ
4) Show that tan θ =
2 sin θ

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: OTHER SOLUTIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC

EQUATIONS
We have learnt how to solve trigonometric equations using the general
solutions in the previous session. There are several other solutions of
trigonometric equations. In this session we will learn how to solve trigonometric
solutions by applying basic identities and also applying the t- formulae.
Objectives
a) solve trigonometric equations by using basic identities
b) solve trigonometric equations of the form a cos θ + b sin θ = c ; and
c) solve trigonometric equations by applying the t-formulae.
Now read on …
4.1 Trigonometric Equations involving Basic Identities

As we stated in the previous session, the basic identities are very useful in the solution
of some trig inequalities. The following identities which we derived in the previous
session may be useful:
sin θ
i) tan θ =
cos θ
ii) cos θ + sin 2 θ = 1
2
iii) 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ

iv) cot 2 θ + 1 = cos ec 2θ
In solving such equations, we first use the required identity to express the equation in
terms of one ratio only. We then solve it in the same way as we solve an algebraic
equation. Care must however be taken not to cancel a ratio from the equation since one
of the solutions could be eliminated. The following examples show how this is done.
Example 10
Solve the equation 2 cos 2 θ − sin θ = 1 for the values of θ between 0 and 2π .
Solution
We will first want to express the equation in terms of one ratio. In this case it will be
easier to express all the terms in the equation in terms of sine. Using the identity
cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ = 1, we can express cosine in terms of sine as cos 2 θ = 1 − sin 2 θ .

UNIT 2 OTHER SOLUTIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC
SESSION 4 EQUATIONS
Now substituting this expression in the original equation gives

2(1 − sin 2 θ ) − sin θ = 1
⇒ 2 − 2 sin 2 θ − sin θ = 1
⇒ 2 sin 2 θ + sin θ − 1 = 0
This is now a quadratic equation of the form 2 x 2 + x − 1 =0 . We can now factorise the
quadratic equation in sinθ .
Hence (2sinθ − 1)(sin θ + 1) = 0
1
⇒= sin θ or − 1
2
1 π 5π
If sinθ = , θ= ,
2 6 6
3π
If sinθ = −1, θ =
2
π 3π 5π
Therefore the solution of the equation is θ= , , .
6 2 6
Example 11
If 3sec2 θ − 5 tan θ − 4 =0 find the general solution.
Solution
Using 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ we can express the equation in terms of only one ratio. This
gives
3(1 + tan 2 θ ) − 5 tan θ − 4 = 0
⇒ 3 tan 2 θ − 5 tan θ − 1 = 0
Again we have a quadratic equation but because it has no simple factors we solve it by
formula
5 ± 25 + 12
tan θ =
6
which implies that
= tan θ 1.8471 or − 0.1805 .
If tan θ = 1.8471, then the principal solution is θ = 61.57 0
If tan θ = −0.1805 , the principal solution θ = −10.230 . The complete general solution is
therefore

SESSION 4
180n + 61.57
0 0
θ =
180n 0 − 10.230
Example 12
Find the possible values of x from 0 0 to 360 0 , when:
(i) sin 2 x = 0.75 (ii) 5 sin x = 3 cos x
Solution
3 3
i) sin x = 0.75 = ⇒ sin x = ±
4 2
3
sin x = ⇒ x = 60 0 ,120 0 and
2
3
sin x = − ⇒ x = 240 0 ,300 0 .
2
The possible values of x are 60 , 120 , 240 and 300 0
sin x 2
ii) 5 sin x = 3 cos x ⇒ = ⇒ tan x = 0.6 . If
cos x 3
tan x = 0.6 ⇒ x = 310 and 2110
The possible values of x are 310 and 2110
Example 13
Solve the equation
= 2sin 2 θ sin θ for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360
Solution
2 sin 2 θ = sin θ ⇒ 2 sin 2 θ − sin θ = 0 Factorizing, we have
sinθ (2 sin θ − 1) = 0
⇒ sin θ = 0 or 2 sin θ − 1 = 0
1
⇒ sin θ =
0 or
2

SESSION 4 EQUATIONS
If sin θ = 0, ⇒ θ = 0 , 180 , 360 . Also if θ 1 2, ⇒=

sin= θ 30 ,150 . The values
of θ in the interval 0 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360 0 are 0 0 ,30 0 ,150 0 ,180 0 and 360 0
4.2 Trigonometric Equation of the Form a cos θ + b sin θ = c

One way of solving an equation of this type is by using a compound angle form such as
r cos(θ − α ). It is very important to recall our lessons on compound angles identities that
will be useful in this session .This will be found in session 3 of Unit 5 of the
Mathematics for Basic School Teachers 3.
To solve an equation of the form a cos θ + b sin θ = c , it is often useful we reduce

a cos θ + b sin θ to one of the standard forms, R sin(θ ± α ) or R cos(θ ± α ) to obtain an
equivalent expression for a cos θ + b sin θ = c . If for instance we want to reduce
a cos θ + b sin θ to a single term such as Rcos( θ − α ) , then we can find values of R
and α for which
R cos( θ − α ) = a cos θ + b sin θ
Applying compound angle identity we get
R[cos θ cos α + sin θ sin α ] ≡ a cos θ + b sin θ
Comparing the coefficients of cos θ and sin θ , we have
R cos α = a (1)
and
R sin α = b (2)
To find R, square both equations and add them
(1)2 + (2)2 ⇒ R 2 cos 2 α + R 2 sin 2 α = a 2 + b 2

⇒ R 2 (cos 2 α + sin 2 α ) = a 2 + b 2
⇒ R 2 = a 2 + b 2 (since cos 2 α + sin 2 α = 1 )
⇒ R = a2 + b2
To find angle α , divide equation (2) by (1)

R sin α b b b
(2) ÷ (1) ⇒ = ⇒ tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1
R cos α a a a

SESSION 4
We could now write the expression out, putting in the values of R and α . Note also that
if f ( x) = R sin(θ ± α ) or f ( x) = R(cos θ ± α ), then the maximum value of f (x) is R
and this occurs when sin(θ ± α ) = 1 or cos(θ ± α ) = 1. The minimum value of f (x) is
− R and this occurs when sin(θ ± α ) = −1 or cos(θ ± α ) = −1. Let us now demonstrate
what we have just learnt with the following example.
Example 14
Solve 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ = 3 for 0< θ < 360
Solution
Let 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ = R cos(θ − α )
Then 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ = R(cos θ cos α + sin θ sin α )
= R cos θ cos α + R sin θ sin α
Equating coefficients of cos θ and sin θ , we have
R cos α = 12 (3)
R sin α = 5 (4)
To find R, square both equations and add them

(3)2 + (4)2
⇒ R 2 cos 2 α + R 2 sin 2 α = 12 2 + 5 2
⇒ R 2 = 144 + 25 = 169
⇒ R 2 = 169
⇒ R = 169 = 13
To find angle α , divide equation (4) by (3)
R sin α 5 5 5
(4) ÷ (3) ⇒ = ⇒ tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1 = 230
R cos α 12 12 12
Hence 12 cos θ + 5 sin θ = 3 becomes 13 cos(θ − 230 ) = 3 . Therefore
3
cos(θ − 230 ) =
= 0.2308
13
Applying the general solution for cosine, we have (θ − 230 ) = 360n ± 77 0 .
When n = 0, θ − 230 = 77 0 ⇒ θ = 77 0 + 230 = 100 0
When n = 1, θ − 230 = 360 − 77 ⇒ θ = 283 + 23 = 306 0

SESSION 4 EQUATIONS
That is, θ = 100 0 or 306 0 .
Example 15
Given that f ( x) = 3 cos x + 2 sin x, where 0 < x < 360 0
i) What is the maximum value of f (x)
ii) For what value of x is f (x) maximum?
Solution
Let f ( x) = 3 cos x + 2 sin x = R cos( x − α )
= R(cos x cos α + sin x sin α )
= R cos x cos α + R sin x sin α
Equating coefficients of cos x and sin x , we have
R cos α = 3 (5)
R sin α = 2 (6)
To find R, square both equations and add them;

(5)2 + (6)2
⇒ R 2 cos 2 α + R 2 sin 2 α = 3 2 + 2 2
⇒ R 2 = 9 + 4 = 13
⇒ R 2 = 13
⇒ R = 13
To find angle α , divide equation (6) by (5);

R sin α 2 2 2
(6) ÷(5) ⇒ = ⇒ tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1 = tan −1 0.6667 = 33.7
R cos α 3 3 3
Hence f (x) = 3 cos x + 2 sin x becomes
= f ( x) 13 cos( x − 33.70 ).
Therefore the maximum value of f (x) is 13
This occurs when cos( x − 33.7 0 ) = 1 ⇒ x − 33.7 0 = 0 0
Therefore x = 33.7 0 .

SESSION 4
Example 16
Express sin x − 2 cos x in the form R sin( x − α ), where α is acute and R is positive.
Hence, or otherwise
i) find the maximum and minimum points of y = sin x − 2 cos x
ii) solve the equation sin x − 2 cos x = 1 for 0 < x < 360 0
Solution
Let sin x − 2 cos x = R sin( x − α )
= R(sin x cos α − cos x sin α )
= R sin x cos α − R cos x sin α
Equating coefficients of cos x and sin x , we have
R cos α = 1 (7)
R sin α = 2 (8)
To find R, square both equations and add them;

(1) + ( 2 ) : ( 7 ) + (8)
2 2 2 2
⇒ R 2 cos 2 α + R 2 sin 2 α = 12 + 2 2
⇒ R2 = 1+ 4 = 5
⇒ R2 = 5
⇒ R= 5
To find angle α , divide equation (8) by (7);
R sin α 2 2
(8) ÷(7) ⇒ = ⇒ tan α = ⇒ α = tan −1 2 = 63.4
R cos α 1 1
Hence sin x − 2 cos x becomes 5 sin( x − 63.4 0 )

i) Therefore the maximum value of y = sin x − 2 cos x is 5 . This occurs when
0 0 0
sin( x − 63.4 ) = 1 ⇒ x − 63.4 = 90 . Therefore x = 153.4 0
The minimum value of y = sin x − 2 cos x is − 5. This occurs when
sin( x − 63.4 0 ) = −1 ⇒ x − 63.4 0 = 270 0 . Therefore x = 333.4 0 . So y has
( ) (
maximum and minimum points at 153.4 , 5 and ( 333.4 , − 5 , respectively. )
ii) sin x − 2 cos x becomes 5 sin( x − 63.4 0 )

SESSION 4 EQUATIONS
sin x − 2 cos x = 1 becomes 5 sin( x − 63.4 0 ) = 1

1
sin( x − 63.4 0 ) = = 0.4472
5
The principal solution of sin( x − 63.4 0 ) = 0.4472 is 26.6 0 . Therefore the general
solution is ( x − 63.4 0 ) = 180n + (−1) n 26.6 0 .
When n= 0, ⇒ x − 63.4= 26.6 ⇒ x= 90

When n = 1, ⇒ x − 63.4= 180 − 26.6 ⇒ x − 63.4= 153.4 ⇒ x= 216.8 .
Therefore x = 90 or 216.8 .
4.3 Using the t-Formulae to solve Trigonometric Equations

We have already learnt in the previous session how to derive the t-formulae.
We shall now use the following example to demonstrate solutions of trigonometric
equations using the t- formulae.
Example 17
Solve the equation sin θ + 2 cos θ = 1 for angles between 0 0 and 360 0
Solution
If sin θ + 2 cos θ = 1 , then substituting the t − formula we have,
2t 1− t 2  1
2
+ 2  = 1 where t = tan θ
2 
1+ t 1+ t  2
⇒ 2t + 2 − 2t 2 = 1 + t 2
⇒ 3 t 2 − 2t − 1 = 0
⇒ (3t+1)(t-1)=0
Therefore either 3t + 1 = 0 or t − 1 = 0
1 1
i.e. tan θ = − or 1
2 3
θ
The range of values specified for θ is 0 0 to 360 0 , so range of values required for
2
is 0 to 180 .
0 0

SESSION 4
1 1 θ
Within this range tan θ = − , gives = 161.57 0
2 3 2
⇒ θ = 323.14
1 θ
Also tan θ = 1, gives = 45 0
2 2
⇒ θ = 90 0
Thus θ = 323.14 0 , 90 0
1
Note: When using the t- formulae, t does not always represent tan θ ,
2
For instance, in solving the equation sin 4θ + tan 2θ = 0, we should use t = tan 2θ .
Exercise 2.4
1. Given that 3 cos θ − 4 sin θ = R(cos θ + α ), obtain α and R, where α
is acute and R is a positive constant. Hence, or otherwise
i) find the maximum and minimum values of 3 cos θ − 4 sin θ and find the
corresponding value of θ corresponding to each
ii) find the angles between 0 and 360 0 for which 3 cos θ − 4 sin θ = 2
2. Given that 4 sin x − cos x = R sin( x − θ ), where R >0 and 0 0 < θ < 90 0 , find the
values of R and θ . Hence find the maximum value of y = 4 sin x − cos x and the
value of x between 0 and 360 0 for which the curve y has a turning point.
3. Find the truth set of the equation 3 − 3 cos θ = 2 sin 2 θ , for values of θ in the
interval 0 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360 0
4. Solve cos x = 2 sin 2 x − 1 for 0 0 ≤ θ ≤ 360 0 .

5. Use the t- formulae to solve the following equations, giving values of θ from 0 0
to 360 0 inclusive.
i. 2 cos θ + 3 sin θ − 2 = 0 ii. 7 cos θ + sin θ − 5 = 0 iii. 3 cos θ − 4 sin θ + 1 = 0

SESSION 4 EQUATIONS


SESSION 5
SESSION 5: PROOFS OF SOME TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
This session is devoted to finding the proofs of some trigonometry

identities. We will look at the proof of some identities we have made use
of in areas such as Compound Angles, Double Angles and Half Angles.
Objective
By the end of the session, you should be able to prove some trigonometry
identities.
Now read on …
From the identity sin( A + B ) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B , we can replace B by A and
show that sin 2 A = sin( A + A) = sin A cos A + cos A sin A
∴ sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A (1)
To prove the identities concerning cos 2 A, we put B = A in the identity
cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
which gives
cos 2 A = cos( A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A
∴ cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A (2)
Now cos 2 A + sin 2 A = 1 , so substituting sin 2 A = 1 − cos 2 A , we obtain

cos 2 A = cos 2 A − (1 − cos 2 A)
∴ cos 2 A = 2 cos 2 A − 1 (3)
If we had substituted cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A in the identity

cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
We should have obtained

cos 2 A = (1 − sin 2 A) − sin 2 A
∴ cos 2 A = 1 − 2 sin 2 A (4)

UNIT 2 PROOFS OF SOME TRIGONOMETRIC
SESSION 5 IDENTITIES
The expressions for cos 2 A and sin 2 A are obtained by changing the subjects in the
formulae as in (3) and (4) above.
Thus from (3), 2 cos 2 A = cos 2 A + 1

1
∴ cos 2 A = (1 + cos 2 A) (5)
2
Similarly from (4), 2 sin 2 A = 1 − cos 2 A
1
∴ sin 2 A = (1 − cos 2 A) (6)
2
Example 18
Prove that sin 3 A = 3 sin A − 4 sin 3 A .
Solution
The left-hand side of the identity could be written as sin( A + 2 A), so by using the
formula for sin(A+B) we have
sin( A + 2 A) = sin A cos 2 A + cos A sin 2 A

But the right-hand side of the identity to be proved is in terms of sin A, and this suggests
that cos 2 A should be expressed in terms of sin A. That is, cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A . (We
have only one formula for sin 2 A, i.e. sin 2 A = 1 − 2 sin 2 A ; so it must be used).
Therefore
sin 3 A = sin A(1 − 2 sin 2 A) + cos A(2 sin A cos A)
= sin A − 2 sin 3 A + 2 sin A cos 2 A
Now cos 2 A must be expressed in terms of sin A by means of the identity

cos 2 A = 1 − sin 2 A , therefore
sin 3 A = sin A − 2 sin 3 A + 2 sin A(1 − sin 2 A)
= sin A − 2 sin 3 A + 2 sin A − 2 sin 3 A
∴ sin 3 A = 3 sin A − 4 sin 3 A

SESSION 5
A formula for cos 3 A in terms of cos A will be obtained from the expansion of
cos(2 A + A). This proof is left as an exercise for you to try. The identities for the
tangent of compound angles can also be derived; they give tan( A + B) and tan( A − B )
in terms of tan A and tan B . As we know
sin( A + B)
tan( A + B) =
cos( A + B)
Therefore using the formulae for sin( A + B) and cos( A + B), we have
sin A cos B + cos A sin B

tan( A + B) =
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Dividing numerator and denominator of the right –hand side by cos Acos B ,
sin A cos B cos A sin B
+
tan( A + B ) = cos A cos B cos A cos B
cos A cos B sin A sin B
−
cos A cos B cos A cos B
sin A sin B
+
= cos A cos B
sin A sin B
1−
cos A cos B
tan A + tan B
∴ tan( A + B) = (7)
1 − tan A tan B
Similarly
tan A − tan B
tan( A − B) = (8)
1 + tan A tan B
We could use the same method above to prove the identity (8).This is left to you as an
exercise to do. Again if we replace B with A , in (7) we have
tan A + tan A
tan( A + A) = tan 2 A =
1 − tan A tan A
2 tan A
∴ tan 2 A = (9)
1 − tan 2 A

Example 19
tan A + tan B 2 tan A
Using the identities tan( A + B) = and tan 2 A = , prove that
1 − tan A tan B 1 − tan 2 A
3 tan A − tan 3 A
tan 3 A =
1 − 3 tan 2 A
Solution
tan 2 A + tan A 2 tan A
Now tan 3 A = tan(2 A + A) = . But tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A tan A 1 − tan 2 A
Therefore
2 tan A
2
+ tan A
tan 3 A = 1 − tan A
2 tan A
1− tan A
1 − tan 2 A
2 tan A + tan A(1 − tan 2 A)

= 1 − tan 2 A
(1 − tan 2 A) − 2 tan A tan A
1 − tan 2 A
2 tan A + tan A − tan 3 A
=
1 − tan 2 A − 2 tan 2 A
3 tan A − tan 3 A
∴ tan 3 A =
1 − 3 tan 3 A
It is also possible to express both sin 2 A and cos 2 A in terms of tan A and there are
many occasions when this is a very useful technique. In the case of sin 2 A we start by
sin A
deliberately introducing a factor , which is equal to tan A.
cos A
sin 2 A = 2sin A cos A

cos A
= 2sin A cos A ×
cos A
sin A
=2 cos 2 A
cos A

SESSION 5
sin A 1
We now substitute tan A for and for cos 2 A
cos A 2
sec A
So
1
sin 2 A = 2 tan A ×
sec 2 A
This last step may seem rather peculiar; its purpose is to enable us to replace sec 2 A by
1 + tan 2 A . Hence
2 tan A
sin 2 A = (10)
1 + tan 2 A
We could also express
1 − tan 2 A
cos 2 A = (11)
1 + tan 2 A
Exercise 2.5
sin A tan A − tan B

1) Using the identity tan A = , prove that tan( A − B) =
sin B 1 + tan A tan B
1 − tan 2 A
2) Using the identity cos 2 A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A , prove that cos 2 A =
1 + tan 2 A
3) Prove that cos 3 A = 4 cos 3 A − 3 cos A
4) Prove the following identities:

cos 2 A
i. tan A + cot A = 2 cos ec 2 A ii. = cos A − sin A
cos A + sin A
iii. cos ec2 x + cot 2 x =
cot x



SESSION 6
SESSION 6: THE FACTOR FORMULAE
To factorise is to express in the form of a product. The set of identities called

the factor formulae (which, you may be relieved to learn, is the last set in this
work) converts expressions such as sin A + sin B into a product, so factorising the
expression. In this session we shall look at how to derive the factor formulae and its
application as well.
Objective
By the end of the session, you should be able to solve problems involving the factor
formulae.
Now read on …
To derive the identities, we use the compound angle group.
sin( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin( A − B ) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
Adding we get: sin( A + B ) + sin( A − B ) = 2 sin A cos B (1)

Subtracting we get: sin( A + B) + sin( A − B) = 2 cos A sin B (2)
Also we can do same for cos( A + B) and cos( A − B)
cos( A + B ) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

cos( A − B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
Adding we get: cos( A + B) + cos( A − B) = 2 cos A cos B (3)

Subtracting we get: cos( A + B) − cos( A − B) = −2 sin A sin B (4)
Identities (1) − (4) should be used when a given product is to be expressed as a sum or
difference.
CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

71
UNIT 2
SESSION 6 THE FACTOR FORMULAE
Example 20
Express as a sum or difference of two cosines:
i. − 2 sin x sin y
ii. − 2 sin( S + T ) sin( S − T )
iii. 2 cos 3θ cos θ
Solution
i. Applying identity (4), then we get cos( x + y ) − cos( x − y )
ii. Applying identity (4), then we get cos 2 S − cos 2T ; thus A = S + T and B = S − T
iii. Applying identity (3), then we get cos 4θ + cos 2θ
We now proceed to the question of factorising a sum or difference of two cosines or sines.
We have already seen that
cos ( A + B ) + cos ( A − B ) = 2 cos A cos B

cos ( A + B ) cos ( A − B ) = − 2 sin A sin B
sin ( A + B ) + sin ( A − B ) = 2 sin A cos B
sin ( A + B ) − sin ( A − B ) = 2 cos A sin B
Here, the right – hand sides of the identities are in factors, but it would be more convenient
if the left- hand sides were in the form cos P + cos Q , etc. Therefore let
P = A + B and Q = A − B
Adding
P+Q
P +Q =2A ∴ A=
2
Subtracting,
P−Q
P −Q = 2B ∴B =
2
Substituting into the four identities above
P+Q P−Q
cos P + cos Q = 2 cos cos (5)
2 2

SESSION 6
P+Q P−Q
cos P − cos Q = − 2 sin cos (6)
2 2
P+Q P−Q
sin P + sin Q = 2 sin cos (7)
2 2
P+Q P−Q
sin P − sin Q = 2 cos sin (8)
2 2
Remember how these identities were obtained: this will make it easier to remember them.
Many people find it helpful to remember them in the form, “cos plus cos, equals two cos
semi-sum, cos semi – diff”. Identities (5) − (8) are best used when a sum or difference is to
be expressed as a product.
Example 21
Express sin 6θ − sin 4θ as a product.
Solution
6θ + 4θ 6θ − 4θ
Applying (8) we have
= sin 6θ − sin 4θ 2 cos = sin 2 cos 5θ sin θ
2 2
Example 22
sin B + sin C B+C
Prove that = tan
cos B + cos C 2
Solution
Now if we take the left- hand side we could prove to obtain the right-hand side of the
equation. Applying the Factor formulae
B+C B−C B+C

2 sin cos 2 sin
sin B + sin C 2 2 = 2 = tan B + C
=
cos B + cos C B + C B − C B +C 2
2 cos cos 2 cos
2 2 2
Example 23
Solve the equation sin 3 x + sin x = 0, for values of x from − 180 0 to + 180 0 inclusive.
Solution
We apply the formula for sin P + sin Q, so we have
CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education

73
UNIT 2
SESSION 6 THE FACTOR FORMULAE
sin 3 x + sin x = 2 sin 2 x cos x = 0
∴ sin 2 x = 0 or cos x = 0
Now x may lie in the range from −180 to 180 , therefore 2 x lies in the range from −360
to 360 . Applying the general solution method for sine, then if sin 2 x = 0, we have
−360 , − 180 , 0 , 180 , 360

2x =
Therefore −180 , − 90 , 0 , 90 , 180
x=
If cos x = 0, x = −90 , 90. Therefore the roots of the equation in the range from −180 to
180 are −180 , − 90 , 0 , 90 and 180 .
Exercise 2.6
1 .Solve the following equations, for values of x from 0 0 to 360 0 inclusive.

i. cos 4 x − cos x = 0 ii. sin( x + 10 0 ) + sin x = 0
2. Express the following in factors

3x x
i. cos( y + 10 0 ) + cos( y − 80 0 ) ii. cos − cos
2 2

CALCULUS III UNIT 3
UNIT 3: CALCULUS III
Outline
Session 1: Increments and Differentials
Session 2: Using Increment to Approximate a Function
Session 3: The Trapezoidal Rule
Session 4: Integration by Parts
Session 5: Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions
Session 6: Solving Differential Equations by Separation of Variables
In this unit, we will look at further topics in calculus. We will learn

about increments and differentials and how to approximate given
functional values using increments. We will also learn how to use the
trapezoidal rule to estimate the area under a given curve. Furthermore, we will be
introduced to integration by parts and integration by partial fractions. Finally, we will
learn how to solve a given differential equation by the method of separation of
variables.
Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. define and use the increments and differentials formulae;
2. approximate functions using increment;
3. derive and use the trapezoidal rule to estimate the area under a given curve;
4. use integrating by parts to evaluate given integrals;
5. use partial fractions to integrate rational functions; and
6. solve differential equations by the method of separation of variables.

