Mindanao State University

TAWI-TAWI COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY AND OCEANOGRAPHY

Sanga-Sanga, Bongao, Tawi-Tawi

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

Mathematics and Sciences Department

GEC104 – MATHEMATICS IN THE

MODERN WORLD

SELF-LEARNING MODULE

Prepared by:

Hounam B. Copel
Jeffrey C. Salim
Sisteta U. Kamdon
Nurijam Hanna R. Mohammad
Edwin B. Fabillar

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Student Name
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Table of Contents

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 2

Unit 1. FIBONACCI SEQUENCE AND GOLDEN RATIO ......................................................... 4

Unit 1.1. FIBONACCI RABBITS ......................................................................................... 4

Unit 1.2. FIBONACCI RECTANGLES ................................................................................ 5
Unit 1.3. FIBONACCI SPIRAL ............................................................................................ 5
Unit 1.4. FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE............................................................... 6
Unit 1.5. GOLDEN RATIO ................................................................................................... 7
Unit 2. TESSELLATIONS AND TILINGS ................................................................................... 8

Unit 2.1. TESSELLATIONS ................................................................................................. 8

Unit 2.2. TWO TYPES OF TESSELLATIONS .................................................................... 8
A. REGULAR TESSELLATIONS ................................................................................ 8
B. SEMI-REGULAR TESSELLATIONS ..................................................................... 9
Unit 2.3. TESSELLATIONS IN NATURE ......................................................................... 10
Unit 2.4. WHAT IS A TILING? .......................................................................................... 11
Unit 2.5. WHAT MAKES A TILING A TILING? ............................................................. 11
Unit 3. FRACTALS, SYMMETRY AND WEAVING................................................................ 12

Unit 3.1. FRACTALS .......................................................................................................... 12

Unit 3.2. FRACTALS IN NATURE.................................................................................... 13
Unit 3.3. SYMMETRY ........................................................................................................ 14
Unit 3.4. SOME TYPES OF SYMMETRY IN NATURE .................................................. 14
Unit 3.5. WEAVING ........................................................................................................... 15
Unit 4. FUNDAMENTALS OF STATISTICS ............................................................................ 17

Unit 4.1. INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS ................................................................... 17

Unit 4.2. WHAT IS STATISTICS? ..................................................................................... 17
Unit 4.3. CONCEPTS IN STATISTICS.............................................................................. 18
Unit 4.3.1. POPULATION AND SAMPLE .................................................................. 18
Unit 4.3.2. MAJOR AREAS OF STATISTICS ............................................................ 20
Unit 4.3.3. FORMS OF DATA ...................................................................................... 21
Unit 4.3.4. TYPES OF VARIABLES ............................................................................ 21
Unit 4.3.5. SCALES OF MEASUREMENT ................................................................. 22
Unit 4.4. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS .............................................................................. 23
Unit 4.4.1. PRESENTATION OF DATA ..................................................................... 23
Unit 4.4.2. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY ................................................ 28

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ACTIVITIES................................................................................................................................. 36

Activity 1. Quali-Quanti ...................................................................................................... 37

Activity 2. What is the measurement? ................................................................................. 38
Activity 3. Tabular Presentation .......................................................................................... 39
Activity 3. Tabular Presentation (continuation)................................................................... 40
Activity 4. Summation Notation (Part I).............................................................................. 41
Activity 4. Summation Notation (Part II) ............................................................................ 42
Activity 5. Mean, Median and Mode ................................................................................... 43
Activity 6 Frequency distribution ........................................................................................ 44

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Unit 1. FIBONACCI SEQUENCE AND GOLDEN RATIO

Unit 1.1. FIBONACCI RABBITS
The original problem that Fibonacci investigated (in the year 1202) was about how fast rabbits
could breed in ideal circumstances.

Problem:
Suppose a newly-born pair of rabbits, one male, one female, are put in a field. Rabbits are able
to mate at the age of one month so that at the end of its second month a female can produce another
pair of rabbits. Suppose that our rabbits never die and that the female always produces one new pair
(one male, one female) every month from the second month on. How many pairs will be there in one
year?

Solution:
• At the end of the first month, they mate, but there is still only one (1) pair.
• At the end of the second month, the female produces a new pair. So now there are two (2) pairs of
rabbits in the field.
• At the end of the third month, the original female has produced second pair making three (3) pairs in
all in the field.
• At the end of the fourth month, the original female has produced yet another new pair, the female born
two months ago produces her first born also, making five (5) pairs.

The number of pairs of rabbits in the field at the start of each month is 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144, …

▪ The Fibonacci Sequence is the series of numbers 0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34, …

The next number is found by adding up two numbers before it.
• The number 2 is found by adding the numbers before it (1 + 1),
• The number 3 is found by adding the numbers before it (1 + 2),
• And the number 5 is (2 + 3),
• and so on!

Fibonacci numbers are named after Italian mathematician Leonardo of Pisa, later known as Fibonacci.