UNIT 3 CALCULUS III


CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 1
SESSION 1: INCREAMENTS AND DIFFERENTIALS

In this session, we will learn about increments and differentials which
are very important in calculus, especially in the definition of the
derivative of a given function.
Objectives
(a) define and use the formulae for increments; and
(b) define and use the formulae for differentials.
Now read on. . .
1.1 Increments
Whenever the value of a variable changes from one number to another, then the final
value minus the initial value is called an increment in the variable. In calculus, we
denote an increment in a variable x by the symbol ∆x (read as “delta x”). In this
notation, ∆x is not a product of "∆" and " x " . Rather, ∆x should be viewed as a single
entity representing the change in the variable x. Similarly, ∆y, ∆t and ∆θ denote
increments in the variables y, t and θ respectively.
Let y = f (x) , and let x change from an initial value x0 to a final value x1 . Then there
is a corresponding change in the value of y from y 0 = f ( x0 ) to y1 = f ( x1 ) .
Thus, the increment in x is
∆x = x1 − x0 (1)
and the corresponding increment in y is
∆y = y1 − y 0 = f ( x1 ) − f ( x0 ) (2)
Increments can be positive, negative or zero, depending on the relative positions of the
initial and final points.
Relation (1) can be rewritten as
x1 = x0 + ∆x

UNIT 3
SESSION 1 INCREAMENTS AND DIFFERENTIALS
which states that the final value of x is the initial value of x plus the increment in x.
With this notation, (2) can also be rewritten as
∆y = f ( x0 + ∆x) − f ( x0 ) (3)
Sometimes, it is convenient to drop the zero subscript on x0 and use x to denote the
initial value as well as the name of the variable. In this case, x + ∆x represents the final
value of the variable. Similarly, the initial and final values of y may be denoted by y
and y + ∆y rather than y 0 and y1 . Thus, (3) becomes
∆y = f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) (4)
Example 1
Given that y = x , find ∆y if x = 4 and ∆x = 3 .
Solution
From Formula (4), ∆y = f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) .
Now, let y = f ( x) = x . Then f ( x + ∆x) = x + ∆x .
Therefore,
∆y = x + ∆x − x
= 4+3 − 4
= 7− 4
≈ 0.65
Example 2
Given that y = x 2 + x , determine ∆y if x = 5 and ∆x = 1 .
Solution
Let y = f ( x) = x 2 + x . Then
f ( x + ∆x) = ( x + ∆x) 2 + ( x + ∆x)
= x 2 + 2 x(∆x) + (∆x) 2 + x + ∆x
Now, x = 5 and ∆x = 1. Therefore,

f ( x) = 5 2 + 5 = 30

CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 1
and
f ( x + ∆x) = 5 2 + 2(5)(1) + (1) 2 + 5 + 1
= 25 + 10 + 1 + 5 + 1
= 42
Thus, from Formula (4),

∆y = 42 − 30
= 12
1.2 Differentials
dy
So far in calculus, we have been viewing the expression as a single symbol for the
dx
derivative of a given function. However, the symbols “ dy ” and “ dx ” in this
expression, which are called differentials, have no meaning by themselves. We will
dy
now show how to interpret these symbols so that can be viewed as the ratio of dy
dx
and dx .
Let y = f (x) . Then we know that
dy
= f ′(x) (5)
dx
provided f is differentiable at x.
From (5),
dy = f ′( x) dx , (6)
dy is the differential in the variable y, while dx is the differential in x.
Note that dx is usually equal to ∆x .
Example 3
Given that y = x 2 , determine dy when x = 3 and dx = 4 .
Solution
Let y = f ( x) = x 2 . Then f ′( x) = 2 x .

UNIT 3
From (6) ,
dy = f ′( x) dx
= 2 x dx
Now, x = 3 and dx = 4 . Therefore,
dy = 2 (3) (4)
= 24 units.
Example 4
Given that y = x . Find dy if x = 4 and dx = 3 .
Solution
Let y = f ( x) = x .
1
Then f ′( x) = .
2 x
Now x = 4 and dx = 3 . Therefore, from (6),
1
dy = dx
2 x
1
= (3)
2 4
1
= (3)
2(2)
3
=
4
= 0.75 units

CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 1
Exercise 3.1
1. Let y = x 2 .
(a) Find ∆y if ∆x = 1 and the initial value of xis x = 2 .
(b) Find dy if dx = 1 and the initial value of xis x = 2 .
1
2. Let y = .
x
(a) Compute ∆y if ∆x = 0.5 and the initial value of x is x = 1
(b) Compute 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 if 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0.5 and the initial value of x is 𝑥𝑥 = 1

UNIT 3


UNIT 3
CALCULUS III SESSION 2
SESSION 2: USING INCREMENT TO APPROXIMATE THE

VALUE OF A FUNCTION
In the previous session, we learnt how to find increments and

differentials in given variables. In this session, we will learn how to use
an increment to approximate a given functional value.
Objective
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to use an increment to approximate a
given functional value.
Now read on …
Consider a function y = f (x) with x0 being a known point of x. Let ∆x = x − x0 be

very small, close to zero. Then we can approximate f (x) using the relation
f ( x) ≈ f ( x0 ) + f ′( x0 )( x − x0 ) (7)
Now, from ∆x = x − x0 , we know that x = x0 + ∆x . Therefore, (7) can be written in the

alternative form as
f ( x0 + ∆x) ≈ f ( x0 ) + f ′( x0 )∆x (8)
Equation (8) is called the linear approximation of f near x0 .
We will consider two examples to illustrate how to use (8) to approximate functional
values.
Example 5
Use the linear approximation formula to approximate 1.1 .
Solution
Let f ( x) = x . Then the problem is to approximate f (1.1) .
Now,
1
f ′( x) = .
2 x

USING INCREMENT TO APPROXIMATE THE
UNIT 3 VALUE OF A FUNCTION
SESSION 2
Let x0 = 1 and ∆x = 0.1 so that x0 + ∆x = 1.1 . Then f (1) = 1 and f ′(1) = 1 .

Therefore, using the linear approximation Formula (8), we have
f (1.1) ≈ f (1) + f ′(1)(0.1)

or
1
1.1 ≈ 1 + (0.1) = 1.05
2 1
Example 6
Use the linear approximation formula to approximate 3
8.02 .
Solution
1
Let f ( x) = x = x . Then we want to approximate f (8.02).
3 3
Let x0 = 8 and ∆x = 0.02 so that x0 + ∆x = 8.02 .

Now,
2
1 − 1
f ′( x) = x 3 = .
3 3( 3 x 2 )
Therefore,
f (8) = 3 8 = 2
and
1 1 1
f ′(8) = = = .
3( 3 8 2 ) 3(4) 12
Thus, from Formula (8),
3
8.02 = f (8.02)
1
≈ 2+ (0.02)
12
≈ 2 + 0.001666667
≈ 2.0016667

UNIT 3
Exercise 3.2
1. Use the linear approximation formula to approximation 9.01 to

5 decimal places.
2. Use the linear approximation formula to approximate 4 15 to 2 decimal places.
3. Use the linear approximation formula to approximate 0.99 to 3 decimal
places.

USING INCREMENT TO APPROXIMATE THE
UNIT 3 VALUE OF A FUNCTION
SESSION 2


UNIT 3
SESSION 3: THE TRAPEZIODAL RULE

In the Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers Book 2, you were
introduced to finding the exact area under a given curve for a given
interval. In this session, we will learn how to approximate the area under a curve on a
given interval, by using the trapezoid rule. We will first derive the rule and then learn
how to use this rule.
Objectives
(a) derive the trapezoidal rule; and
(b) estimate the area under a given curve on an interval, using the trapezoidal rule.
Now read on …
3.1 Deriving the Trapezoidal Rule

b
For a given function y = f (x) , the definite integral ∫ a
f ( x) dx is equal to the area under
the graph of f on the interval [a, b] . We will learn how to derive a formula known as the
trapezoidal rule. This rule will enable us to determine the area under the graph of f on
the interval [a, b] by using trapezoids.
Figure 3.1: Approximation by trapezoids.
Consider Figure 3.1. Suppose the interval [a, b] is partitioned into n equal parts by the
subdivision points x0 , x1 , x 2 , ..., x n , where x0 = a and xn = b . Let us further consider a
particular trapezoid, which we will denote by kth trapezoid, as shown in Figure 3.2.

UNIT 3 THE TRAPEZIODAL RULE
SESSION 3
Figure 3.2: The k th trapezoids.
The area of the kth trapezoid is given by
1
2
[ ]
f ( x k − 1 ) + f ( x k ) ∆x .
If we let I n to denote the sum of the areas of all the n trapezoids in Figure 3.1, we see
that
In =
1
[ 1
]
2 ( 0 ) + ( 1) ∆ + 2 ( 1) ( 2 )
f x f x x f x + f x ∆x + [
1
2 ( 2 ) ( 3)
]
f x + f x ∆x + ... +
1
[
2 ( n−1) ( n )
f x + f x ∆x ] [ ]
=
1
2
[ f ( x0 ) + 2 f ( x1 ) + 2 f ( x2 ) + 2 f ( x3 ) + ... + 2 f ( xn−1 ) + f ( xn )]∆x (9)
The sum I n estimates the total area under the curve y = f (x) on the interval [a, b] and
hence also estimates the integral
b
∫
a
f ( x) dx
This approximation formula is known as the trapezoidal rule. Usually, ∆x is
computed by
b−a
∆x = .
n
3.2Using the Trapezoidal Rule

Now that we have derived the rule, we will learn how it is used to approximate the area
under a given curve on an interval. We will illustrate this by considering two examples.

UNIT 3
Example 7
2
Use the trapezoidal rule with n = 4 to estimate ∫ −1
x 2 dx .
Solution
The interval is [a, b] = [−1, 2], so a = −1 and b = 2. Therefore,
2 − (−1) 3
∆x = = = 0.75 .
4 4
Thus,
x0 = a = −1
3 1
x1 =a + 1 (∆x) =−1 + =−
4 4
3 1
x2 = a + 2(∆x) =−1 + =
2 2
9 5
x3 = a + 3(∆x) = −1 + =
4 4
x4 = a + 4(∆x) = b = 2
Now, f ( x) = x 2 , therefore,
f ( x0 ) = f (−1) = (−1) 2 = 1
2
 1 1
2 f ( x1 ) = 2  −  = = 0.125
 4 8
2
1 1
2 f ( x 2 ) = 2   = = 0.5
 2 2
2
5 25
2 f ( x3 ) = 2   = = 3.125
 4 8
f ( x4 ) = 2 2 = 4

SESSION 3
Using Formula (9), we have
1
In = [1 + 0.125 + 0.5 + 3.125 + 4] (0.75)
2
= 3.28125 units
Example 8
1 1 1
Use the trapezoidal rule with x = 1, 1 , 2, 2 , 3, 3 and 4 to estimate
2 2 2
4 dx
In = ∫ ,
1 1+ x
correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
1
Let f ( x) = . Then,
1+ x
1 1
f (1) = =
1+1 2
 
 1

 1   2 4
2 f 1  = 2 = 2  =
 2 1+11  5 5
 
 2
 1  1 2
2 f (2) = 2  = 2  =
1+ 2   3 3
 
 1 
 1  = 2  2  = 4
2 f  2  = 2
 2 1+ 2 1  7 7
 
 2
 1  1 1
2 f (3) = 2  = 2  =
1+ 3  4 2
 
 1 
 1  = 2  2  = 4
2 f 3  = 2
 2 1+ 3 1  9 9
 
 2
1 1
f (4) = =
1+ 4 5
UNIT 3
Note that
b − a 4 −1 1
x
∆= = = .
n 6 2
Therefore, using Formula (9), we have
1  1 4 2 4 1 4 1  1 
In = + + + + + +  
2  2 5 3 7 2 9 5  2 
= 1 4 (3.6824)
≈ 0.921 units.
Exercise 3.3
1. Use the trapezoidal rule with n = 4 to estimate

2
∫1
x 2 dx ,
2. Use the trapezoidal rule with n = 4 to estimate

1 dx
∫ 0 1+ x2
,

SESSION 3


CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 4
SESSION 4: INTEGRATION BY PARTS
In this session, we will develop and use a technique that will help us to
evaluate a wide variety of integrals that do not fit any of the basic
integration formulae you have studied so far.
Objective
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to evaluate integrals using integration by
parts.
Now read on …
Suppose u = f (x) and v = g (x) are differentiable functions in the variable x. Then by
the Product Rule of differentiation, we have
d
[ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ( x) g ′( x) + g ( x) f ′( x) (10)
dx
This implies that
d [ f ( x) g ( x)] = f ( x) g ′( x)dx + g ( x) f ′( x)dx
By integrating, we have
f ( x) g ( x) = ∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx + ∫ g ( x) f ′( x)dx .
Making ∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx the subject, we obtain
∫ f ( x) g ′( x)dx = f ( x) g ( x) − ∫ g ( x) f ′( x)dx (11)
Formula (11), which is very useful in integrating certain products, is known as

integration by parts.
Now, we know that u = f (x) and v = g (x) . Differentiating u and v with respect to x
gives
du dv
= f ′(x) and = g ′(x) .
dx dx

UNIT 3 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
SESSION 4
This implies that

du = f ′( x)dx and dv = g ′( x)dx .
Substituting these into (11), we obtain
∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu (12)

Note that in using this formula, u and dv should be chosen in a way that dv can easily
be integrated.
Example 9
x
Evaluate ∫ x +1
dx by using integration by parts formula.
Solution
1
x −
We rewrite ∫ x +1
dx as ∫ x( x + 1) 2 dx .
Now we let
1
−
u = x and dv = ( x + 1) 2
dx .
This implies that du = dx and by integrating dv , we have
1
v = 2( x + 1) 2
[Verify how v was obtained by using your knowledge of the basic integrations you have
learnt.]
Substituting these functions into Formula (12), we obtain
−
1
 1
 1
∫ x( x + 1) 2
dx = x 2( x + 1) 2  − ∫ 2( x + 1) 2 dx
 
2
1 3

= 2 x( x + 1) − 2  ( x + 1) 2  + K
2
3 
1 3
4
= 2 x( x + 1) 2 − ( x + 1) 2 + K ,
3

CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 4
where K is an integration constant. Note that a constant is not needed in the integration
of dv . The constant affixed at the end of the solution is a “collective” constant.
Example 10
Use the integration by parts formula to evaluate ∫ x 2 dx .
Solution
We rewrite ∫x dx as ∫ x ⋅ xdx .
2
x2
Now, let u = x and dv = xdx . Then du = dx and v = ∫ xdx = .
2
Substituting these functions into Formula (12), we have

 x2  x2
∫  2  ∫ 2 dx
2
x dx = x   −
 
x3 x3
= − +K
2 3(2)
x3 x3
= − +K
2 6
3x 3 − x 3
= +K
6
2x3
= +K
6
x3
= +K
3

UNIT 3 INTEGRATION BY PARTS
SESSION 4
Self-Assessment Question
Exercise 3.4
Use integration by parts to evaluate ∫x x + 3 dx .

UNIT 3
SESSION 5: INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS
In the Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers Book 1, you were
introduced to how rational functions can be expressed in partial fractions.
In this session, we will extend our knowledge of this technique by learning how to
integrate rational functions using partial fractions.
Objective
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to integrate rational functions by
using the method of partial fractions.
Now read on …
Recall that a rational function is the quotient of two polynomials. To integrate any
rational function, we will first express the functions as a sum of simple rational
functions. We then integrate these simple functions using the method of substitution as
earlier studied in the Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers Book 2.
We will use the following two examples to illustrate this concept.
Example 11
5 x − 10
Evaluate ∫x 2
− 3x − 4
dx by using the method of partial fractions.
Solution
5 x − 10
Now, it is left to you as an exercise to verify that 2
can be expressed in
x − 3x − 4
2 3
partial fractions as + . Thus,
x−4 x +1
5 x − 10 2 3
∫x 2
− 3x − 4
dx = ∫
x−4
dx + ∫
x +1
dx .
Using the method of substitution, as learnt in the Mathematics for Secondary School
Teachers Book 2, you can verify that
2
∫ x − 4 dx = 2 ln | x − 4 | + K1

UNIT 3
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
SESSION 5 USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS
and
3
∫ x + 1 dx = 3 ln | x + 1 | + K 2 .
Therefore,
5 x − 10
∫x 2
− 3x − 4
= 2 ln | x − 4 | +3 ln | x + 1 | + K 1 + K 2 = 2 ln | x − 4 | +3 ln | x + 1 | + K
Example 12
dx
Evaluate ∫ 2
using the method of partial fractions.
x + x−2
Solution
1
As an exercise, verity that 2
can be expressed in partial fractions as
x + x−2
1 1  1 1 
 −  .
3  x −1  3  x + 2 
Therefore,
dx 1 dx 1 dx
∫x 2
+ x − 2 3 x −1 3 ∫ x + 2
= ∫ −
1 1
= ln | x − 1 | − ln | x + 2 | + K
3 3
1 x −1
= ln + K,
3 x+2
by using the laws of logarithms.

UNIT 3
Exercise 3.5
2
1. Use the method of partial fractions to evaluate ∫x 2
−1
dx .
2x + 4
2. Evaluate ∫x 2
( x − 2)
dx using the method of partial fractions.

UNIT 3
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
SESSION 5 USING PARTIAL FRACTIONS


CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 6
SESSION 6: SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

BY SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
The study of the solutions of differential equations is as old as calculus

itself. Today, it would be virtually impossible to make a serious study in
Science and Technology without encountering physical models based on differential
equations. In this session, we will be introduced to how differential equations are solved
by the method of separation of variables.
Objective
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to solve differential equations
using the method of separation of variables.
Now read on …
A solution of a given differential equation is a function that satisfies the equation.
Many useful differential equations can be formally rewritten so that all the terms
containing the independent variable appear on one side of the equation and all terms
involving the dependent variable appear on the other side.
We say that the differential equation
dy g ( x)
=
dx f ( y )
isseparable since it can be written in the form
f ( y )dy = g ( x)dx .
We now consider some examples to show how to solve a given differential equation by
the method of separation of variables.
Example 13
dy x
Solve = by the method of separation of variables.
dx y
Solution
dy x
We rewrite = in the form y dy = x dx .
dx y

UNIT 3 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
SESSION 6 BY SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
Integrating both sides, we have
∫ y dy = ∫ x dx .
This implies that
y2 x2
+ K1 = + K2,
2 2
where K 1 and K 2 are constants of integration. Multiplying through by 2, we obtain
y 2 + 2 K1 = x 2 + 2 K 2
⇒ y2 − x2 = K ,
where K = 2 K 2 − 2 K1 . Therefore, y 2 − x 2 = K is a solution to the differential equation
dy x
= .
dx y
Example 14
dy
Use the method of separation of variables to solve the differential equation = − 4xy 2 .
dx
Solution
We first separate variables by rewriting the equation in the form
dy
= − 4 xdx .
y2
dy
∫y 2
= ∫ − 4 xdx .
1
⇒ − = −2 x 2 + K .
y

CALCULUS III UNIT 3
SESSION 6
Example 15
dy
Use the method of separation of variables to solve x( y − 1) = y.
dx
Solution
By separating variables, we obtain
y −1 dx
dy = .
y x
y −1 dx
∫ y
dy = ∫
x
 1 dx
∫ 1 − y dy = ∫ x
1 dx
∫ dy − ∫ y dy = ∫ x
y − ln | y | = ln | x | + K
Using the properties of logarithms, we obtain the solution of the differential equation as
y = ln | xy | + K

UNIT 3 SOLVING DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
SESSION 6 BY SEPARATION OF VARIABLES
Exercise 3.6
Use the method of separation of variables to solve the following differential equations:
dy x
1. =−
dx y
dy x
2. =
dx y
dy x3
3. =−
dx ( y + 1) 2

INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS UNIT 4
UNIT 4: INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS
OUTLINE
Session 1: The Complex Numbers
Session 2: Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers
Session 3: Product and Quotient of Complex Numbers
Session 4: Complex Conjugate and Division of Complex Numbers
Session 5: Polar Representation of Complex Numbers
Session 6: De Moivre’s Formula.
If we desire every polynomial to have a solution (root), we have to

extend the real number field R to a larger field C of “complex
numbers”. For instance, since the square of a real number is
nonnegative, even the simpler quadratic equation x 2 + 1 = 0 has no real solutions.
However, it seems perfectly reasonable to require that any number system suitable for
computational purposes allow us to solve equation x 2 + 1 = 0 . This goal can only be
achieved if we some how manage to extend the real number system by making it part of
another, larger number system, which we shall call complex numbers. In this unit we
shall explore the basic ideas of complex numbers. This will include: the definition;
representation and algebra of complex numbers.
Objectives
1. identify the real and imaginary parts of a complex number
2. add and subtract complex numbers
3. multiply and divide complex numbers
4. construct a complex conjugate and use it in the division of complex numbers
5. represent complex numbers in their polar form
6. simplify complex numbers with natural powers using de Moivre’s formula.

UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS


SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE COMPLEX NUMBERS
In this session we will consider the definition of complex numbers and

learn how to represent them on the xy -plane.
Objectives
Objectives
(a) construct a complex number and identify the imaginary and real part of any
given complex number.
(b) represent any complex number on the xy -plane.
Now read on …
1.1 Complex Numbers

The dictionary of mathematics defines a complex number as any number of the form
a + ib , where a and b are real numbers and i = − 1 or i 2 = −1 . This means if we
want to construct a complex number, we associate with each number a second real
number. A complex number then becomes an ordered pair of real numbers (a, b) . We
write this new number as a + ib . We call ‘ a ’ the real part and ‘ b ’ the imaginary part of
the complex number. It is frequently convenient to have a single letter to represent a
complex number, and the normal choice for this is z , although w is also sometimes
used. The real part of a complex number z can then be abbreviated to Re(z ) and the
imaginary part is written Im(z ) . Thus, if z = 5 + 3i , then Re( z ) = 5 and Im( z ) = 3 or
again, if w = 6 − 7i , then we can write Re( w) = 6 and Im(w) = −7 .
It is important to notice that two complex numbers are equal, if and only if, their real
parts are equal and their imaginary parts are equal. For example, if a + ib = c + id , then
a = c and b = d .
Example 1
Write down the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers if z is equal
(a) 4 + 12i (b) x − iy (c) − 17 − 2i
Solution
(a) Re( z ) 4=
= and Im( z ) 12
(b) Re( z ) = x and Im( z ) = − y
(c) Re( z ) =
−17 and Im( z ) =
−2

UNIT 4
SESSION 1 THE COMPLEX NUMBERS
Example 2
Simplify the following
(a) i 3 (b) i 4 (c) i 5
(Hint i 2 = −1 )
Solution
(a) (b)
i4 = i × i × i × i i3 = i × i × i
= −1 × −1 = −1 × i
=1 = −i
(c)
i5 = i × i × i × i × i
= −1 × −1 × i
=i
1.2 Representation of Complex Numbers

As an ordered pair, a complex number can be represented on the xy -plane. We earlier
learnt in Sub-Session 1.1that (a, b) = a + ib , using the left-hand side, we let a to be the
x -coordinates and b the y - coordinates. This is represented in the diagram below.
y
(a, b) or a + ib
b
a x

SESSION 1
Example 3
Represent the following complex numbers on the xy -plane
(a) 3 + 4i (b) − 6 + 2i (c) − 3 − 5i
Solution
(a) y (b) y
4 (3,4)
(−6,2)
2
3 −6 x
x
(c) y
−3 x
(−3,−5) −5
Example 4
Write out the complex numbers indicated on the following diagrams.
y y
(a) (b)
7
x
2 x
−6

UNIT 4
SESSION 1 THE COMPLEX NUMBERS
y
(c)
−3 x
Solution
(a) 2 − 6i (b) 0 + 7i or 7i (c) − 3 + 0 or − 3
Exercise 4.1
1. Identify the real and imaginary parts of the following complex numbers if z is
equal to:
i 2 + 4i
(a) − 10 − (b) 7 + 3i (c)
2 2
2. Simplify
1
(a) i 6 (b) i 7 (c)
i2
3. Indicate the following complex numbers on the xy -plane.

i 2 + 4i
(a) − 10 − (b) 7 + 3i (c)
2 2

UNIT 4
INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS SESSION 2
SESSION 2: ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF

COMPLEX NUMBERS
In the course of learning elementary arithmetic, one has to learn how to

add, subtract, multiply and divide fractions. We are now faced with the
problem of manipulating complex numbers. The operations addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, which we have used so far, are concerned with real
numbers, hence it is necessary to define what we mean by these operations with regard
to complex numbers.
In this session, we will consider defining addition and subtraction of complex numbers,
and later consider multiplication in the subsequence sessions.
Objectives
(a) add complex numbers
(b) subtract complex numbers.
Now read on…
2.1 Addition of Complex Numbers

Given any two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 and z 2 = a 2 + ib2 , we define the sum as
follows
z1 + z 2 = (a1 + a 2 ) + i (b1 + b2 ) .
This simply means, we add real part to real part and imaginary part to imaginary part.
Notice that in the addition of complex numbers, the commutative and associative
properties of arithmetic are retained.
That is,
z1 + z 2 = z 2 + z1
and
( z1 + z 2 ) + z 3 = z1 + ( z 2 + z 3 )
Example 5
Simplify the following.
(a) (3 + i ) + (1 + 2i ) (b) (2 − 3i ) + (1 + 2i )

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
UNIT 4
SESSION 2
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Solution
(a)
(3 + i ) + (1 + 2i ) = (3 + 1) + (1 + 2)i
= 4 + 3i
(b)
(2 − 3i ) + (1 + 2i ) = (2 + 1) + (−3 + 1)i
= 3−i
Example 6
If z1 = 7 + 2i, z 2 = −2 + 3i and z 3 = −5 − 2i . Evaluate:
(a) z1 + z 2 , z 2 + z1
(b) ( z1 + z 2 ) + z 3 , z1 + ( z 2 + z 3 )
What conclusion can you make about addition?
Solution
(a ) z1 + z 2 = (7 + 2i ) + (−2 + 3i )
= (7 − 2) + i (2 + 3)
= 5 + 5i
z 2 + z1 = (−2 + 3i ) + (7 + 2i )
= (−2 + 7) + i (3 + 2)
= 5 + 5i
(b) ( z1 + z 2 ) + z 3 = [(7 + 2i ) + (−2 + 3i )] + (−5 − 2i )

= (5 + 5i ) + (−5 − 2i )
= (5 − 5) + i (5 − 2)
= 3i
z1 + ( z 2 + z 3 ) = (7 + 2i ) + [(−2 + 3i ) + (−5 − 2i )]
= (7 + 2i ) + (−7 + i )
= (7 − 7) + i (2 + 1)
= 3i
Addition is commutative and associative with respect to the complex number system.

UNIT 4
2.2 Subtraction of Complex Numbers

The definition of subtraction is similar to that of addition. Given that z1 = a1 + ib2 and
z 2 = a 2 + ib2 . We define z1 − z 2 as (a1 − a 2 ) + i (b1 − b2 ).
Example 7
Simplify
(a) (5 − 3i ) − (4 + 3i ) .
(b) (1 + i ) − (1 − i ) .
Solution
(a) (5 − 3i ) − (4 + 3i ) = (5 − 4) + i (−3 − 3)
= 1 − 6i
(b) (1 + i ) − (1 − i ) = (1 − 1) + i (1 − (−1))
= 0 + 2i
Example 8
Given that z1 =3 + 4i, z2 =−5 + 2i and z 3 = −2 − i , find
(a) z1 + z 2 − z 3 (b) z1 − z 2 + z 3
Solution
(a) z1 + z 2 − z 3 = (3 + 4i ) + (−5 + 2i ) − (−2 − i )

= (−2 + 6i ) − (−2 − i )
= 7i
(b) z1 − z 2 + z 3 = (3 + 4i ) − (−5 + 2i ) + (−2 − i )

= (8 + 2i ) + (−2 − i )
= 6+i
Exercise 4.2
1. Simplify
(a) (5 − 7i ) + (4 + 3i )
(b) (1 + i ) + (1 − i )
2. If z1 = 3 + 4i, z 2 = 2 − 3i and z 3 = 1 + 2i , find

(a) z1 + z 2 + z 3

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF
UNIT 4
SESSION 2
COMPLEX NUMBERS
(b) z 2 + z 3 + z1
3. Simplify
(a) (3 + i ) − (1 + 2i )
(b) (2 − 3i ) − (1 + 2i )
4. If z1 = 2 + 3i, z 2 = 4 − 5i and z 3 = 1 − i , find

(a) z1 − z 2 − z 3
(b) z1 + z 2 − z 3

UNIT 4
SESSION 3: THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT OF COMPLEX

NUMBERS
In the previous session we learnt how to add and subtract complex
numbers; we will continue our studies by defining multiplication and
division in complex numbers. We will also use examples to verify the arithmetic
properties of multiplication in complex numbers.
Objectives
(a) multiply complex numbers and
(b) divide complex numbers.
Now read on…
3.1 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

It is easiest for us to define multiplication in complex numbers by saying that we will
use the usual laws of algebra together with the i 2 = −1 . That is to say that we multiply
each term by term and replace i 2 with − 1 where ever it occurs.
Consider z1 = a1 + ib1 and z 2 = a 2 + ib2 . Thus
z1 z 2 = (a1 + ib1 )(a 2 + ib2 )

= a1 a 2 + ia1b2 + ib1 a 2 + i 2 b1b2
= (a1 a 2 − b1b2 ) + i (a1b2 + a 2 b1 )
Notice that multiplication in complex number system obeys the usual properties of
arithmetic. Thus it is commutative, associative and distributive over addition and
subtraction.
Example 9
Simplify
(a) (2 + 3i )(4 + 5i )
(b) (2 − i )(3 + 2i )
Solution
(a) (2 + 3i )(4 + 5i ) =8 + 10i + 12i + 15i 2 replacing i 2 with − 1
=8 − 15 + i (10 + 12)
=−7 + 22i

THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT OF
UNIT 4 COMPLEXNUMBERS
SESSION 3
(b) (2 − i )(3 + 2i ) =6 + 4i − 3i − 2i 2 replacing i 2 with − 1

= 6 + 2 + i (4 − 3)
= 8+i
Example 10
Let z1 = 4 + 3i and z 2 = 2 − 5i . Find each of the following in the form a + ib , showing
the details of your work.
(a) z1 z2 (b) (3z1 − z2 ) 2
Solution
(a) z1 z2 =(4 + 3i )(2 − 5i )
=8 − 20i + 6i − 15i 2
=8 + 15 + i (6 − 20)
= 23 − 14i
(b) (3z1 − z2 ) 2 = (3 z1 − z2 )(3 z1 − z2 ) expanding and simplifying

=9z12 − 6 z1 z2 + z22
We will consider evaluating z12 , z1 z 2 and z 22 separately. Thus,
z12 = (4 + 3i ) 2
= (4 + 3i )(4 + 3i )
= 16 + 12i + 12i + 9i 2
= 7 + 24i
(4 + 3i )(2 − 5i ) from (a)

z1 z2 =
= 23 − 14i
z 22 = (2 − 5i )(2 − 5i )
= 4 − 10i − 10i + 25i 2
= 4 − 25 − i (10 + 10)
= −21 − 20i
Hence
2
(3 z1 − z2 )= 9(7 + 24i ) − 6(23 − 14i ) + (−21 − 20i )
=−96 + 280i

UNIT 4
Example 11
Verify the following laws for complex numbers from the corresponding laws for real
numbers if z1 = 1 + i, z 2 = 1 + 2i and z 3 = 2 − 3i .
(a) z1 z 2 = z 2 z1 (Commutative law)
(b) ( z1 z 2 ) z 3 = z1 ( z 2 z 3 ) (Associative law)
(c) z1 ( z 2 + z 3 ) = z1 z 2 + z1 z 3 (Distributive law)
Solution
(a) (1 + i )(1 + 2i ) = (1 + 2i )(1 + i )
1 + 2i + i + 2i 2 = 1 + i + 2i + 2i 2
1 + 3i − 2 = 1 + 3i − 2
− 1 + 3i = −1 + 3i
Hence multiplication is commutative.

(b) [(1 + i)(1 + 2i)] (2 − 3i) =(1 + i) [(1 + 2i)(2 − 3i)]
1 + 2i + i + 2i 2  (2 − 3i ) = (1 + i )  2 − 3i + 4i − 6i 2 
(−1 + 3i )(2 − 3i ) = (1 + i )(8 + i )
− 2 + 3i + 6i − 9i 2 =8 + i + 8i + i 2
7 + 9i =7 + 9i
Hence multiplication is associative.
(c) (1 + i )[(1 + 2i ) + (2 − 3i )] = (1 + i )(1 + 2i ) + (1 + i )(2 − 3i )

(1 + i )(3 − i ) = 1 + 2i + i + 2i 2 + 2 − 3i + 2i − 3i 2
3 − i + 3i − i 2 = −1 + 3i + 5 − i
4 + 2i = 4 + 2i
Hence multiplication is distributive over addition.
3.2 Division of Complex Numbers

At this stage we will define division in terms of multiplication, which is a bit difficult.
However, we will review division in the next session using complex conjugate. The
z
quotient z = 1 ( z 2 ≠ 0) is the complex number z for which z1 = zz 2 . If we equate the
z2
real and the imaginary parts on both sides of this equation, setting
z = x + iy, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z 2 = x 2 + iy 2 .

SESSION 3
We obtain
x1 = x 2 x − y 2 y, y1 = y 2 x + x 2 y
Solving this simultaneously for x and y , the solution is
x1 x2 + y1 y2
x=
x22 + y22
x y −x y
y = 2 21 12 2
x2 + y2
Example 12
Express the following with real denominators
1− i 3i − 2
(a) (b)
1+ i 1 − 2i
Solution
(a) Let z1 = 1 − i, and z 2 = 1 + i
⇒ x1 = 1, y1 = −1, x 2 = 1, y 2 = 1
(1)(1) + (−1)(1)
=⇒x = 0
12 + 12
and
(1)(−1) − (1)(1)
y= = −1
12 + 12
But
z1
= x + iy
z2
Hence,
1− i
= 0 + (−1)i = −i
1+ i
(a) Let z1 = 3i − 2, z 2 = 1 + 2i
⇒ x1 = −2, y1 = 3, x 2 = 1, y 2 = 2

UNIT 4
(−2)(1) + (3)(2)
⇒x=
12 + 2 2
−2+6
=
3
4
=
3
and
(1)(3) − (−2)(2)
y=
12 + 2 2
3+ 4
=
3
7
=
3
Exercise 4.3
1. Simplify:
(a) (3 + 4i )(3 − 4i )
(b) ( x + 2iy )(2 x + iy )
(c) ( p + 2iq )( p − 2iq )
2. Express with real denominators:

5 + 4i
(a)
5 − 4i
1 1
(b) +
2 + 3i 2 − 3i
3. Simplify the expressions:
(a) (2 + 3i ) 2
(b) ( x + iy ) 2
1
(c)
(1 + i ) 3

SESSION 3


SESSION 4
SESSION 4: COMPLEX CONJUGATE AND DIVISION

OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
In this session, we will now consider defining the complex conjugate of

a given complex number and use it in the division of complex numbers.
Division becomes relatively cheaper when using complex conjugate.
Objectives
(a) construct the complex conjugate of a given complex number;
(b) use complex conjugate to divide two complex numbers.
Now read on…

4.1 The Complex Conjugate
The complex numbers x + iy and x − iy are said to be conjugate complex numbers or
complex conjugates (of each other). If one of these numbers is denoted by z , the other
is denoted by z . Obviously, the points z and z are symmetric with respect to the real
axis, and
z = z, (z ) = z .
If z is real, z = x, then z = z by the definition of z , and conversely. Working with
conjugates is easy, since we have
( z1 + z2 ) =z1 + z2 ,
( z1 − z2 ) =z1 − z2
( z1 z2 ) = z1 z2 ,
 z1  z1
 =
 z2  z2
Example 13
Let z1 = 4 + 3i and z 2 = 2 − 5i . Find:
(a) z1 and z 2 (b) (z1 + z 2 ) (c) z1 z 2 .

COMPLEX CONJUGATE AND DIVISION
UNIT 4 OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
SESSION 4
Solution
1. z1= 4 − 3i and z2= 2 + 5i , therefore
(b) ( z1 + z2 ) =z1 + z2
= 4 − 3i + 2 + 5i
= 6 + 2i
(c) z1 z 2 = z1 z 2
= (4 − 3i )(2 + 5i )
= 23 + 14i
4.2 Division of Complex Number Using Complex Conjugate

The property that the product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real number
will help us to deal with the quotient of two complex numbers. Given the complex
number x + iy and x − iy as the complex conjugate.
Then,
( x + iy )( x − iy ) = x 2 + y 2 .
z
Now when are ask to simplify 1 , we will multiply the numerator by the complex
z2
conjugate of z 2 and the denominator by the complex conjugate of z 2 .
For example if z1 = x + iy and z 2 = a + ib
Then ,
z1 x + iy
=
z 2 a + ib
( x + iy )(a − ib)
=
(a + ib)(a − ib)
xa − ixb + iay + yb
=
a2 + b2
Example 14
Let z1 = 4 + 3i and z 2 = 2 + 5i. Find each of the following in the form x + iy, showing
the details of the work:
1 25 z 2 ( z1 − z 2 )
(a) (b) (c)
z1 z1 ( z1 + z 2 )

SESSION 4
Solution
(a) 1 1 (b) 25 z2 25(2 + 5i )(4 − 3i )

= =
z1 4 + 3i z1 (4 + 3i )(4 − 3i )
1× (4 − 3i ) 25(8 − 6i + 20i + 15)
= =
(4 + 3i )(4 − 3i ) 16 + 9
4 − 3i 25(23 + 14i )
= =
16 + 9 25
4 − 3i = 23 + 14i
=
25
4 3
= − i
25 25
( z1 − z2 ) [ (4 + 3i ) − (2 + 5i ) ]
(c) =
( z1 + z2 ) [ (4 + 3i ) + (2 + 5i ) ]
2 − 2i
=
6 + 8i
(2 − 2i )(6 − 8i )
=
(6 + 8i )(6 − 8i )
(12 − 16i − 12i − 16)
=
36 + 64
−4 − 28i
=
100
1 7
= − − i
25 25
Exercise 4.4
1. Express with real denominators (using the conjugate of the denominator)

5 + 4i 1 1
(a) (b) +
5 − 4i 2 + 3i 2 − 3i
2. Let z1 = 4 + 3i and z 2 = 2 − 5i . Find each of the following in the form x + iy ,

showing the details of your work:

COMPLEX CONJUGATE AND DIVISION
UNIT 4 OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
SESSION 4
z1 z 
(a) ,  1  (b) z1 z 2 , z1 z 2
z2  z2 
3. Let z = x + iy . Find (showing the details of your work)
1  z2 
(a) Im  
(b) Re 
z  z 

UNIT 4
SESSION 5: POLAR REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX

NUMBERS
In this session we will substantially increase the usefulness of the

complex plane and gain further insight into complex numbers if besides
the XY − coordinates we also employ the usual polar coordinates r , ϕ defined by
x = r cos ϕ and y = r sin ϕ .
Objectives
Objectives
(a) calculate the modulus of a complex number;
(b) calculate the argument of a complex number; and
(c) represent complex number in polar coordinate form.
Now read on…
5.1 The Modulus of a Complex Number

Two quantities are required to specify a vector through the origin: Magnitude and
direction. The magnitude r of OP (Figure 1) presents no difficulty.
r= x2 + y2
This quantity is called the modulus of the complex number z = x + iy abbreviated to

z , hence,
z
= x2 + y 2 .
P(x, y)
y
0 x
Figure 1.

UNIT 4
POLAR REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX
SESSION 5 NUMBERS
Example 15
Write down the modulus of
(a) 3 + 4i (b) i (c) cos ϕ + i sin ϕ
Solution
(a) Let z= 3 + 4i (b) Let z = −i
⇒ z = 32 + 42 ⇒ z = 12
= 25 5
= =1
(c) Let
= z cos ϕ + i sin ϕ
z
⇒= cos 2 ϕ + sin 2 ϕ
= 1 1
=
5.2 Argument of a Complex Number
The direction specifying the radius vector OP is not quite so easy to deal with because
there are infinitely many positive and negative angles that would do.
β
ϕ x
P(x, y)
Figure 2
The problem of which angle to choose is illustrated by a radius vector in the third
quadrant (Figure 2). It is simply a matter of convention whether we take the positive
reflex angle or the negative obtuse angle. In fact the numerical smaller angle is used.
The angle between the radius vector OP and the positive x − axis is called the
argument of the complex number z = x + iy. This is abbreviated to arg z and has, as we
have said before, infinitely many values. The value uniquely specified by the above
convention is called the principal value of the argument and is written Arg z , so that

UNIT 4
−180 < Arg z ≤ 180

Thus to calculate this angle we use the formula
y
ϕ = arg z = tan −1 .
x
Example 16
Find the principal values of the argument of
(a) 1 + i (b) − 3 − 4i (c) − 10
Solution
(a) Let z = 1 + i
1
⇒ arg z = tan −1
1
= 45 
(b) Let z =−3 − 4i

4
⇒β = tan −1
3
= 53.1
Hence, Arg z = −180 + 53.1

= −126.9
We need to note that, the calculation of the argument here is a bit delicate and require
some amount of care. First you will need to sketch the complex number on the plane,
determine the quadrant in which the radius vector makes an angle with the positive x −
axis. If the acute angles are in the 1st and 4th quadrants, we keep them as positive and
negative respectively. However, if the acute angles it makes with the negative x − axis
in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants. In the 2nd quadrant we subtract the acute angle from 180  to
get our principal value. In the third quadrant we add the acute angle − 180  to get our
principal value.
(c) Let z = −10
y
ϕ

UNIT 4
SESSION 5 NUMBERS
Figure 3
Hence from the diagram, Arg z = 180
5.3 Polar Form of Complex Numbers

This form is a useful combination of the modulus and the principal value (argument) of
the complex number. Thus, a complex number can be completely specified by its
modulus and argument (principal value), because as we can see from Figure 1,
x = r cos ϕ and y = r sin ϕ
So if z = r and Arg z = ϕ , then the polar form of the complex number z = x + iy is
z = r cos ϕ + ir sin ϕ
= r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ )
Example 17
Write down the polar form of the complex numbers
(a) 1 + i (b) − 3 + 2i (c) − 3 − 2i
Solution
(a) Let z = 1 + i
⇒ r= z= 12 + 12
= 2
(1, 1)
ϕ
1 x
0
Figure 4

UNIT 4
1
From Fig 4 ϕ = Argz = tan −1 = 45 
1
⇒ x = 2 cos 45 , y = 2 sin 45 

Hence z = 2 (cos 45  + i sin 45  )
(b) Let z =−3 + 2i

⇒ r= z = 32 + 22
= 13
(−3, 2) 2
ϕ
β
x
−3
Figure 5
From Figure 5, we have
−1 2
=β tan
= 33.7
3
⇒ ϕ= Arg z= 180 − 33.7
= 146.3
Hence z
= 13(cos146.3 + i sin146.3 ) .
(c) Let z =−3 − 2i

⇒ r= z = 32 + 22
= 13

UNIT 4
SESSION 5 NUMBERS
β x
−3 ϕ
(−3,−2) −2
Figure 6
From Figure 6, we have

−1 2
= β tan= 33.7
3
⇒ϕ = Arg z = −180 + 33.7
= −146.3
Hence z
= 13(cos146.3 − i sin146.3 ) .
Exercise 4.5
1. Write down the moduli of

1 1
(a) − 3i (b) − 3 (c) 1 + i
2 2
2. Write down the moduli of these complex numbers and give the principal values
of their arguments.
(a) − 4 + 3i (b) 3 − 4i (c) i
3. Represent each of the following complex numbers in polar form.

2+i 1− i
(a) 3 + 4i (b) (c)
5 − 3i 1+ i

UNIT 4
4. Represent each of the following in the form x + iy .

π π
(a) 8 (cos + i sin )
4 4
3 3
(b) 18 (cos π + i sin π )
4 4

UNIT 4
SESSION 5 NUMBERS


SESSION 6
SESSION 6: DE MOIVRE’S FORMULA

We have learnt how to represent complex numbers in polar form. We
will now consider evaluating complex numbers with higher integer
powers. This will require the use of DeMoivre’s formula.
Objective
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to simplify a complex number with a
higher integer power, using De Moivre’s formula.
Now read on…
First of all let us consider the multiplication of two complex numbers z1 and z 2 . We
first write z1 and z 2 in polar form. i.e.
z1 = r1 (cos ϕ1 + i sin ϕ1 )
z 2 = r2 (cos ϕ 2 + i sin ϕ 2 )
where
r1 = z1 ϕ1 = Arg z1
r2 = z 2 ϕ 2 = Arg z 2
Then from our usual binomial expansion
z1 z 2 = r1 r2 [(cos ϕ1 cos ϕ 2 − sin ϕ1 sin ϕ 2 ) + i (sin ϕ1 cos ϕ 2 + cos ϕ1 sin ϕ 2 )]

= r1 r2 [cos(ϕ1 + ϕ 2 ) + i sin(ϕ1 + ϕ 2 )]
And therefore
z1 z 2 = z1 z 2
Arg z1 z 2 = Arg z1 + Arg z 2
Now if z1 = z 2 = z , then
z 2 = r 2 (cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ ) (1)

UNIT 4
SESSION 6
DE MOIVRE’S FORMULA
Let n be a positive integer and z a complex number. Then by the nth power of z ,
written z n we mean z multiplied by itself n times, just as in the case of real numbers.
If z = 0 , we obviously have z n = 0 . If z ≠ 0 , then setting
z = r (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) (2)
And repeatedly applying (1) we find that

z n = r n (cos nϕ + i sin nϕ ) (3)
When r = 1 , (2) and (3) together imply the following formula, known as De Moivre’s
Theorem (or De Moivre’s Formula)
(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) n = cos nϕ + i sin nϕ (4)
We consider when n = −m and m is a positive integer
(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) − m = cos(−mϕ ) + i sin(−mϕ )

= cos(mϕ ) − i sin(mϕ ) (5)
1
When n = , where q is an integer (positive or negative, but not zero),
q
Then
1
1 1
(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) q = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ .
q q
p
When n is a rational number say , where p and q are integers, we have
q
p
p p
(cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) q = cos ϕ + i sin ϕ
q q
Example 18
Express the following complex numbers in the form x + iy
(a) (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) 5

(b) (cos ϕ − i sin ϕ ) −3

SESSION 6
Solution
Using De Moivre’s formula, we have
(a) (cos ϕ + i sin ϕ ) 5 = cos 5ϕ + i sin 5ϕ
(b) (cos ϕ − i sin ϕ ) −3 = (cos(−3)ϕ − i sin(−3)ϕ

= cos 3ϕ + i sin 3ϕ
Example 19
Find one value of
(a) (cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ ) (b) 3 (cos 2π + i sin 2π )
1
(a) (cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ ) =(cos 2ϕ + i sin 2ϕ ) 2
1 1
= cos ⋅ 2ϕ + i sin ⋅ 2ϕ
2 2
= cos ϕ + i sin ϕ
1
(b) 3 (cos 2π + i sin 2π ) =(cos 2π + i sin 2π ) 3
2 2
= cos π + i sin π
3 3
1 3
=− + i
2 2
Example 20
1 3
Let z = − + i , find:
2 2
(a) z 6 (b) z 7
Solution
2 2
1  3 1 3
r= z =   +  = + = 1
 2   2  4 4

UNIT 4
SESSION 6
( 12 , 3
) y
2
3
2
ϕ
β
x
− 12
Figure 7
3
=β tan
= −1 2
1
tan −1 3
2
= 60
2
⇒ ϕ = 180 − 60 = 120 or π
3
2 2
⇒= z cos π + i sin π
3 3
2 2
(a) =z 6 (cos π + i sin π )6
3 3
= cos 4π + i sin 4π
=1
2 2
(b) z 5 = (cos π + i sin π ) 5
3 3
10 10
= cos π + i sin π
3 3
2 2
= cos π − i sin π
3 3
1 3
=− − i
2 2

SESSION 6
Exercise 4.5
1. Calculate the following quantities

3 − i 24
(a) (1 + i ) 25 (b) (1 − )
2
2. Prove that
n
n n
(a) (1 + i ) n = 2 2 (cos π + i sin π )
4 4
n n
(b) ( 3 − i ) n = 2 n (cos π + i sin π )
6 6

UNIT 4
SESSION 6


MATRICES III UNIT 5
UNIT 5: MARTICES III
Unit Outline
Session 1: Solving Linear Systems using Inverse Matrix Method
Session 2: Elementary Row Operations
Session 3: Row Echelon Form of Matrix
Session 4: Reduced Row Echelon Form of Matrix
Session 5: Consistency and Row Rank
Session 6: Parametric Representation of Solution Set and Application
We have learnt how to find the inverse of a given matrix in our previous
studies. In this unit we will learn how to use inverse matrix to solve
linear systems of equations. In addition we will consider consistency and
inconsistency of systems and parametric representation of solutions.
Unit Objectives
1. find solutions of linear system of equations using the inverse matrix;
2. find solutions of linear system of equations using row operations;
3. find solutions of linear system of equations using row echelon form;
4. find solutions of linear system of equations using reduced echelon form;
5. determine whether a system is consistent or inconsistent; and
6. represent solutions parametrically.

UNIT 5 MATRICES III


MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 1
SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING INVERSE MATRIX METHOD
SESSION 1: SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING INVERSE
MATRIX METHOD
In the mathematics for senior secondary school teacher’s books 1&2 you
learnt how to find the inverses of 2 × 2 and 3× 3 matrices. In this session
we will use the inverse matrices to solve systems of linear equations in two variables as
well as those in three variables.
Objectives
(a) write any system of linear equations in a matrix equation; and
(b) solve system of linear equations using the inverse matrix.
Now read on …
1.1 Matrix Equations of Linear Systems

By using matrix multiplication we can write any system of linear equations as a matrix
equation. For example, the linear system
ax1 + bx2 = c
dx1 + ex2 = k
can be written
ax1 + bx2   c 
 dx + ex  = k 
 1 2  
which, using matrix multiplication, it can be written as
 a b   x1   c 
d e   x  = k 
  2   
[ ] [ ]
Thus, if A = aij is the coefficient matrix of the system, if X = x j is the matrix of
variables, and if B = [bi ] is the matrix of the constants, then the system can be written as
AX = B
Each of the matrices X and B consists of a single column, and matrices of this type
are often called vectors.

SOLVING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING
UNIT 5 INVERSE MATRIX METHOD
SESSION 1
Example 1
Write the matrix equations of the following systems of linear equations.
(a) 6x − 3y = 4 (b) x1 + 2 x2 +3 x3 = 2
5x + 2 y =
−3 2 x1 + 5 x2 +3 x3 =−1
x1 +8 x3 = 1
Solution
1. This system can be written as
6 x − 3 y   4 
5 x + 2 y  = − 3 .
   
Using matrix multiplication
6 − 3  x   4 
5 2   y  = − 3
    
2. This system can be written as
 x1 + 2 x2 + 3x3   2 
2 x + 5 x + 3x  = − 1 .
 1 2 3  
 x1 + 8 x3   1 
Using matrix multiplication
1 2 3  x1   2 
2 5 3  x  = − 1
  2   
1 0 8  x3   1 
1.2 Inverse Matrix Method for Solving Linear Systems

From Session 1.1, if the system has the same number of equations as the variables, then
the coefficient matrix A is a square matrix. If it happens that the inverse of A exist
(i.e. if A is invertible), then the matrix A−1 can be used to solve the system. The
solution is found by multiplying both sides of AX = B by A−1 . However, note that A −1
must be multiplied to the left of each term. Then we get
( A−1 A) X = A−1 B .
But A−1 A = I , therefore we have

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 1
IX = A−1 B
which implies that
X = A−1 B
Hence the solution is given by X = A−1 B . Note that the existence of the inverse implies
that the system has a unique (one) solution.
Example 2
Suppose a matrix A and its inverse A−1 are given by
4 1  2 −1
A=  and A−1 =  
7 2  −7 4 
Solve the system
4 x1 + x2 = 5
7 x1 + 2 x2 =
8
Solution
We first write the system in matrix equation form as
4 1   x1  5
7 2  x  = 8
  2   
We see that
4 1   2 − 1
A=  and A −1
= − 7 4 
7 2   
as given in the question.
x  5
Then using the fact X = A−1 B , where X =  1  and B =   , we have
 x2  8
 x1  −1 5  2 − 1 5  2 
 x  = A 8 = − 7 4  8 = − 3
 2       
Hence the unique solution is x1 = 2 and x2 = −3 .

SESSION 1
Example 3
Solve the given system of equations using the inverse matrix method.
x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 4
3 x1 − 5 x2 + 14 x3 =
−2
2 x1 − 4 x2 + 7 x3 = 5
Solution
We write the system in the matrix form
1 − 2 3   x1   4 
3 − 5 14  x  = − 2
  2   
2 − 4 7   x3   5 
1 − 2 3 
Let A = 3 − 5 14 and calculate A−1 .
2 − 4 7 
 21 2 − 13
We have A =  7 1 − 5  (Verify this as an exercise)
−1
− 2 0 1 
We multiply Equation (1) on the left by A−1 to get

 x1   4   21 2 − 13  4   15 
 x  = A−1 − 2 =  7 1 − 5  − 2 =  1 
 2       
 x3   5  − 2 0 1   5  − 3
Hence the unique solution is x1 = 15, x2 = 1 and x3 = −3 .

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 1
Exercise 5.2
1. Determine A, X , and B if the system is written as AX = B .

(a) 6 x + 4 y − 3 z = 10
3x − 8 y + 2 z = 4
− 7 x − 3 y + 9 z = −2
(b) 4 x − 2 y + 5 z = −4
5x + 3 y − 2 z = 5
7 x − y − 3z = 1
2. Solve the given system of equations, using inverse matrix method.
(a) − 7 x + 3 y =
−2
2x + 8 y = 6
(b) x + 2 y + 3z = 2
2 x + 5 y + 3 z = −1
x + 8z = 1

SESSION 1

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 2
SESSION 2: ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS
In this session, we will learn how to find the solution of a system of

equations by using what is known as row operations.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to perform row operation on any
system of equations to find a solution, if the solution exists.
Now read on …
In working with a system of linear equations to obtain a solution, there are three
operations that are permitted. These operations, called elementary operations are as
follows:
1. Interchanging any two equations
2. Multiplying an equation by a nonzero constant.
3. Adding a multiple of one equation to another equation.
The first operation enables us to rearrange the equations in the system. By performing
successive interchanges we can arrange the equations into any desired order. Since the
individual equations are not changed, the rearranged system will have exactly the same
solution as the original system.
The second operation enables us to change the coefficient of any particular term in an
equation by multiplying the entire equation by an appropriate constant. Of course,
multiplication by zero is not permitted since that would wipe out an equation and there
by change the system. Since the introduced constant is not zero, it can easily be
cancelled so that the solutions of the system are not changed.
The third operation is the most important of the three. It enables us to eliminate a
variable from one equation by adding or subtracting a multiple of a different equation.
Theorem
If a system of linear equations is derived from another system by applying any of the
three elementary operations, then the solution sets of the two systems are identical.
The elementary operations performed on the equations of the system now become
operation on the rows of the augmented matrix (matrix formed by the coefficients of the
variable in system). In this context they are called elementary row operations. Similar to
elementary operations on equations, the elementary row operations on matrices is as
follows:
1. The interchange of two rows of a matrix.

UNIT 5
SESSION 2 ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS
2. The multiplication of a row by a non-zero constant.

3. The addition of a multiple of one row to another row of a matrix.
The following example illustrates how the elementary row operations are performed.
The system of equations and the corresponding matrices that are shown in parallel,
exhibit the connections.
Example 4
Solve the linear system
2 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 6
x1 − x3 = 3
x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
Solution
The first step is to write down the augmented matrix of the system. That is
2 − 1 3 6
 
1 0 − 1 3 .
1 − 1 1 2
It is convenient to have a 1 in the first row and the first column, interchanging the first
and third rows (equations), we obtain
1 − 1 1 2  x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
 
1 0 − 1 3 x1 − x3 = 3
2 − 1 3 6 2 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 6
We next subtract the first row (equation) from the second row (equation), which is the
same as adding − 1 times the first row (equation) to the second. This gives
1 − 1 1 2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
 
0 1 − 2 1 x2 − 2 x3 = 1
2 − 1 3 6 2 x1 − x2 + 3x3 = 6
We next add − 2 times the first row (equation) to the third row (equation) to obtain
1 − 1 1 2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
 
0 1 − 2 1  x2 − 2 x3 = 1
0 1 1 2 x2 + x3 = 2

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 2
Note that the first column (the x1 column) has zeros except for the top entry. That is x1
has been eliminated from the second and third equations. The next step is to subtract the
second row (equation) from the third row (equation). This gives us
1 − 1 1 2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
 
0 1 − 2 1 x2 − 2 x3 = 1
0 0 3 1  3x3 = 1
Multiplying the third row (equation) by 1 3 , we have

1 − 1 1 2 x1 − x2 + x3 = 2
 
0 1 − 2 1  x2 − 2 x3 = 1
0 0 1 13  x3 = 1
 3
1
At this step it is clear that x3 = , but the values of x1 and x2 are yet to be determined.
3
This can be accomplished as follows, thus, first write the last system as
x1 = x2 − x3 + 2
x2 = 2 x3 + 1
x3 = 1
3
Then if we substitute the value for x3 = 1

3
back into the second equation, we get
2 5
x2 = +1 = .
3 3
5 1 10
Substituting the values x3 and x2 into the first equation, we get x1 = − +2= .
3 3 3
10 5 1
Hence, the solution =
is x1 = , x2 and x3 = .
3 3 3
Remark
The reader should examine each step in the preceding example to verify that the
calculations are correct. It is wise to verify the solution by substituting the values back
into the original system to be sure that a correct solution was actually obtained. The
process of substituting x3 to obtain x 2 and substituting x3 and x 2 to obtain x1 is called
back substitution, since we moved backwards.

UNIT 5
SESSION 2 ELEMENTARY ROW OPERATIONS
Exercise 5.2
1. Find the augmented matrix of the given system of equations.

(a) 4 x1 + 2 x 2 + 3 x3 − x 4 = 10
8 x1 + 5 x 2 − 2 x3 + 4 x 4 = −2
7 x1 + 4 x 2 + 5 x3 + 3 x 4 = 4
2 x1 − x 2 + 3 x3 + x 4 = −5
(b) 4 x − 3 y + z =5
x + 5 y − 2z =−7
− 5x + 7 y − 6 z =9
2. Find the augmented matrix of the given system of equations and use elementary
row operations to solve them.
4 x1 + 2 x2 − 3 x3 = 8
x1 + 5 x2 + 2 x3 = −6
− 6 x1 + x2 + 7 x3 = 2
UNIT 5: MATRICES III

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 3
ING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING INVERSE MATRIX METHOD
SESSION 3: GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION AND THE
ROW-ECHELON FORM
In this session we will learn how to express an augmented matrix in the

row-echelon form using the Gaussian elimination method. We will
further use the row-echelon form of the matrix and the back substitution to find the
solution to linear system associated with the augmented matrix.
Objectives
(a) express an augmented matrix in the row-echelon form; and
(b) use row-echelon form and back substitution to solve system of linear
equations.
Now read on …
3.1 Expressing Argument Matrix in Row-Echelon Form

(Gaussian Elimination)
The idea of expressing an augmented matrix in the row-echelon form uses a
process known as Gaussian elimination. The general idea here is to introduce
zeros in the augmented matrix by means of elementary row operations. The step-
by-step procedure for Gaussian elimination is to operate on the augmented matrix
as follows:
Step 1: Find the leftmost variable column that has a nonzero entry in it. Choose a
nonzero entry in this column and interchange rows, if necessary, put this
entry in the top row.
Step 2: Divide the top row by the nonzero entry found in step 1 so that the
leftmost entry in the row is 1. This entry is called the leading 1 for the row.
Step 3: Add (or subtracted) multiples of the top row to the rows beneath it to
obtain zeros beneath the leading 1.
Step 4: Cover the top row and repeat Step 1 through Step 3. Stop when all rows
have been covered or when only zero entries remain in the uncovered
rows.
If all of the rows are uncovered, the solution of the system can be found by back
substitution.

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION AND THE
UNIT 5 ROW-ECHELON FORM
SESSION 3
Example 5
Use Gaussian elimination to solve the system
3 x1 − 7 x2 + 11x3 = 4
x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 1
− 2 x1 + 8 x2 − 16 x3 = 4
Solution
We first write down the augmented matrix of the system as
 3 −7 11 4
 
 1 −2 3 1 .
− 2 8 − 16 4
The first goal is to get a leading 1 in the top row. This can be accomplished in one step
by interchanging the first and second rows. This gives us the argumented matrix.
 1 −2 3 1
 
 3 −7 11 4
− 2 8 − 16 4
We next clear the first column of nonzero entries (Step 3) as follows: add − 3 times row
1 to row 2; add 2 times row 1 to row 3. This gives us the matrix
1 − 2 3 1
 
0 − 1 2 1
0 4 − 10 6
We next cover row 1 and repeat the steps for rows 2 and 3. To get a leading 1 in the
second row, we multiply the second row by − 1. This gives us the matrix
1 − 2 3 1
 
0 1 − 2 − 1
0 4 − 10 6
We next add − 4 times row 2 to row 3 to get the matrix
1 − 2 3 1
 
0 1 − 2 − 1
0 0 − 2 10 

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 3
Covering the first two rows, then we are left with one row, in which we need a leading
1. Multiplying that row by − 12 , we get
1 − 2 3 1
 
0 1 − 2 − 1
0 0 1 − 5
The last matrix has the associated system of equations

x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 1
x2 − 2 x3 = −1
x3 = −5
The solution is now found by using the method of back substitution. That is, since
x3 = −5 , we have x2 = 2(−5) − 1 = −11 and then we get x1 = 2(−11) − 3(−5) + 1 = −6
Hence the solution is x1 = −11and x3 = −6 .
−5, x2 =
3.2 Row-Echelon Matrices

A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if
(i) the leftmost nonzero entry in each row is a 1 (its leading 1)
(ii) the entries below any leading 1 are all zeros.
(iii) the leading 1 for each row is to the left of the leading 1 for any row
below it.
(iv) any row of all zeros is located below the rows that have leading 1s.
In effect, a matrix in row echelon form has the appearance of a staircase, with a 1
on each step and 0s underneath. The two matrices shown below are both in row-
echelon form, where * indicates that any number can be present.
1 * * * *
1 * * * 
0 1 * * 0 0 1 * *
  0 0 0 1 *
0 0 1 *  
0 0 0 0 0
The significance of row-echelon form is that when the augmented matrix is

reduced to this form via row operations, the solution of the system is easily
obtained by successive substitution back up the staircase of the associated system.
Example 6
Determine whether or not the matrix below is in echelon form. If not apply
elementary row operations to put it in echelon form.

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION AND THE
UNIT 5 ROW-ECHELON FORM
SESSION 3
1 2 0 5
0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 1 4
Solution
It is not, we require that a row consisting of entirely zeros should be at the bottom.
Hence we interchange row 2 and row 3 to get
1 2 0 5
0 0 1 4 
 
0 0 0 0
Exercise 5.3
For each of the following systems of linear equations:
(a) Use Gaussian elimination to find a row echelon form for the augmented
matrix of the given system,
(b) use back substitution to find the solution of the system.
1. x1 + 2 x2 − 4 x3 = 1
2 x1 + 5 x2 − 6 x3 =0
− x1 + 3 x2 + 6 x3 =−3
2. 2 x1 + 4 x2 − 6 x3 =−2
3 x1 + 5 x2 − 12 x3 =2
− 5 x1 − 3 x2 + 8 x3 =−2
3. x + 2 y − 3 z + w =2
− 3 x − 8 y + 4 z − 4 w =− 5
− 2 x − 4 y + 5 z − 5w =− 7
2 x + 4 y − 4 z − 2w = −10

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 4
ING LINEAR SYSTEMS USING INVERSE MATRIX METHOD

SESSION 4: BACK ADDITION AND REDUCED ROW
ECHELON FORM
We will continue our discussion on Gaussian elimination by

introducing technique called back addition to replace the method of
back substitution used in the preceding session. In this new technique the substitution
of variables is accomplished by means of additional row operations. Instead of
stopping at echelon form and substitutions used to find the solution of a system, we
continue the row operations until the matrix is put into a simpler form. In effect, the
substitutions are accomplished by means of row operations on the matrix. The
resulting new matrix is said to be in “reduced” echelon form.
Objectives
(a) perform back addition on a matrix in the row echelon form; and
(b) solve linear system using reduced row echelon form.
Now read on . . .
4.1 Back Addition

In Session 3 we outlined Gaussian elimination as a two-stage procedure. The first
stage consisted of putting the augmented matrix associated with the linear system into
row echelon form. The second stage consisted of using back substitution to find the
solution of the system.
Actually, the process of back substitution can be performed by simply using

additional row operations after the matrix has been put into row echelon form. The
idea is to start with the last row and operate upwards to create 0 s(zeros) above as
well as below the leading 1s(ones). This alternative method, which we call back
addition, is illustrated in the following example.
Example 7
Suppose that the augmented matrix of a linear system has been put into row echelon
form and the following matrix was obtained
1 5 − 4 8 
 
0 1 − 3 − 1
0 0 1 2
Use back addition to find the solution of the system.

UNIT 5 BACK ADDITION AND REDUCED
SESSION4 ROW ECHELON FORM
Solution
If we add 3 times row 3 to row 2 and then add 4 times row 3 to row 1, we obtain the
argumented matrix
1 5 0 16
 
0 1 0 5 
0 0 1 2 
Next we add − 5 times row 2 to row 1, to get the matrix

1 0 0 − 9
 
0 1 0 5 
0 0 1 2 
The system represented by the last matrix is
x1 = −9
x2 = 5
x3 = 2
Thus, the solution is x1 = −9, x 2 = 5 and x3 = 2 .
4.2 Solving Linear System using Reduced Echelon Form

After applying back addition to a matrix in row echelon form, we get a new matrix in
which the entries above and below the leading 1s are all zeros. Thus, a matrix in row
echelon form is “reduced” to a new form. The precise definition is as follows.
Definition
A matrix is said to be in reduced echelon form if, in addition to having the properties
of row echelon form (see Session 3.2), it also has the property that: all entries above
and below any leading 1 are zeros.
The matrices as follows are examples of reduced echelon form, where * indicates that
the entry can be any number.
1 0 0 * 1 0 * 0 *
  
0 1 0 * 0 1 * 0 *
0 0 1 * 0 0 0 1 *

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 4
To convert a matrix from row echelon form, we first select the lowest row that
contains a leading 1, which is the rightmost leading 1, and perform row operation to
eliminate all nonzero entries above it. Then select the next lowest leading 1 and
similarly eliminate the nonzero entries above it. In this manner we proceed up the
echelon of the leading 1s from right to the left until the first column is reached and
reduced echelon form is attained.
Example 8
Solve the system using reduced row echelon form
x1 + 2 x2 − x3 = 4
3 x1 + 7 x2 − 2 x3 = 1
− 2 x1 + 3 x2 + 3 x3 = −1
Solution
 1 2 − 1 4
 
 3 7 − 2 1
− 2 3 3 − 1
We add − 3 times row 1 to row 2 and add 2 times row 1 to row 3, we get the matrix
1 2 − 1 4 
 
0 1 1 − 11
0 7 1 7 
Next add − 7 times row 2 to row 3
1 2 − 1 4 
 
0 1 1 − 11
0 0 − 6 84
Next multiply − 16 by row 3
1 2 − 1 4
 
0 1 1 − 11 → Row echelon form
0 0 1 − 14
Now add row 3 to row 1 and add − 1 times row 3 to row 2

1 2 0 − 10
 
0 1 0 3
0 0 1 − 14
Add − 2 times row 2 to row1
1 0 0 − 16
 
0 1 0 3
0 0 1 − 14
Hence the solution is x1 = −16, x2 = 3 and x3 = −14 .
Exercise 5.4
1. Use back addition to put the given augmented matrix into reduced echelon
form.
1 4 − 2 5 
 
(a) 0 1 3 − 3
0 0 1 2 
1 − 1 − 2 4 − 6
 
 0 1 0 − 3 − 1
(b)
0 0 1 2 4
 
0 0 0 1 3 
2. Solve the given systems of equations by using Gaussian elimination to put the
augmented matrix of the system into row echelon form and then back addition
to put the matrix into reduced echelon form. Give the solution.
2x + y =2
3y − z = 1
x + 2y + z = 0

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 4
3. Which of the following are in reduced row-echelon form? Which are in row-
echelon form?
1 −1 2 
0 0 0  (b) 2 1 − 1 3 1 − 2 3 5
(a) 0 0 (c) 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 
1 0 0 3 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 1 1 1
(d)   (e)   (f) 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1



MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 5
SESSION 5: CONSISTENCY AND ROW RANK
Up to now we have seen only linear systems that have unique solutions.
It is also a common occurrence for a linear system to have either no
solution or infinitely many solutions. In this session, we will expand our scope and
examine these possibilities. In most cases it is not possible to tell just by looking at a
system which of the three cases will occur. Therefore we proceed with the method of
Gaussian elimination until a point is at which the situation becomes clear. This happens
when the matrix has been put in row echelon form.
To help in the analysis of linear systems, we will introduce the concept of row rank of
a matrix. This is the number of nonzero rows that are present after the matrix has been
put into row echelon form.
Objectives
(a) use Gaussian elimination to determine whether a system is inconsistent; and
(b) use row rank to determine inconsistency.
Now read on . . .
5.1 Determination of Inconsistency of a System by Gaussian

Elimination
A linear system is called inconsistent if it has no solutions. A system that has a solution
will be called consistent. If a system is inconsistent, this fact will become apparent
during the process of putting the augmented coefficient matrix into row echelon form.
And note, we do not need to complete the process of elimination before telling whether
a system is consistent or not. If the entries of any of the rows become 0s(zeros) in the
process the associated system is said to be inconsistent.
Example 9
Solve the following system of equations.
x + 10 z = 5
3 x + y − 4 z = −1
4x + y + 6z = 1

UNIT 5 CONSISTENCY AND ROW RANK
SESSION 5
Solution
The argumented matrix of the system is given as
1 0 10 5
 
3 1 − 4 − 1
4 1 6 1
We add − 3 times row 1 to row 2 and add − 4 times row 1 to row 3 and get the
following matrix
1 0 10 5
 
0 1 − 34 − 16 
0 1 − 34 − 19 
Next add row 2 to row 3
1 0 10 5
 
0 1 − 34 − 16
0 0 0 − 3 
But this means that the following equations

x + 10 z = 5
y − 34 z = −16
0 = −3
are equivalent to the original system. In other words, the two have the same solutions.
But the last system clearly has no solution (to satisfy the last equation, x, y and z
would have to be found with the property that 0 x + 0 y + 0 z = −3 ; clearly no such x, y
and z exist). Hence, the original system has no solution.
Example 10
Solve the following system of equations
x1 + 3 x2 − x3 + x4 = 1
x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 − 2 x4 = 3
2 x1 + 7 x2 + x3 − x4 = 6

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 5
1 3 − 1 1 1
 
1 4 2 − 2 3
2 7 1 − 1 6
We add − 1 row 1 to row 2 and − 2 row 1 to row 3
1 3 − 1 1 1
 
0 1 3 −3 2
0 1 3 −3 4
Next add − 1 times row 2 to row 3
1 3 − 1 1 1
 
0 1 3 − 3 2
0 0 0 0 2
The row represents the equation
0 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3 + 0 x4 = 2
Thus, the existence of a solution to the system would imply that 0 = 2 . Since this is a
contradiction, the system has no solution.
5.2 Row Rank

The inconsistency of a system can be characterized in terms of a concept that has far-
reaching utility. This is the notion of row rank, which we now define. When we put a
matrix into row echelon form, we get zero rows that either are all 0 s or have a leading
1. That is, we get either zero rows or nonzero rows. Once we have reached row echelon
form, we simply count the number of nonzero rows. This number is called the row
rank of the matrix.
Definition
The row rank of a matrix is the number of nonzero rows in a row echelon form of the
matrix.
Example 11
Determine the row rank of the matrix

SESSION 5
1 2 1 2 
1 2 0 3 
 
2 4 1 5
Solution
Subtracting row1 from row 2 and twice row 1 from row 3, we get the matrix
1 2 1 2
0 0 − 1 1 
 
0 0 − 1 1 
Multiplying row 2 by − 1 and then adding the new row 2 to row 3, we obtain the row
echelon form
1 2 1 2
0 0 1 − 1
 
0 0 0 0
We see that there are two nonzero rows, and so we conclude that the row rank of the
matrix is 2.
The relation of row rank to consistency is as follows. Suppose the augmented matrix of
the system is put into row echelon form and the resulting matrix contains a row as.
* * * * *
 
* * * * *
0 0 0 0 1
 
* * * * *
The exhibited row represents the contradiction that 0 = 1 , so that the system is
inconsistent. If we separate the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix, we can
make a side-by-side comparison.
* * * *  * * * * *
* * *  
 * * * * * *
0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 1
  
* * * * * * * * *
Coefficient matrixAugmented matrix.

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 5
The augmented matrix has at least one more nonzero row than the coefficient matrix.
Therefore the row ranks of the two matrices are not equal.
Conversely, if the row ranks of the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix are
different, then there must be a row that entails the impossibility 0 = 1 . In this case the
system is inconsistent. Thus, we see that a system will be consistent if and only if the
row ranks of the two matrices are equal.
Example 12
Find the value of the constant k such that the following system is consistent.
x + 2y − z = 1
− 2 x − 3 y + 2 z = −1
− 5x − 8 y + 5z = k
Solution
If we form the augmented matrix and find an echelon form through the row operations.
We obtain the matrix (verify this as an exercise)
1 2 − 1 1 
 
0 1 0 1 
0 0 0 k + 3
The row rank of the coefficient matrix is 2. Thus the system will be consistent if and
only if 0 = k + 3 , that is, if k = −3 .
Exercise 5.5
1. Find the row ranks of the coefficient matrix and the augmented matrix for the
following systems and indicate whether they are consistent or not.
(a) 2 x − 6 y + 8 z = 2
− 4 x + 13 y + 3 z = 6
− 6 x + 20 y + 14 z = −2

SESSION 5
(b) 2 x1 − 2 x 2 + 4 x3 + 6 x 4 = 8
− 4 x1 + 5 x 2 − 2 x3 − 7 x 4 = −10
2 x1 + x 2 + 22 x3 + 21x 4 = 36
− 3 x1 + 5 x 2 − 4 x3 + 11x 4 = 10
2. Use Gaussian elimination to find a solution to each of the following system or

show that it is inconsistent.
(a) x − 3 y − 2 z = 2
3x − 9 y − 9 z = 9
− x + 4 y + 3z = 3
(b) − 2 x + 4 y + 2 z = 6
4 x − 9 y − 8 z = −5
8 x − 19 y − 20 z = 7
3. Find the value of k for which this system of equations is consistent.

x + 3 y + 5z = 2
− 3 x − 8 y − 13 z = −5
− x − 2 y − 3z = k

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 6
SESSION 6: PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF SOLUTION

SET AND APPLICATION
In this session, we will consider studying systems of infinitely many

solutions. Here it is useful introducing auxiliary variables, called
parameters, to describe the solution set. We will present a detailed account of the
parametric representation of solution set, and then we will apply this idea to a problem
in production planning.
Objectives
(a) represent infinitely many solutions parametrically; and
(b) apply the idea of parametrical representation to problems in production
planning.
Now read on …
6.1 Parametric Representation of Solutions

The application of Gaussian elimination can lead to a reduced echelon form in which
there are some columns in the coefficient matrix that do not contain leading 1s. In this
case the variable associated with such a column is not uniquely determined and can be
assigned any value whatever. However, the variable is related to the other variables of
the system, and consequently the description of the solution set is affected. Let us
consider the following example to clarify this remark and also illustrate how the
solution set is obtained.
Example 13
Find all solutions of the system
x + 2 y − 3z = 3
− 2x − 5 y + 4z = 5
− 5 x − 13 y + 9 z = 18
Solution
We proceed to put the augmented matrix in reduced echelon form
 1 2 − 3 3
 
− 2 − 5 4 5
 − 5 − 13 9 18

UNIT 5 PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF SOLUTION
SESSION6 AND APPLICATION
We add 2 times row 1 to row 2 and add 5 times row 1 to row 3 this gives
1 2 −3 3
 
0 − 1 − 2 11
0 − 3 − 6 33
Multiplying row 2 by − 1 and adding 3 times row 2 to row 3, we obtain
1 2 − 3 3
 
0 1 2 − 11
0 0 0 0 
Now the third row, which represents the equation 0 = 0 is redundant and need not be
explicitly displayed. With this convention we obtain the reduced echelon matrix
1 0 − 7 25
 
0 1 2 − 11
This last matrix represents the system
x − 7 z = 25
y + 2 z = −11
This system can be written as
x = 7 z + 25
y = −2 z − 11
We can assign any value to z and calculate the values of x and y , and the result will be
a solution of the system. It is convenient to introduce a new letter and set z = t . The
solutions can then be written
x = 7t + 25
y = −2t − 11
z= t
where t is any number called a parameter. Alternatively, we can write the solutions as
(7t + 25, − 2t − 11, t ) where t is arbitrary.

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 6
The introduction of the t in the preceding example emphasizes the fact that the
variable is independent. The other variables are then expressed in terms of t so
that they are dependent on t . We say that t is a parameter and that the solution set is
parametrically represented in terms of t . Some systems may require more than one
parameter in the representation of the solution set.
When the augmented matrix of a system has been put into reduced echelon form, a
variable that corresponds to a leading 1 will be called a leading variable. The other
variables will be called nonleading variables. Then the solution set of the system is
obtained by replacing each nonleading variable by a parameter and expressing the
leading variables in terms of the nonleading variables.
Example 14
Solve the system
x1 + 3 x 2 + 4 x3 − 2 x 4 = 3
2 x1 + 6 x 2 + 9 x3 − 3 x 4 = 8
Solution
The augmented matrix is
1 3 4 − 2 3
 
2 6 9 − 3 8
We add − 2 times row 1 to row 2 and get
1 3 4 − 2 3
 
0 0 1 1 2
We add − 4 times row 2 to row 1 to produce the reduced echelon form
1 3 0 − 6 − 5
 
0 0 1 1 2
The associated system is
x1 + 3 x 2 − 6 x 4 = −5
x3 + x 4 = 2
The nonleading variables are x 2 and x 4 . Let us introduce the parameters x 2 = s and
x 4 = t . Then x1 = −3s + 6t − 5 , and x3 = −t + 2 . Thus, the solutions are given by

x1 = −3s + 6t − 5
x2 = s
x3= − t + 2
x4 = t
where s and t are arbitrary numbers.
6.2 Application to Production Planning

Linear systems that have infinitely many solutions can arise in very practical
applications. However, in the context of applications the parameters are often restricted
so that the solutions make practical sense. The following application to production
planning illustrates this point.
Example 15
The Sudsy Detergent Company makes the laundry products SURF, CYCLONE,
WASHO, and BRISK from the raw materials anionic surfactant (A.S.) for lifting,
sodium phosphate (S.P.) for water softening, and sodium sulphate (S.S.) for anti-
lumping. The products are made in large batches, and the batches differ in size and
proportions of raw materials because of the different manufacturing processes and
equipment used for the products. The amounts of the raw materials used to make one
batch of each product and the total amounts on hand are given in the table. The amounts
are given in 100-kg units.
SURF CYCLONE WASHO BRISK On hand

A.S. 4 8 4 4 60
S.P. 2 5 2 3 36
S.S. 3 7 4 3 50
Find the possible number of batches of each product that can be made such that all of
the available raw materials are used.
Solution
Let x1 , x 2 , x3 , x 4 be the numbers of batches of the products, listed in the same order as
in the table. Then we have the following system of equations.
4 x1 + 8 x 2 + 4 x3 + 4 x 4 = 60
2 x1 + 5 x 2 + 2 x3 + 3 x 4 = 36
3 x1 + 7 x 2 + 4 x3 + 3 x 4 = 50
Verify that the reduced echelon form of the augmented matrix is given by

MATRICES III UNIT 5
SESSION 6
1 0 0 0 4
 
0 1 0 1 6 
0 0 1 − 1 − 1
The corresponding system of equations is
x1 = 4
x2 + x4 = 6
x3 − x 4 = −1
We can see that x 4 is the only non-leading variable, so we set x 4 = t and then obtain
the one-parameter family of solutions
x1 = 4
x 2 = −t + 6
x3 = t − 1
x4 = t
In the context of the problem the parameter t is not completely arbitrary. Since the
variables represent nonnegative quantities, we must have
x 2 = −t + 6 ≥ 0, x3 = t − 1 ≥ 0, x 4 = t ≥ 0
Combining the inequalities, we find that t must satisfy 1 ≤ t ≤ 6 . If t is required to be

an integer, then there are six possible choices for t . For example if t = 1 , then the
solution set is x1 = 4, x 2 = 5, x3 = 0, x 4 = 1 . Similarly, if t = 2 , the solution set is
x1 = 4, x2 = 4, . x3 = 1 and x4 = 2 . Do the same for t = 3, 4, 5, 6 and obtain the
corresponding solution sets.

Exercise 5.5
1. Use Gaussian elimination to put the augmented matrix in reduced echelon form,
and then parametrically represent the solutions. In each case, find two specific
solutions. Check your specific solutions by substitution into the original system.
(a) x − 2 y + 2 z =3
− 3x + 6 y − 5 z =
−4
(b) x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 − 3 x4 =−1
3 x2 − x3 + 3 x4 = 5
2 x1 + 5 x2 + 4 x3 + 2 x4 =
10
2. Nutrina Feeds manufactures the dog foods RUFF, FLUFF and PROWL from a
blend of wheat and soybeans. A batch of RUFF uses 1000 kilograms of wheat and
300 kilograms of soybeans; a batch of FLUFF uses 2000 kilograms of wheat and
700 kilograms of soybeans; and a batch of PROWL uses 2000 kilograms of wheat
and 5000 kilograms of soybeans. Suppose that there are 15,000 kilograms of
wheat and 50,000 kilograms of soybeans on hand. Find the possible number of
batches of each product that can be made such that all of the available materials
are used up.

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS UNIT 6
UNIT 6: PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Unit Outline
Session 1: Probability Distribution for a Discrete Random Variable.
Session 2: Central Tendencies and Variance of a Discrete Random Variable.
Session 3: Special Discrete Probability Distributions
Session 4: Probability Distribution for a Continuous Random Variable.
Session 5: Central Tendencies and Variance of a Continuous Random Variable.
Session 6: Special Continuous Probability Distributions.
You have already been introduced to the definition and the concept of
probabilities, in the Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers Book
1. Basically, probability provides methods of quantifying the chances or the likelihood
associated with the outcome of an experiment. Thus, the collection of probabilities from
a number of trials of experiments is known as Probability Distributions.
This unit introduces you to probability distributions of both discrete and continuous
variables. We will study how to find the central tendencies (mean, mode, and median)
and the variance of the probability distributions. In particular, the third and the sixth
sessions will also introduce you to some special probability distributions. These are the
Binomial and Poisson Distributions in the case of discrete distributions in session 3 and
the Normal Distribution in the case of the continuous distributions in session 6.
Objectives
1. explain the concept of, and find a discrete probability distribution;
2. find the central tendencies (mean, median, and mode) and the variance of a
given discrete probability distribution;
3. identify and use the Binomial and the Poisson distributions;
4. explain the concept of, and solve problems involving continuous probability
distribution;
5. find the central tendencies (mean, median, and mode) and the variance of a
given continuous probability distribution; and
6. identify and use the Normal Distribution.

UNIT 6 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS


UNIT 6
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION SESSION 1
SESSION 1: PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF A DISCRETE
RANDOM VARIABLE
As mentioned in Unit 1 of the Mathematics for Secondary School

Teachers Book 1, experiments whose outcomes cannot be determined in
advance are known as Random Experiments. Our main interest here is to consider the
random experiments whose outcomes are discrete. In this session therefore, we will
define key terms such as variable, random variable, and discrete random variable. We
will also study how to find the probability distribution of a discrete random variable.
Objectives
(a) define discrete random variable;
(b) explain discrete probability distributions; and
(c) find a discrete probability distribution.
Now read on …
1.1 Random Variable

In order to understand the concept of probability distribution, we need to explain the
term random variable. A variable is any characteristic of a population or sample that is
of interest to the researcher in experiment. For instance, when a far die is rolled, the
characteristic that may interest us is the number that appears.
Consider an experiment for which the sample space is denoted by, S.A real-valued
function that is defined on the sample space S is called a random variable. We will use
the upper case letters such as X to denote a random variable and the lower case letters
such as x to denote a particular value that a random variable may assume. Now with
this, let us define a random variable in a more conventional way.
Definition
Let S be the sample space associated with some experiment. A random variable X is a
function that assigns a real number X (s ) to each sample element s ∈ S .
.
Example 1
Consider the experiment of tossing a fair coin three times. Define the random variable X
to be the number of heads that showed up.
Solution
Let us denote “a head showed up” by H and “a tail showed up” by T. We can then
represent the sample space, S, by
S = { ΗΗΗ, HHT, HTT, THH, TTH, HTH, THT, TTT }

UNIT 6 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION OF A
SESSION 1 DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLE
HHH means that the first, second and third tosses showed head in that order.
HHTmeans that the first toss showed a head, the second showed a head and the third
showed a tail. Discover the meanings of the remaining on your own. Since the
characteristic of interest is the number of heads obtained, we only need to count the
number of heads in the three tosses; hence the elements in the sample space could be 0,
1, 2, and 3 heads. Thus, therandom variable, X, could be written as {X | x = 0,1, 2, 3} .
The set forms the range of the random variable, X. Each possible value of x ∈ X
represents an event. For instance, the event that one head appeared, written as { X | x =1}
, is simply the set S = { HTT, TTH, THT} .
1.2 Discrete Random Variable

A random variable which takes on countably finite or countably infinite number of
values is called Discrete Random Variable. This means that the random variable is
defined over a discrete sample space. Example 1 is an example of a discrete random
variable. If a random variable is not discrete then it is continuous. Continuous random
variable will be discussed in Session 4.
Example 2
Two fair dice are tossed simultaneous. Define the random variable X as the sum of the
numbers that showed up.
Solution
On each die the numbers expected are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. If we represent one of the dice
by E and the other by F, then the sample space can be constructed in a table form as
. F
E 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1, 1 1, 2 1, 3 1, 4 1, 5 1, 6
2 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6
3 3, 1 3, 2 3, 3 3, 4 3, 5 3, 6
4 4, 1 4, 2 4, 3 4, 4 4, 5 4, 6
5 5, 1 5, 2 5, 3 5, 4 5, 5 5, 6
6 6, 1 6, 2 6, 3 6, 4 6, 5 6, 6
Since the random variable is the sum of numbers on the two dice, the highest value is 12
and the lowest value is 2. Therefore, the discrete random variable for this experiment is
given as
{X | x = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 }

UNIT 6
1.3 Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random Variable

If X is a discrete random variable then the function given by f ( x) = P ( X = xi ) ,
i = 0, 1, 2,  , for each x within the range of X, is called discrete probability
distribution. The distribution function is known as probability mass function (pmf).
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable can be presented in a tabular
form, formula form (in a form of an equation) or graphical form.
1.3.1 Tabular Form

The table comprise of the possible values of the random variable X and their
corresponding probabilities P ( X = xi ) .
Possible values of X x1 x2  xk
P ( X = x) p ( x1 ) p ( x2 )  p ( xk )
For instance, the probability distribution for Example 1, will be given by
( X = xi ) 0 1 2 3
1 3 3 1
P ( xi )
8 8 8 8
That is, for probability of no head, p ( x = 0) , we have TTT. For a fair coin,
1 1 1 1 1
p (H) = p (T) = . Hence, p (TTT) = ⋅ ⋅ = . Similarly, p( x = 1) implies THT,
2 2 2 2 8
TTH and HTT. Therefore, p (getting one head) will be given by
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
p (THT ) + p (TTH ) + p ( HTT ) = ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅ + ⋅ ⋅
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 3
= + + =
8 8 8 8
Example 3
Construct the probability distribution for Example 2.
Solution
We can convert the sample space in Example 1 to suit the sum of the numbers that
appeared. Thus, the sample space becomes

F
E 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
The probabilities are calculated by counting the same numbers in the sample space and
dividing by 36. We divide by 36 because in the sample space we have 36 elements.
X = xi 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
p ( X = xi )
36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36 36
1.3. 2 Probability in Formula Form

The probability distribution can also be in an equation form. This is expressed in the
form P ( X = x) = f ( x) , where f ( x) is a function. An example of a probability
distribution function is given as
x
 , x = 1, 2, 3.
p ( X= x=
) f ( x=
) 6 .
0, otherwise
This is often called probability mass function as mentioned earlier.
At this point we need to know when a function qualifies to be called Probability Mass
Function (Probability Distribution).
A function is called probability mass function if it satisfies the following properties:
Property 1: p (X =
xi ) ≥ 0 for i =
1, 2, 
Property 2: ∑ P(X = x ) =1
i
i
for all values of X.
From these properties, it is obvious that Example 3 is a probability distribution. The

reason is that all the probabilities there are positive and also summation of the
probabilities is equal to 1. Let us discuss one more example on the properties.

UNIT 6
Example 4
Check if the function given by
x+ 2
 25 , x = 1, 2, 3, 4,5

f ( x) =  ,
0, otherwise


is a probability mass function.
Solution
When we put the values of x into the function, we have
x 1 2 3 4 5
3 4 5 6 7
f (x)
25 25 25 25 25
Property 1: All the probabilities are positive, hence this condition is satisfied.
Property 2: If we sum all the probabilities, we obtain1, hence this condition is

also satisfied.
We can therefore conclude that the function is a probability mass function.
1.4 Probability Graph

A graph of p ( X = xi ) against xi is called a probability graph. We usually draw
vertical lines or bars above the possible xi values of the random variable X, on the
horizontal axis. The graph is as drawn as follows.
Let us illustrate this with an example.

Example 5
A discrete function is given by
x −1
 9 , x = 3, 4,5

f ( x) = 
0, otherwise


(a) Show that the function f ( x) is a probability mass function.
(b) Draw a graph for this distribution.
Solution
Let us construct a table for the distribution.
1 2
For x= 3, f (3)= ( 3 − 1)= .
9 9
1 3
For x= 4, f (4)= ( 4 − 1)= .
9 9
1 4
For x= 5, f (5)= ( 5 − 1)= .
9 9
The probability distribution table is therefore constructed as follows:
x 3 4 5
2 3 4
f (x) 9 9 9
5
(a) Now, all the values of f (x) are positives. Also, ∑ f ( x ) = 1 , hence the function
i= 3
i
is a probability mass function.

UNIT 6
(b)
Exercise 6.1
1. A fair coin is flipped four times. Let Xrepresent the number of heads which show
up. Find the probability distribution of the random variable, X.
2. A discrete random variable, X, has probability mass function
k ( x + 2), x = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
f ( x) = 
 0 otherwise
Find the value of the constant k.


UNIT 6
SESSION 2: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES AND

VARIANCE OF A DISCRETE RANDOM
VARIABLE
In Session 1, we explained the term discrete random variable. This term
helped us in the discussions of the concept of probability distributions.
In this session, we will learn how to find the mode, the median, the mean and the
variance of a discrete probability distribution. The meaning of these terms will be very
much needed when we come to discuss data analysis in the next book.
Objectives
(a) find the central tendencies of a given distribution; and
(b) find the variance of a distribution.
Now read on …
2.1 Measures of Central Tendencies

The mode, the median and the mean form what we call the measures of central
tendencies. These values give information about the central part of a distribution.
2.1.1 The Mode

The mode (modal value) of a distribution is a value, X mod e , of the discrete random
variable at which the probability distribution takes its maximum value. This is, the
value xi that has the highest probability.
Example 6
Suppose that a random variable X can have four different values as 0, 2, 3, 5 with
probabilities p ( x = 0) = 0.1 , p ( x = 2) = 0.4 , p ( x = 3) = 0.3 and p ( x = 5) = 0.2 . What
is the mode of the distribution?
Solution
The value x that has the highest probability is x = 2 . This has probability of 0.4. Hence
the mode, X mod e , is 2.
Example 7
Find the mode of the distribution in Example 3.

UNIT 6
MEASURE CENTRAL TENDENCIES AND
SESSION 2 VARIANCE OF A DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLE
Solution
6
From Example 3, the highest probability of the distribution is . This occurs at x = 7.
36
Hence the mode, X mod e , is 7.
We should note that it is possible to have more than one modal value. For instance, in
an experiment of tossing a coin three times, where the random variable is defined as the
number of heads that appear, the probability distribution will be given by
( X = x) 0 1 2 3
1 3 3 1
P (x)
8 8 8 8
3
In this case, the highest probability is which occurs at x = 1and x = 2 . Hence, the
8
mode is 1 or 2. This is called Bimodal. This is because we have two modes. In general,
if the mode is more than one, it is called multimodal. The mode will not exist if all or
most of the x values can be considered as the mode. Example 8 will demonstrate this
fact.
Example 8
Let X be the number that shows up when a fair die is rolled. Find the mode of the
distribution.
Solution
All the six possible numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 have equal probabilities of 1 6 . Hence,
the mode does not exist.
2.1.2 The Median

The median of the distribution of a discrete random variable, X, is a number m such that
1 1
p( x ≤ m) ≥ and p ( x ≥ m) ≥ . In practical terms, this value is at the exact mid-point
2 2
of the probabilities, and it should be unique (that is, one and only one value).
Example 9
Suppose that X has the following discrete distribution:
p ( x= 1)= 0.1, p (= = 0.2, p ( x = 3) = 0.3 and p (=

x 2) = 0.4. Find the median.
x 4)

UNIT 6
Solution
1 1
For median p( x ≤ m) ≥ and p( x ≥ m) ≥ . We see that
2 2
p ( x ≤ 3) = p ( x = 1) + p ( x = 2) + p ( x = 3)
= 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3 = 0.6
Also,
p ( x ≥ 3) = p ( x = 3) + p ( x = 4)
= 0.3 + 0.4 = 0.7
Since p ( x ≤ 3) > 0.5 and p ( x ≥ 3) > 0.5 . It implies that the value 3 is the median of the
distribution since it is also unique.
As an exercise, verify whether each of x = 1, 2, and 4 can be a median for the

distribution.
We must note that the median may or may not exist for the case of a discrete random
variable. Let us show this with an example.
Example 10
Assume that X has the following discrete distribution; p ( x= 3)= 0.1 , p (= = 0.4 ,
x 4)
p ( x = 5) = 0.3 and p ( = = 0.2 . Find the median of this distribution.
x 6)
Solution
Let us assume that the median is 4, then for
p ( x ≤ 4) = p ( x = 3) + p ( x = 4)
= 0.1 + 0.4 = 0.5
Also,
p ( x ≥ 4) = p ( x = 4) + p ( x = 5) + p ( x = 6)
= 0.4 + 0.3 + 0.2 = 0.9
Thus, p ( x ≤ 4) = 0.5 and p ( x ≥ 4) = 0.9 > 0.5 .We can say that m = 4 is the median of
the distribution. This is also true if we take m = 5 . That is, p ( x ≤ 5) = 0.8 > 0.5 and
p ( x ≥ 5) = 0.5 . This also means that the median could be 5. However, the median is
supposed to be unique, hence, for this discrete distribution, the median does not exist.
2.1.3 The Mean

The mean of the discrete probability distribution is also known as the mathematical
expectation of the distribution. It is usually used as the average value of the probability
distribution even though the mode and the median are also considered as the average
values.

UNIT 6
The mean (expectation) of the distribution is defined as

E(X )
= ∑=
x f ( x) ∑
x
= x P( X
x
xi ).
This means is also denoted by x . Given that we have a probability distribution
x x1 x2 … xk
P ( X = x) p ( x1 ) p ( x2 ) … p ( xk )
then the expectation, E ( X ) is calculated as
E ( X ) =x =1 ⋅ p ( x =1) + 2 p ( x =2) + ... + k p ( x =k )
We now take an example to show how to calculate the mean of a given distribution.
Example 11
Suppose that the probability distribution of a discrete random variable, X is given by
x 0 1 2 3
27 54 36 8
P( X ) = x 125 125 125 125
Find the expected value (mean) of this distribution.
Solution
3
27 54 36 8
x=∑ x ⋅ p( X =xi ) =⋅
i =0
0
125
+ 1⋅
125
+ 2⋅
125
+ 3⋅
125
54 72 24
=+0 + +
125 125 125
150
= = 1⋅ 2
125

UNIT 6
Properties of the Mean

1. The mean of the distribution is unique. This means that the mean should be a
single Value.
2. The mean (expectation) of a constant is the constant, that is, if C is a constant then
E (C ) = C.
3. If C is a constant and X is a random variable then E (CX ) = C E ( X ).
Example 12
Find the expectation of2Xof the distribution in Example 11.
Solution
Now, E (2 X ) = 2 ⋅ E ( X ) . We see from Example 10, that E ( X ) =1.2 . Hence,
E (2 X ) = 2 ⋅ (1 ⋅ 2) = 2 ⋅ 4 .
2.2The Variance
The variance of a distribution is one of the statistics that measures the spread or the
dispersion of the distribution about its mean. A small value of the variance is an
indication that the probability distribution is tightly concentrated around the mean, and
a large variance indicates that the probability distribution has a wide spread about the
mean.
Definition
Suppose that X is a discrete random variable with mean, µ = E ( X ) . Then the variance
of X, denoted by σ 2 = Var(X) is defined as
n
ar( x) E ( X − µ ) 2  =
V= ∑ (x − µ)
i =1
2
p ( xi ) ,
where p ( xi ) is the probability for each of the corresponding x values. Using this
formula to compute the variance can be very difficult, hence we re- define the variance
as
var(
= x) E(X 2 ) − [ E ( X )]2
2
n
 n  .
= ∑ x p ( xi ) −  ∑ xi p ( xi ) 
2
i =1  i 

UNIT 6
Example 13
Suppose the probability distribution of a discrete random variableX, is
x 1 2 3 4 5
1 3 1 3 4
P( xi ) 12 12 12 12 12
Find the variance of this distribution.
Solution
The variance is given by
2
n
 n 
var (X) ∑ x p ( xi ) −  ∑ xi p ( xi ) 
= 2
i =1  i 
Now
5
1 3 1 3 4
∑x
i =1
2
p ( xi ) =12 ⋅
12
+ 22 ⋅ + 32 ⋅ + 42 ⋅ + 52 ⋅
12 12 12 12
1 12 9 48 100
= + + + +
12 12 12 12 12
= 14.1633
Similarly
5
1 3 1 3 4
∑ x p( x ) =1⋅ 12 + 2 ⋅ 12 + 3 ⋅ 12 + 4 ⋅ 12 + 5 ⋅ 12
i =1
i
= 3.4993
Hence
ar( X ) 14.1633 − (3.4993) 2
V=
= 1.9182
The non-negative square root of the variance of a distribution of a random variable X is

known as the standard deviation.
For instance, the standard deviation of the probability distribution in Example 13 is

given by
=σ Var( X )
= 1.9182
= 1.3850

UNIT 6
Exercise 6.2
1. A fair die is tossed once. Define a random variable as the number that showed
up. Find (a) the median; (b) the mean; and (c) the variance of this distribution.
2. Suppose that two balanced dice are rolled, and let X denote the absolute value of
the difference between the two numbers that appeared. Determine the
probability distribution and calculate the variance of this distribution.

UNIT 6


UNIT 6
SESSION 3: SPECIAL DISCRETE PROBABILITY

DISTRIBUTIONS
In the last two sessions, we discussed generally, discrete probability
distributions. We will turn our attention to special distributions that are
widely used in applications of Probability and Statistics. These distributions are meant
to solve special type of problems. In this session, we will consider two of these special
types of probability distributions. These are the Binomial and the Poisson
distributions. There are other discrete distributions. Among these are the Geometric,
Hypergeometric and Negative Binomial, which are not treated in this book.
Objectives
(a) identify Binomial experiments;
(b) solve problems involving Binomial experiment;
(c) identify Poisson experiments; and
(d) solve problems involving Poisson experiments.
Now read on …
3.1 The Binomial Distribution

The term binomial means two, thus, binomial events have two options. The properties
stated here will help us to identify binomial experiments.
3.1.1 Properties of the Binomial Distribution

The binomial distribution has some properties which identify it. A binomial experiment
is the one that possesses the following properties:
(i) The experiment consists of n repeated trials under the same conditions
(ii) Each of the n trials results in an outcome that may be classified as a “success”
or a “failure”.
(iii) The probability of a success, denoted by p remains constant.
(iv) The n trials are independent of each other.
(v) The random variable of interest, X, is the number of successes observed during the
n independent trials.
Let us now discuss the meaning of these properties. The first property means that the n
trials should be performed under similar conditions. For instance, if we flip a fair coin
ten times, it is expected that each will be flipped under the same conditions. As the
name implies, the second property means that the experiment should result in only two

SPECIAL DISCRETE PROBABILITY
UNIT 6
SESSION 3
DISTRIBUTIONS
results, termed as “success” or “failure”. The third property means that, if the success of
the first trial is p, then the success in each of the subsequent trials will be p. For
example, if you flip a fair coin three times, then in each trial the probability of a head
1
appearing is . Property (iv) means that, the occurrence of the first trial should not
2
influence the occurrence of the second trial, and so on. In property (v), we mean that the
random variable of interest is labelled as success.
3.2 Solving Problems Involving Binomial Experiments

We will now define the Binomial Distribution and then use it to solve problems
involving Binomial experiments.
3.2.1 Definition of the Binomial Distribution

If p and q ( i.e. q = 1 − p) are the probabilities of success and probability of failure,
respectively, on any one trial, then the probability of getting x successes and n − x
failures for n independent trials is given by
 nCr p x (1 − p ) n − x , for x =0, 1,  , n


p ( X= x=
) 
0 , otherwise

where nCr is the number of ways of getting x successes out of n trials, and p lies
between 0 and 1 inclusive. We need to remember that the random variable for the
binomial distribution is discrete, and a legitimate probability distribution. It can be
denoted by
b( x; n, p ) .
Example 14
A fair coin is tossed ten times. Define the random variable, X, as the number of heads
that appears. Find the probability that:
(i) no head appeared.
(ii) at most two heads appeared.
(iii) at least two heads appeared.

UNIT 6
Solution
This is a binomial trial since we have two options. Either a head appears (referred to as
a success) or no head appear (referred to as a failure).
1 1 1
(i) n = 10 trials, p= , x = 0, q = 1 − = . Using binomial distribution, we
2 2 2
have
0 10 10
1 1
10 1 1
P( X =
0) = 1⋅   =
C0     =
2 2 2 1024
(ii) At most, two heads means that, there could be 0, 1 or 2 heads. Therefore, the
probability is given to be
P ( X ≤ 2) = P ( X = 0) + P ( X = 1) + P ( X = 2)
Now, from (i), P ( X = 0) is 0.00098
1 9 10
1 1
10 1 1
P( X =
1) = 10 ⋅   =
C1     = 10.
2 2 2 1024
= 0.00977
2 8 10
10 1 1 1 1
P ( X= 2)
= C2    = 45.   = 45.
2 2 2 1024
= 0.04395
Therefore,
P (obtaining at most two heads) = 0.00098 + 0.00977 + 0.04395

= 0.0547
(iii) We want to find P( X ≥ 2) which implies that we need
P ( X = 2) + P ( X = 3) +  + P ( X = 10) .
This is tedious and time consuming. The best way to find this is to find P( X < 2) and
subtract the results from 1. Thus, P ( X ≥ 2) = 1 − P ( X < 2) , since 0 ≤ P ≤ 1. Now,
P( X < 2) = P( X = 0) + P( X = 1) .

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
DISTRIBUTIONS
From (i), P ( X = 0) = 0.00098 , and from (ii) P ( X = 1) = 0.00977
Hence,
P( X < 2) = 0.00098 + 0.00977
= 0.01075
Therefore, P( X ≥ 2) = 1 − 0.01075 = 0.98925
Example 15
For 800 families sampled, each has five children. How many of these families would
you expect to have three boys?
Solution
Let us define random variable, X, as observing a boy in the family, then we can consider
this experiment as a binomial since we may observe a boy or a girl in a family.
1 1 1
For the given problem, n = 5 children, p = and q =1 − = .
2 2 2
3 2 5
1 1 1 1
3) 5C3     =⋅
P( X == 10   =⋅10
2 2 2 32
= 0.3125
Now to find the number of families expected to have 3 boys, we multiply this
probability by the number of families. That is, 0.3125 × 800 . This gives250families.
Therefore, 250 families are expected to have three boys.
3.2.2 Expectation and Variance of the Binomial Distribution

Expectation and variance of the binomial distribution is given by
E (= X ) np (1 − p ) , respectively.
X ) np and var(=
Example 16
A fair coin is tossed ten times. Define the random variable, X, as the number of heads
that appears. Find the mean and the variance of this experiment.
Solution

UNIT 6
1 1
From the experiment
= n 10,=p =, q .
2 2
The mean is calculated as
1
E ( X= = 10 . = 5 ,
) np
2
and the variance as
1 1
var( X )= np (1 − q )= 10 . . = 2.5
2 2
3.3 The Poisson Distribution

The Poisson distribution has most properties similar to the binomial distribution.
Generally, Poisson distribution deals with experiments that have to do with events
happening within time intervals. For example, the number of car accidents occurring at
a particular intersection during a time period of one week; number of cars passing at a
point on a main road in one second; number of telephone calls handled by a
switchboard in a time interval; can all be classified as Poisson experiments.
3.3.1 Definition of the Poisson distribution

The probability distribution of the Poisson random variable X representing the number
of successes occurring in a given time interval or specified region of time is defined as
 e−λ λ x
 x! , x = 0, 1, 2, 

P( X= x=
) 
0, otherwise


where λ (λ > 0) is the average number of successes occurring in a given time interval
or specified region, and e = 2.71828 .
3.3.2 Solving Problems Involving Poisson Experiments

With the help of the definition of the Poisson distribution we now want to solve some
Poisson problems.
Example 17
The average number of road accidents per day recorded over 100 days in a certain
junction was 1.2. Calculate the probability that on a particular day
(a) no accident;
(b) less than 3 accidents; and
(c) at least 1 accident will be recorded.

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
DISTRIBUTIONS
Solution
(a) From the question, λ = 1.2 . We want P( X = 0) .
e −1.2 (1.2 )
0
( 2.718)
−1.2
P( X= 0)= = e −1.2= = 0.3012
0!
(b) P ( X < 3) = P ( X = 0) + P ( X = 1) + P ( X = 2)
From (a) P ( X= 0)
= 0.3012
Now,
e −1.2 (1.2 )
1
= 1.2 (2.718) = 0.3615
−1.2
P( X = 1) =
1!
and
e −1.2 (1.2 ) (1.2) 2 ( 2.718 )
2 −1.2
1.44(0.3012)
P( X= 2)
= = = = 0.2169 .
2! 2 2
Hence,the probability of less than 3 accidents is,
P( X <=
3) 0.3012 + 0.3615 + 0.2169
= 0.8796.
(c) At least one accident means P( X ≥ 1) .
Now, P( X ≥ 1) = 1 − P( X < 1) .
But
P ( X < 1) = P ( X = 0) .
From (a) P( X= 0)
= 0.3012 .
Therefore,

UNIT 6
P( X ≥ 1) =1 − 0.3012
= 0.6998.
Since the Poisson distribution has some properties similar to the binomial distribution, it
is possible to consider some binomial experiments as Poisson. We can therefore solve
some binomial problems using Poisson distribution. Thus, if n is large and p is small,
closed to zero, then the Poisson distribution is used to approximate the binomial
distribution, with mean given by λ = np .
We will illustrate this by considering an example.
Example 18
Suppose that 3% of electric bulbs manufactured by a company are defective. Find the
probability that in a sample of 100 bulbs, exactly two will be defective.
Solution
From the problem, probability of success, P = 0.03, and n = 100 . This can be classified
as binomial experiment, but we see that it will be cumbersome for us because n is large.
Hence, the best approach is the Poisson distribution.
Thus, λ = np = 100 × 0.03 = 3 .
Now, we want to find P( X = 2) using Poisson distribution.
e −3 ( 3)
2
9
( 2.718)
−3
P( X= 2)
= =
2! 2
= 0.2241
We want to state here that the mean and the variance of the Poisson distribution have
the same value. That is,
E ( X ) = Var(X) = λ .
For example, the mean and the variance of Example 17, is 1.2.

UNIT 6
SESSION 3
DISTRIBUTIONS
Exercise 6.3
1. In Example 18, find the probability that
(a) more than two; and
(b) less than or equal to two bulbs will be defective.
2. The average number of radioactive particles passing through a counter in a
millisecond during an experiment is 4. What is the probability that 6 particles
entered the counter during a millisecond?
3. A fair die is tossed six times. Define a random variable as an odd number that
appeared. Find the probability that exactly four of the tosses showed an odd
number.

UNIT 6
T 5: MATRICES III
SESSION 4: PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR A
CONTINUOUS RANDOM VARIABLE
In Session 1 of this unit, we discussed the probability distribution for a

discrete random variable. In this session, we will discuss probability
distribution for a continuous random variable. We will see that the major difference is
the meaning of discrete and continuous. We will therefore try to explain the meaning
of continuous random variable and then use it to discuss continuous probability
distributions.
Objectives

(a) define a continuous random variable;
(b) explain the concept of continuous probability distributions; and
(c) solve problems involving continuous probability distributions.
Now read on …
4.1 Definition of Continuous Random Variable

As defined in Session 1, a random variable is a real-valued function defined on a sample
space. Now, if this sample space is continuous in nature then that random variable is
said to be continuous random variable. Thus, a random variable defined over a
continuous sample space is known as continuous random variable.
Suppose that our concern is to find the possibility that an accident will occur on a
highway which is 100km long. Let us assume that our interest is that the accident will
occur at a given location on the highway, then this characteristic to be measured is a
continuous random variable.
Also, consider an experiment in which a person is selected at random from some

population and the height of the person is measured. If the interest is the height of the
person, then we can talk of a continuous random variable here.
4.2 Probability Distribution of a Continuous Random Variable

Let Xbe a continuous random variable. A function, f (x) , defined over the set of all real
numbers is called probability distribution function if
b
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = ∫ f ( x)dx .
a

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FOR A
UNIT 6
SESSION 4
For any real constants a and b with a ≤ b .
The definition means that the probability that a random variable X takes the value in the
interval (a,b) is equal to the shaded area of the region defined by the curve, y = f (x) ,
(see Figure 4.1) where f (x) is the probability distribution function. This function is
also known as probability density function (pdf).
Figure 4.1
The shaded area of Figure 4.1 represents the area of a probability density function lying
between a andb. This gives the probability that the event is found between a andb.
A function f (x) can serve as probability density function (pdf) of a continuous random
variable, X, if the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f ( x) ≥ 0
∞
2. ∫
−∞
f ( x) dx = 1
We will now take some examples to demonstrate what we have discussed so far.
Example 19
Let the random variable, X, have a function

UNIT 6
 x2
 3 , for − 1 < x < 2

f ( x) =  .
0, otherwise


(a) Verify whether the function is a probability density function.
(b) Find the probability that X lies between 0 and 1. That is, P (0 < X < 1) .
Solution
(a)Condition 1:For f (x) to be a probability density function, f ( x) ≥ 0 . We see
that the function will always be positive since x 2 cannot be
negative. Hence, condition 1 is satisfied for all the values between
−1 and 2.
∞
Condition 2: ∫ f ( x) dx = 1
−∞
x2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 8 1
∫ −1 3 dx = 3 ∫ −1 x dx = 9  x  −1 = 9 + 9 = 1
We see from the calculation that the second condition is also satisfied. Since the two
conditions are satisfied, we conclude that the function f (x) is a probability density
function.
(b) We need to compute P (0 < X < 1) .
1 x2 1 1 2
P (0 < X < 1) = ∫ 0 3 dx = 3 ∫0 x dx
1
[ ]
= x 3 10 =
9
1
9
1
This means that the probability that X lies between 0 and 1 is .
9
Example 20
A random variable X has the pdf
kx, for 0 < x < 4

f ( x) =  .
 0, otherwise
(a) Find the value of the constant k.

UNIT 6
SESSION 4
(b) Compute P (1 < X < 3)
Solution
(a) To find k, we need to use the second condition.
4 4 4
∫ 0
f ( x) dx
= ∫=
k x dx k ∫
0 0
x dx
k 2 4 16k
=  x = = 8=
k 1
2 
0
2
This implies that
1
k=
8
(b)
3 1 1 3
P (1 < X =
< 3) ∫ 1 8
=x dx
8 ∫1
x dx
1 2 3
= x  1
16  
1
=
2
Example 21
Given that the function
 x2
 3 , for − 1 < x < b

f ( x) =  ,
 0. otherwise


is a probability density function. Find the value of the constant b.
Solution
b
Since the function is a pdfit implies that ∫ f ( x) dx = 1 . It follows that
−1
bx2 1 b 2 1 3 b b3 1
∫ −1 3 dx =
3 ∫ −1
x dx = x  = + = 1.
9   −1 9 9

UNIT 6
Thus b3 + 1 =9, b3 = 8 ⇒ b3 = 23. Therefore, 𝑏𝑏 = 2.
It is important to mention here that the function f (x) should be differentiable, thus, for
 d 
the probability to be found it is necessary that the derivative  f ( x) = f '( x)  exists.
dx 
We must also note that if X is a continuous random variable having probability density
function f (x) then for any constant a, P ( X = a ) = 0 . The reason is that if X is a
continuous random variable then
a
P( X = a ) = P(a ≤ X ≤ a ) = ∫ f ( x)dx = 0 .
a
Based on this fact, it is worth noting that for a continuous random variable the following
statement is true.
P ( a ≤ X ≤ b ) = P ( a ≤ X < b) = P ( a < X ≤ b ) = P ( a < X < b ) .
Let us note carefully that this is not true in the case of a discrete random variable.
In Example 20(b), assuming we want to find P(1 ≤ X ≤ 3) , the answer will not be
different from what we had.

UNIT 6
SESSION 4
Exercise 6.4
1. If X has the pdf
k ( x − 1), for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
f ( x) = 
0 , otherwise
(a) Find the value of k.

(b) Hence find (i) P ( 1.0 < X < 1.5 ) (ii) P ( X < 2.0 ) (iii) P ( X > 3 )
2. Show that the function
1
 8 ( x + 1), for 2 < x < 4

f ( x) = 
0, otherwise


is a probability density function.

UNIT 6
SESSION 5: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES AND

VARIANCE OF A CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION
In Session 4, we discussed the probability distribution of a continuous
random variable. Based on this discussion we will now study how to
find the mode, the median and the mean which form the measure of the central
tendencies of the probability distribution. We will then continue to learn how to find the
variance and the standard deviation which also measure the dispersion of the
distribution. The meanings of the terms to be discussed in this session have already
been dealt with in Session 2.
.
Objectives
(a) find the measures of central tendencies of a continuous distribution, and
(b) find the variance of a continuous distribution.
Now read on …
5.1 Measures of Central Tendencies

As discussed in Session 2, the mode, the median and the mean form what we call the
measures of central tendencies. These values give information about the central part of a
distribution.
5.1.1 The mode

As defined in Session 2, the mode of the distribution is a value x0 of the random
variable at which the probability density function takes its maximum value. The mode
of the continuous probability distribution is obtained by differentiating the probability
density function. We then equate the result to zero and then solve the resulting equation
for the variable x.
Example 22
The probability density function of a continuous random variable, X, is given by
3(1 − x) 2 , for 0 < x < 1

f ( x) = 
0 , otherwise
Find the mode of this distribution.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCIES AND
UNIT 6 VARIANCE OF A CONTINUOUS DISTRIBUTION
SESSION 5
Solution
Differentiating the given function, we have
d d
3(1 − x=
) 2  (3 x 2 − 6 x + 3)
dx dx
= 6 x − 6.
Equating the above to zero implies that x = 1 . Hence, the mode of the distribution is
x0 = 1.
We need to mention here that the mode may or may not exist for a given distributions.
If a distribution has two modes it is called bimodal. In general, if a distribution has
more than one mode it is called multimodal.
5.1.2 The Median

The median of a distribution of a continuous random variable, X , is a number m such
that m is found at the exact mid-point of the probabilities, and it should be unique.
Suppose that X is a continuous random variable for which the probability density
function is given by f ( x ) , then the median of the distribution is found by using any of
the relations:
m 1 ∞ 1
∫−∞
f ( x) dx =
2
or ∫ m
f ( x) dx =
2
.
where m is the median of the distribution. Integrating from − ∞ to m or from m to ∞

will ensure that the median is at the exact mid-point of the distribution. Note that the
− ∞ represent the lowest value of the distribution and ∞ represent the highest value of
the distribution.
Example 23
Given that X has a probability density function
4 x 3 , for 0 < x < 1

f ( x) =  .
 0 , otherwise
Find the median of this distribution.
Solution
The unique median of this distribution will be the number m such that

UNIT 6
m 1
∫0
4 x 3 dx =
2
Now,
1
m 1 14
∫ 0
4 x 3 dx = [ x 4 ] 0m m 4 = ⇒ m =  
2 2
1
1 4
Hence, the median of the distribution is   .
2
1 1
If we use ∫ m 2
, the answer (median) will be the same. Verify this as an
4 x 3 dx =
exercise. This shows that the median for this distribution is unique.
5.1.3 The Mean

The mean which is also known as mathematical expectation is the most used measure of
central tendency. Suppose that X is a continuous random variable and f ( x ) is the
probability density function, then the mean (mathematical expectation) is defined as
∞
E( X ) = ∫ x f ( x) dx
−∞
We need to note that the mathematical expectation may or may not exist. Note here that
the f (x) has been multiplied by x.
Example 24
Given that a random variable, X, has the pdf
2
 27 (1 + x), 2≤ x≤5

f ( x) =  .
0, otherwise


Find the expectation of the random variable, X.

SESSION 5
Solution
2 5 2 5
E ( x=
)
2 27 ∫
x (1 + x) dx
=
27 ∫ 2
( x + x 2 ) dx
5
2  x 2 x3 
= + 
27  2 3 2
2  25 125 4 8  2  198  99 11
= + − − =  = =
27  2 3 2 3  27  54  27 3
5.2 The Variance

In Session 2, we discussed the meaning and the importance of the variance. Our
concern here therefore is to learn how to find it in the case of the continuous random
variable. Suppose X is a continuous random variable, then the variance is defined as
∞
var ( x ) = E(x − µ ) 2 = ∫ ( x − µ ) f ( x ) dx
2
−∞
where µ = E( X ) is the mean of the random variable, X. It can be shown that
E ( x − µ ) 2 = E ( x 2 ) − (E ( x ) ) .
2
Hence,
2
f ( x) x 2 dx −  ∫ xf ( x) dx  .
∞ ∞
var ( x)
= ∫ −∞  −∞ 
Example 25
A random variable X has the probability density function
1
 8 x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4

f ( x) = 
0, otherwise


Find the variance of the random variable, X and hence find the standard deviation.

UNIT 6
Solution
By using the formula, the variance is given by
2
4 1   4 1  
Var ( x ) = ∫ x  x  dx −  ∫ x x  dx 
2
0
8   0 8  
4
1 4 3 1  x4  1 3
 x  ∫
2
E= x
= dx =  =4  8
8 0 8  4 0 8  
4 4 4
1  1 2 1  x3  1  43  64 16 8
E [ x=
] ∫ x  x  dx
8 ∫0
= x dx
= = = = =
0 
8  8  3  0 8  3  24 6 3
Therefore,
2
8  8  8 64 72 − 64 8
var ( X ) = −   = − = =
1 3 1 9 9 9
8 2
The standard deviation is given by σ = var ( X ) . Thus, σ = = 2.
9 3
Exercise 6.5
1. If a random variable X has the probability density function
2( x − 1), 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
f ( x) =  ,
0, otherwise
(a) find the mode, the median and the mean; and
(b) find also the standard deviation.
2. Assume that the probability density function of the random variable X, is given by
4 x 2 (1 − x), 0 ≤ x <1
f ( x) = 
0, otherwise
Find the expectation of the random variable X.

SESSION 5


PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION UNIT 6
SESSION 6

SESSION 6: SPECIAL CONTINUIOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
In Sessions 4 and 5, we discussed continuous probability distributions.

The knowledge acquired from the five sessions so far, can also help us
differentiate between discrete and continuous probability distributions. Now, as we
studied in Session 3 of unit 6 about special discrete probability distribution, we want to
do a similar thing in this session with our focus now on the continuous case. There are
several of them; these include normal, exponential, chi-square distributions, among
others. However, for the purpose of this session, we will discuss only the normal
distribution.
Objectives
(a) define the normal distribution;
(b) state the properties of the normal distribution;
(c) differentiate between normal distributions given different values of the
variance and the mean; and
(d) use the normal distribution table to find probabilities.
Now read on …
6.1 Normal Distribution

The most widely used continuous probability distribution is the normal distribution. It
is important to know that the term normal used should not be interpreted to mean that
other types of distributions are “abnormal”. It is used basically due to the fact that its
curve provides approximation to the pattern observed in so many diverse histograms
based on real data sets.
The normal distribution is usually used to model problems found to have approximately
normal distributions such as variability of outputs from industrial line, lifetime of
devices which wear out, biological variability such as height and weight, and so on.
Also, many important random variables such as that of the Binomial and the Poisson
have distributions that can be approximated to the normal distribution.
6.1.1 Definition of the Normal Distribution

A random variable X has a Normal distribution with mean, µ , and variance , σ 2 ,
(−∞ < µ < ∞ and σ > 0 ) if X has a continuous distribution for which the density
function f (x) is defined as,

SPECIAL CONTINUIOUS PROBABILITY
UNIT 6 DISTRIBUTIONS
SESSION 6
1  x−µ  2
1 −  
f ( x) = e 2 σ 
, for (−∞ < x < ∞ ) .
σ 2π
The curve is constructed so that the area under it bounded by two ordinates
X = x1 and X = x2 equals the probability that the random variable X assumes. This area
is shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1
To find the probability of X lying between x1 and x2 as discussed in Session 4, we

need to integrate the normal function. That is,
1  x−µ  2
x2 1 −  
P( x1 < X < x2 ) = ∫ e 2 σ 
dx
x1
σ 2π
Integrating this function is indeed tedious. However, the way out will be discussed later
in session 6.
6.1. 2 Properties of the Normal Distribution

The properties of the normal distribution are:
1. The mode, which is a point on the horizontal axis (where the curve is
maximum) occurs at x = µ .
2. The general normal curve is bell-shaped and symmetric about the vertical
axis through the mean, µ .
3. The curve has its point of deflection at x = µ ± σ .
4. The normal curve approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically either
direction away from the mean.
5. The total area under the curve and the horizontal axis is equal to 1.

SESSION 6
6. For the normal distribution the mean, median and mode are all equal: That
is , mean = median = mode.
Below is a typical shape of the normal curve.
µ−x µ µ+ x
Figure 6.2
The shape of the normal curve depends largely on the standard deviation of the normal
curve. The probability density function of the normal distribution with a small value of
standard deviation has high peak and is very much concentrated around the mean.
However, a large standard deviation of the curve gives much dispersion about the mean,
and the peak is quite flat (that is, quite low).
Figure 6.3 shows a normal distribution with different values of standard deviation.
σ3
σ1 > σ 2 > σ 3
σ2
σ1
Figure 6.3

SESSION 6
6.1.3 The Standard Normal Distribution

The difficulty encountered in integrating the normal density function as mentioned
earlier is solved by transforming the random variable X of the normal distribution to the
random variable Z of the standard normal distribution. This is done by way of
standardising the random variable X.
Now, if X has normal distribution with mean, µ and variance, σ 2 then the random
variable, Z , given by
X −µ
Z= ,
σ
has the standard normal distribution with mean µ = 0 , and variance σ 2 = 1 . The
probability density function of the standard normal distribution is given by
z2
1 −2
f (Z ) = e .
2π
The advantage in using the Standard Normal Distribution is that standard normal tables
are available for use. We therefore need not do any direct integration in using the
normal distribution. For instance, if we want to find P ( x1 < X < x2 ) we need to
X −µ
transform it using the formula Z = , to the form P ( z1 < Z < z 2 ) . Thus,
σ
x −µ x −µ
z1 = 1 and z2 = 2 .
σ σ
Example 26
A random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 50 and standard deviation 10.
Convert the following to the Z values.
(a) P ( 45 < X < 62 )

(b) P ( X > 20 )

SESSION 6
Solution
(a) x1 = 45 , x2 = 62 µ = 50 and σ =10 , therefore,
45 − 50 62 − 50
z1 = = − 0.5 and z 2 = = 1.2
10 10
Thus,
P ( 45 < X < 62 ) = P ( − 0.5 < Z < 1.2 )
(b) Here, x = 20, therefore,
20 − 50
z= = − 3.0
10
Thus,
P ( X > 20 ) = P ( Z > − 3.0)
6.2 Determining Probabilities for a Normal Distribution Using the

Standard Normal Table
We have two major types of the standard normal tables. One type comprises of the use
of the entire area under the standard normal curve and the other type comprises the use
of half the area of the standard normal curve (50% of the total area). We will learn how
to use the half- area type since that is the most used standard normal table.
To know which type you are using, you need to look above the Table. You will see a
graph indicating Full -Table or a Half-Table. Figure 6.4 shows the half-table and
Figure 6.5 shows the full-table.
0 z 0 z
Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5
The other way you can differentiate between the full table and the half-table is that, on
the full-table you have the Z –value showing both negative and positive values on the

SESSION 6
table but the half-table has no negative value at all. The negative values are to be
deduced.
6.2.1 Reading the Probabilities from the Standard Normal Table

We begin by stating the steps that will enable us learn how to read probabilities from
the Standard normal Table.
Steps
1. Draw the diagram and the necessary vertical lines.
2. Indicate the required area on the diagram.
3. Break the Z-value into two parts: the first two digit form the first part; and the
second part will be the difference. For example if Z= 1.344 then the first part will
be 1.3 and the difference will be 0.044.
4. The first column indicating Z is for the first part and the other columns are for the
difference.
5. Trace the first part to meet the second part on the table for the required
probability.
We need to mention that the shaded area (required area) will determine the actual
solution to the problem. A copy of this table is at the Appendix. We will use an example
to demonstrate what we have discussed. The symbol Φ will be used to denote the
probabilities to be read from table.
Example 27
Find each of the following probabilities by using the Standard Normal Table.
(a) P ( 0.0 < Z < 1.74 ) ;

(b) P ( 0.34 < Z < 2.23 ) ;
(c) P ( Z > 1.35 ) ;
(d) P ( − 2.30 < Z < 0.0 ) ;
(e) P ( Z > − 0.41 )
(f) P ( Z < − 2.01)
Solution
(a) We first sketch the range as

SESSION 6
0 1.74
The required probability is the shaded area
P ( 0.0 < Z < 1.74 ) = Φ (1.74) − Φ (0.0)
Note that Φ (0.0) = 0. To read Φ (1.74) from the Standard Normal Table, follow the
steps above. Look for 1.7 on the first column and then look for the difference 0.04.
Trace the two values to meet on the table. The value there is the probability for Φ
(1.74). Thus, if this is done properly using the Table in the Appendix, the value will be
0.4591. Therefore, the probability is 0.4591.
(b)
0 2.23
The required probability is the shaded area of the graph above.
P ( 0.34 < Z < 2.23 ) = Φ (2.23) − Φ (0.34)
To read Φ (2.23) from the Standard Normal Table, we look for 2.2 on the first
column and then look for the difference 0.03. Trace the two values to meet on the
table. The value there is the probability for Φ (2.23). The table value in the
Appendix is 0.4871.
Similarly, for Φ (0.34) read 0.3 “difference”0.04. Thus, Φ (0.34) = 0.1331.

Hence,
P ( 0.34 < Z < 2.23 ) = 0.4871 − 0.1331

= 0.3540
The probability is therefore, 0.3540.

SESSION 6
(c) We first sketch the range as
0 1.35
Since the area required is at the extreme right, we subtract what ever we read for
Φ (0.34) from 0.5. That is,
P ( Z > 1.35 ) = 0.5 − Φ (1.35) .
From Table Φ (1.35) is 0.4110. Hence, the probability is 0.5 − 0.4110 = 0.0890 .
(d) The sketch of the range is
− 2.3 0
Since the normal curve is symmetrical, Φ (−2.3) = Φ (2.3). Now,
P ( − 2.30 < Z < 0.0 ) = Φ (2.3) .
From Table Φ (2.3) is 0.4893. Therefore, the probability is 0.4893.
(e) The range is sketched as
0.5
− 0.41 0

SESSION 6
From the diagram we see that the shaded area is more than half of the graph.
Therefore, the solution will be
P ( Z > − 0.41) = 0.5 + Φ (0.41)
From the Table, Φ (0.41) is 0.1591. Therefore, the probability is 0.6591, that is,
0.5 + 0.1591.
(f) The range is sketched as
− 2.01 0
From the diagram the shaded area is at the extreme left of the graph. Therefore,
the solution will be given as
P ( Z < − 2.01) = 0.5 − Φ (2.01)

= 0.5 − 0.4778 = 0.0222
Hence, the probability is 0.0222.
Let us now take a complete question and solve.
Example 28
An electric firm manufactures a light bulb that has a length life that is normally
distributed with mean 800 hours and standard deviation of 40 hours. Find the
probability that a bulb burns between 778 and 834 hours.
Solution
From the problem we see that σ = 40 hours, and µ = 800 hours. We want to find
P (778 < X < 834) . Now,
 778 − 800 834 − 800 
P(778 < X < 834) = P  <Z< 
 40 40 
= P (− 0.55 < Z < 0.85) .

SESSION 6
This can be sketched as
− 0.55 0 0.85
P (−0.55 < Z < 0.85) = Φ (0.85) + Φ (−0.55)
From the Table in theAppendix,
Φ (0.85) = 0.3023 and Φ (0.55) = 0.2088
Therefore,
Φ (0.85) + Φ (−0.55) = 0.3023 + 0.2088

= 0.5111
The probability that the bulb burns between 778 and 834 hours is therefore, 0.5111.
As mentioned in this session, normal distribution can be used to approximate the

binomial distribution. This could be done when n is large and; if neither p nor q is too
close to zero. If X is a binomial random variable with mean µ = np , and the variance
σ 2 = npq , then the binomial distribution is closely approximated by the normal
distribution with standardized random variable, Z n , given by
X − np
Zn = .
npq
This means that we can solve binomial problems using the Standard Normal Tables.
Example 29
A process yielded 10% defective items. If 100 items are randomly selected from the
process, what is the probability that the number of defective items exceed 13?
Solution
From the problem we see that p= 0.1, n = 100 and q (1 − p ) = 0.9 .

SESSION 6
Now, since n is large and p and q are not close to zero, we can use the standard normal
distribution.
X − np 13 − (100)(0.1)
Zn = = = 1.0
npq (100)(0.1) (0.9 )
We want to find P( Z > 1.0) . This can be sketched as
P( Z > 1.0) = 0.5 − Φ (1.0)

= 0.5 − 0.3413
= 0.1587
The probability is therefore 0.1587.
Exercise 6.6
1. Use the Standard Normal Table to find the following probabilities.
(a) P ( − 0.70 < Z < 1.40 ) ; (b) P ( 0.96 < Z < 2.08 ) ;
(c) P ( − 1.40 < Z < 1.40 ) ; ( d ) P ( Z ≤ 2.30 )
2. A box contains a large number of fuses. If it is known that 2% are defective, what is
the probability that out of 4000 randomly selected fuses there will be less than 95
defective fuses? (Use the normal approximation to the binomial distribution).
3. A certain type of can fish last, on the average, 3 years with standard deviation of 0.5
years. Assuming the can fish type is normally distributed. Estimate the probability
that a given can fish will last less than 2.3 years.

SESSION 6


ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
UNIT 1
Exercise 1.1
(1) i. Equal roots
ii. Real and distinct roots
iii. Not real
1
(2) a=6
4
(3) k = ±12
(4) k=4
1
(5) a = 3 or −
2
Exercise 1.2
(1) i. -4
7
ii.
2
iii. 9
11 3
(2) i. ,
2 2
ii. -1, -1
iii. 4, 1
5
(3) −
2
(4) x 2 − 7 x − 1 = 0
Exercise 1.3
11 3
(1) i. ,
2 2
7
ii. ,−2
3
(2) i. 72
9
ii. −
8
(3) ± 6
(4) i. ax 2 − bx + c = 0
ii. a 2 x 2 + (2ac − b 2 ) x + c 2 = 0
iii. ax 2 + (b − 2a) x + a − b + c = 0
CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Basic Education 203

Exercise 1.4
(1) i. {x : x ≤ −7 or x ≥ 4}
ii. {x : x < −1 or x > 5}
3
(2)  x : x < −4 or x > 
 2
Exercise 1.5
(1) i.
−2 −1 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−
2
ii.
−4 −3 − 2 −1 0 1 2 3 7 4 5 6
2
3
(2)  x : −4 < x < 
 2
−4 −3 − 2 −1 0 1 3 2 3 4 5 6
2
204 CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Basic Education

(3) {x : −5 ≤ x ≤ 3}
−5 − 4 − 3 − 2 −1 0 1 2 3
Exercise 1.6
1
(1) p ≤ or p ≥ 4
4
(2) s ≥ 2 or s ≤ −6
(3) k ≤ −8 or k ≥ 0
UNIT 2
Exercise 2.1
(1) i. cot 46
ii − cos ec36 0
(2) i. 3
2 3
ii. −
3
iii − 2
8
(3) i.
15
29
ii. −
20
Exercise 2.2
1 5 5 11 1 3
(1) i. π, π ii. π , π iii. π , π
3 3 6 6 4 4
(2) i. 109.5 0 ,250.5 0 ii. 26.6 0 , 206.6 0 iii.14.5 , 165.5 0
0
1 1
(3) i. (2n + 1)π ii. nπ − π iii. 180n 0 + 63.4 0
2 3
(4) i. 360n 0 ± 68.2 0 ii. 2nπ
Exercise 2.3
(1) 2 cos ec 2θ

(2) 2 sec 2 θ
(3) i. tan 2 θ
ii. 1
iii. cos θ
(5) Discuss this proof with your Course Tutor.
Exercise 2.4
(1) i 5, θ = 307 0
ii. − 5, θ = 127 0
(2) 17 , x = 104 0
(3) {θ : θ = 0 ,60 ,300
0 0 0
and 360 0 }
(4) x = 60 0 ,180 0 and 300 0
5) i. 0 0 , 112.6 0 , 360 0
ii 53.1 0 , 323.10
iii 48.4 0 , 205.30
Exercise 2.5
All the Proofs should be discussed with Course Tutor.
Exercise 2.6
(1) i. 0 0 , 120 0 , 240 0 , 360 0 ; 72 0 , 144 0 , 216 0 , 288 0
ii. 175 0 , 355 0
(2) i. 2 cos( y − 35 0 )
1
ii. − 2 sin x sin x
2
UNIT 3
Exercise 3.1
(1) (a) 0.5
(b) 4
1
(2) (a) −
3
(b) − 0.5
Exercise 3.2
(1) 3.00167
(2) 1.97

(3) 0.995
Exercise 3.3
(1) 2.344
(2) 0.78279
Exercise 3.4
3 5
2 4
x( x + 3) 2 − ( x + 3) 2 + K
3 5
Exercise 3.5
x −1
(1) ln +K
x +1
x−2 2
(2) 2 ln + +K
x x
Exercise 3.6
(1) x 2 + y 2 = K
3 3
(2) x − y = K
2 2
x 4 ( y + 1) 3
(3) + =K
4 3
UNIT 4
Exercise 4.1
1
(1) (a) − 10, − (b) 7, 3 (c) 1, 2
2
(2) (a) − 1 (b) − i (c) − 1
y
(3) (a) (b) 3 (7, 3)
− 10 x
(−10,− 12 ) − 1
2
7 x

y
2 (1, 2)
(c)
1 x
Exercise 4.2
(1) (a) 9 − 4i (b) 2
(2) (a) 6 + 3i (b) 6 + 3i
(3) (a) 2 − i (b) 3 − i
(4) (a) − 3 + 8i (b) 5 − i
Exercise 4.3
(1) (a) 25 (b) 2 x 2 + 5iyx − 2 y 2 (c) p 2 + 4q 2
9 + 40i 4
(2) (a) (b)
41 13
−1+ i
(3) (a) − 5 + 12i (b) x 2 + 2ixy − y 2 (c)
4
Exercise 4.4
9 + 40i 4
(1) (a) (b)
41 13
− 7 − 26i − 7 − 26i
(2) (a) , (b) − 7 + 26i, − 7 − 26i
29 29
1 y x2 − 3y 2 x
(3) (a) Im  = 2 2
(b)
z x + y x2 + y2
Exercise 4.5

(1) (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 2
(2) (a) 5, 143.1 (b) 5, − 53.1 (c) 1, 90 
(3) (a) 5(cos 53.1 + i sin 53.1 )
1
(b) 170 (cos 57.5  + i sin 57.5  )
34
(c) cos π2 − i sin π2
(4) (a) 2 + 2i (b) − 3 + 3i
Exercise 4.6
12
3−4 2 
(1) (a) 2 (1 + i )
12
(b)  
 4 
 
(2) This proofs should be discussed with your Course Tutor
UNIT 5
Exercise 5.1
 6 4 − 3  x  10 

(1) (a) A =  3 − 8 2  X =  y  B =  4 
− 7 − 3 9   z  − 2
4 − 2 5  x  − 4

(b) A = 5 3 − 2 X =  y  B =  5 
7 − 1 − 3  z   1 
34 38
(2) (a) X = , Y=
62 62
(b) x = −87, y = 28, z = 11

Exercise 5.2
4 2 3 − 1 10 
   4 −3 1 5
 8 5 −2 4 − 2  
(1) (a) (b)  1 5 − 2 − 7
7 4 5 3 4
  − 5 7 − 6 9 
2 − 1 3 1 − 5
 4 2 − 3 8
(2)  1 5 
2 − 6 , x1 = 380, x 2 = −234, x3 = 404
− 6 1 7 2 
Exercise 5.3
1 2 − 3 1 
(1) (a) 0 1 2 − 2
 (b) x1 = −3, x 2 = 0, x3 = −1
0 0 1 − 1 
1 2 − 3 − 1
(2) (a)   (b)
0 1 3 − 5 x1 = 0, x 2 = −2, x3 = −1
0 0 0 − 1
1 2 −3 1 2
 1 −1 
0 1 5
2 
(3) (a)  2 2
(b) x = −21, y = 6, z = −3, w = 2
0 0 1 3 3
 
0 0 0 1 2 
Exercise 5.4
1 0 0 0 − 14
1 0 0 45  
0 1 0 0 8
(1) (a) 0 1 0 − 9 (b) 
0 0 1 0 −2
0 0 1 2   
0 0 0 1 3 
(2) x = 1, y = 0, z = −1
(3) None of the matrices is in Reduced Row-Echelon form; but c, d, and e are in Row-

Echelon form.
Exercise 5.5
(1) (a) 2, 3; Not consistent (a) 3, 4; Not consistent
(2) (a) x = 18, y = 6, z = −1
(3) K = −1
Exercise 5.6
1 − 2 0 − 7 
(1) (a)  
0 0 1 5
(−7 + 2t , t , 5)
t = 0, (−7, 0, 5)
t = 1, (−5,1, 5)
1 0 0 − 61 − 87 
(b) 0 1 0 8 12 

0 0 1 21 31 
(−87 + 61t , 12 − 8t , 31 − 21t , t )
t = 0, (−87, 12, 31, 0)
t = 1, (−26, 4,1 0, 1)

Ruff Fluff Pr owl 


(2) 5 5 0  Batches
1 6 1 
UNIT 6
Exercise 6.1
(1)
x 0 1 2 3 4
P (x) 1 4 6 4 1
16 16 16 16 16
1
(2) (a) k=
25
Exercise 6.2
(1) (a) 3 or 4 (b) 3.5 (c) 2.9167
(2)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
P (x) 6 10 8 6 4 2
36 36 36 36 36 36
Variance = 2.0523
Exercise 6.3
(1) (a) 0.5569 (b) 0.4431
(2) 0.1042
(3) 0. 4689
Exercise 6.4
(1) (a) 2
(b) (i) 0.25 (ii) 1.0 ( iii ) 0.0
(2) Discuss with Course Tutor
Exercise 6.5
(1) (a) mode and median do not exist; mean is 1.6667

(b) 0.2357
(2) 0.20
Exercise 6.6
(1) (a) 0.6772 (b) 0.1497 (c) 0.8384 (d) 0.9893
(2) 0.5957
(3) 0.0808

APPENDIX
P (0 < Z < 1.96) = 0.4750 .4750
0 1.96
The Normal Distribution Table
Z 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
0.0 0.0000 0.0040 0.0080 0.0120 0.0160 0.0199 0.0239 0.0279 0.0319 0.0359
0.1 0.0398 0.0438 0.0478 0.0517 0.0557 0.0596 0.0636 0.0675 0.0714 0.0753
0.2 0.0793 0.0832 0.0871 0.0910 0.0948 0.0987 0.1026 0.1064 0.1103 0.1141
0.3 0.1179 0.1217 0.1255 0.1293 0.1331 0.1368 0.1406 0.1443 0.1480 0.1517
0.4 0.1554 0.1591 0.1628 0.1664 0.1700 0.1736 0.1772 0.1808 0.1844 0.1879
0.5 0.1915 0.1950 0.1985 0.2019 0.2054 0.2088 0.2123 0.2157 0.2190 0.2224
0.6 0.2257 0.2291 0.2324 0.2357 0.2389 0.2422 0.2454 0.2486 0.2517 0.2549
0.7 0.2580 0.2611 0.2642 0.2673 0.2704 0.2734 0.2764 0.2794 0.2823 0.2852
0.8 0.2881 0.2910 0.2939 0.2967 0.2995 0.3023 0.3051 0.3078 0.3106 0.3133
0.9 0.3159 0.3186 0.3212 0.3238 0.3264 0.3289 0.3315 0.3340 0.3365 0.3389
1.0 0.3413 0.3438 0.3461 0.3485 0.3508 0.3531 0.3554 0.3577 0.3599 0.3621
1.1 0.3643 0.3665 0.3686 0.3708 0.3729 0.3749 0.3770 0.3790 0.3810 0.3830
1.2 0.3849 0.3869 0.3888 0.3907 0.3925 0.3944 0.3962 0.3980 0.3997 0.4015
1.3 0.4032 0.4049 0.4066 0.4082 0.4099 0.4115 0.4131 0.4147 0.4162 0.4177
1.4 0.4192 0.4207 0.4222 0.4236 0.4251 0.4265 0.4279 0.4292 0.4306 0.4319
1.5 0.4332 0.4345 0.4357 0.4370 0.4382 0.4394 0.4406 0.4418 0.4429 0.4441
1.6 0.4452 0.4463 0.4474 0.4484 0.4495 0.4505 0.4515 0.4525 0.4535 0.4545
1.7 0.4554 0.4564 0.4573 0.4582 0.4591 0.4599 0.4608 0.4616 0.4625 0.4633
1.8 0.4641 0.4649 0.4656 0.4664 0.4671 0.4678 0.4686 0.4693 0.4699 0.4706
1.9 0.4713 0.4719 0.4726 0.4732 0.4738 0.4744 0.4750 0.4756 0.4761 0.4767
2.0 0.4772 0.4778 0.4783 0.4788 0.4793 0.4798 0.4803 0.4808 0.4812 0.4817
2.1 0.4821 0.4826 0.4830 0.4834 0.4838 0.4842 0.4846 0.4850 0.4854 0.4857
2.2 0.4861 0.4864 0.4868 0.4871 0.4875 0.4878 0.4881 0.4884 0.4887 0.4890
2.3 0.4893 0.4896 0.4898 0.4901 0.4904 0.4906 0.4909 0.4911 0.4913 0.4916
2.4 0.4918 0.4920 0.4922 0.4925 0.4927 0.4929 0.4931 0.4932 0.4934 0.4936
2.5 0.4938 0.4940 0.4941 0.4943 0.4945 0.4946 0.4948 0.4949 0.4951 0.4952
2.6 0.4953 .04955 0.4956 0.4957 0.4959 0.4960 0.4961 0.4962 0.4963 0.4964
2.7 0.4965 0.4966 0.4967 0.4968 0.4969 0.4970 0.4971 0.4972 0.4973 0.4974
2.8 0.4974 0.4975 0.4976 0.4977 0.4977 0.4978 0.4979 0.4979 0.4980 0.4981
2.9 0.4981 0.4982 0.4982 0.4983 0.4984 0.4984 0.4985 0.4985 0.4986 0.4986
3.0 0.4987 0.4987 0.4987 0.4988 0.4988 0.4989 0.4989 0.4989 0.4990 0.4990
3.1 0.4990 0.4991 0.4991 0.4991 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4992 0.4993 0.4993
3.2 0.4993 0.4993 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4994 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995
3.3 0.4995 0.4995 0.4995 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4996 0.4997
3.4 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4997 0.4998
216 CoDEUCC/Post Dip. in Basic Education

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UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

MATHEMATICS FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS III

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDE UCC),

CoDE PUBLICATIONS 2016

Cover page illustrated by R. Y. Essiam

Driven by the desire to always deliver quality, cost-effective tertiary

First, I acknowledge the hard work of the authors of the reviewed

I also acknowledge the support of the Co-ordinator and Staff of the

I thank the Vice Chancellor, Prof. Joseph Ghartey-Ampiah, all UCC

Special thanks go to Victoria Hadizatu Adams for typesetting into the

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

CoDEUCC/Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

This Course Book ‘Mathematics for Secondary School Teachers III’

This three-credit course book of thirty-six (36) sessions has been

To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Mr. Henry Amankwah

CoDEUCC/ Post-Diploma in Basic Education i

About this Book i

UNIT 1 ROOTS OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND 1

Session 1 Roots of Quadratic Equations, Nature of Roots 3

Session 2 Sum and Product of Roots 7

Session 3 Symmetrical Functions 11

Session 4 Quadratic Inequalities 17

Session 5 Number Line Representation of Quadratic Inequality

Session 6 Problems Involving Quadratic Inequalities 27

UNIT 2 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY 31

Session 1 Secant, Cosecant and Cotangent 33

Session 2 General Solutions of Trigonometric Equations 41

CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education iii

Session 3 Trigonometric Identities 47

Session 4 Other Solutions of Trigonometric Equations 55

Session 5 Proofs of Some Trigonometric Identities 65

Session 6 The Factor Formulae 71

UNIT 3 CALCULUS III 75

Session 1 Increments and Differentials 77

Session 2 Using Increments to Approximate a Function 81

Session 3 The Trapeziodal Rule 83

Session 4 Integration by Parts 89

Session 5 Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fractions 93

Session 6 Solving Differential Equations by Separation of Variables 95

UNIT 4 INTRODUCTION TO COMPLEX NUMBERS 99

Session 1 The Complex Numbers 101

Session 2 Addition And Subtraction Of Complex Numbers 105

iv CoDEUCC/Post-Di ploma in Basic Education

Session 3 The Product and Quotient of Complex Numbers 109

Session 4 Complex Conjugate and Division of Complex Numbers 115

Session 5 Polar Representation of Complex Numbers 119

Session 6 De Moivre’s Formula 125

UNIT 5 MATRICES III 129

Session 2 Elementary Row Operations 135

Session 3 Gaussian Elimination and the Row-Echelon Form 139

Session 4 Back Addition and Reduced Row Echelon Form 143

Session 6 Parametric Representation of Solution Set and Application

UNIT 6 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS 159

Session 1 Probability Distribution of a Discrete Random Variable 161

CoDEUCC/Post-Di pl oma in Basic Education v

1.2 Discrete Random Variable 162

Session 2 Central Tendencies and Variance of a Discrete Random

Session 3 Special Discrete Probability Distributions 175