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Unit 1.2. FIBONACCI RECTANGLES

We can make another pictures showing the Fibonacci numbers 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,…
• If we start with two small square of size 1 next to each other. On top of both of these draw a square of
size 2 (= 1+1).
• We can now draw a new square – touching both a unit square and the latest square of side 2 – so having
sides 3 units long; and the another touching both the 2-square and the 3-square (which has sides of 5
units).
• We can continue adding square around the picture each new square around the picture, each new square
having a side which is as long as the sum of the latest two square’s sides.
• This set of rectangles where sides are two successive Fibonacci numbers in length and which are
composed of squares with sides which are Fibonacci numbers, we will call the Fibonacci Rectangles.

Unit 1.3. FIBONACCI SPIRAL

Here is a spiral drawn in the square, a quarter of a circle in each square. The spiral is not a true
mathematical spiral (since it is made up of fragments which are parts of circles and does not go on getting
smaller and smaller) but it is a good approximation to a kind of spiral that does not appear often in nature.

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Unit 1.4. FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE

Below are some examples in which Fibonacci sequence is present.

1. Chicken Egg 2. Romanesque Broccoli

3. Aloe Plant 4. Sun Flower

5. Nautilus Shell 6. Plant

7. Pine Cones 8. Tree Branches

9. Snail Shells 10. Pineapple

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Unit 1.5. GOLDEN RATIO

The Golden Ratio can also be expressed as the ratio between two numbers, if the latter is also the
ratio between the sum and the larger of the two numbers. Geometrically, it can also be visualized as a
rectangle perfectly formed by a square and another rectangle, which can be repeated infinitely inside each
section.
The Golden Ratio is a special number found by dividing a line into two parts so that the part
divided by the smaller part is also equal to the whole length divided by the longer part. It is often symbolized
using phi (𝜙). In an equation form, it looks like this:
𝐚 (𝐚+𝐛)
𝝓= = = 1.618033987499…
𝐛 𝐛

Shapes and figures that bear this proportion are generally considered to be aesthetically pleasing.
As such, this ratio is visible in many works of art and architecture such as in the Mona Lisa, the Notre Dame
Cathedral, and the Parthenon.

The human DNA molecule also contains

Fibonacci numbers, being 34 ångstroms long by
21 ångstroms wide for each full cycle of the
double helix spiral. In the figure at left, this
approximates the Golden Ratio at a value of about
1.619 (1 ångstroms= 10-10 meter or 0.1
nanometer).

• Around 1200, mathematician Leonard Fibonacci discovered the unique properties of the Fibonacci
sequence. This sequence ties directly into the Golden ratio because if you take any two successive
Fibonacci numbers, their ratio is very close to the Golden ratio.

• As the numbers get higher, the ratio becomes even closer to 1.618. For example, the ratio of 3 to 5 is
1.666. But the ratio of 13 to 21 is 1.625. Getting even higher, the ratio of 144 to 233 is 1.618. These
numbers are all successive numbers in the Fibonacci sequence.

Unit 1.6. GOLDEN RATIO IN NATURE

• All the key

facial features of
the tiger fall at
golden sections
of the lines
defining the
length and width
of its face.

• The facial features of a

koala bear show golden
ratio proportions in the
dimensions and positions of
the eyes, nose and mouth in
relation to the dimensions of
the face.

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Unit 2. TESSELLATIONS AND TILINGS

Unit 2.1. TESSELLATIONS
Tessellation is the pattern resulting from the arrangement of regular polygons to cover a plane without
any interstices (gaps) or overlapping. The patterns are usually repeating.

Unit 2.2. TWO TYPES OF TESSELLATIONS

A. REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
Regular tessellations are made up entirely of congruent regular polygons all meeting vertex to
vertex. Consist of only one type of regular polygon. A regular polygon is a shape in which all the sides and
angles are equal.

Below are some examples of regular polygons:

Triangle Square Pentagon Hexagon Octagon

Does a Triangle Tessellate? Does a Square Tessellate?

• The shapes fit together without • The shapes fit together without
overlapping or leaving gaps. overlapping or leaving gaps. So,
So, the answer is YES. the answer is YES.

Does a Pentagon Tessellate? Does a Hexagon Tessellate?

Gap

• The shapes DO NOT fit together • The shapes fit together without
because there is a gap. So, the overlapping or leaving gaps. So,
answer is NO. the answer is YES.

Does an Octagon Tessellate?

Gaps

• The shapes DO NOT fit

together because there is a gap.
So, the answer is NO.

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As it turns out, the only regular polygons that tessellate are:

Summary of Regular Tessellations:

Regular Tessellations consist of only one type of regular polygon. The only three regular polygons
that will tessellate are the triangle, square and hexagon.

B. SEMI-REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
Semi-Regular Tessellations consist of more than one type of regular polygon. (Remember that a
regular polygon is a shape in which all of the sides and angles are equal)

How will two or more regular polygons fit together without overlapping or leaving gaps to create
a Semi-Regular Tessellation?

Hexagon Octagon & Hexagon,

&Triangle Square &
Square Triangle Square
&Triangle

Hexagon &Triangle Octagon & Square

Square & Triangle Hexagon, Square & Triangle

Summary of Semi-Regular Tessellations:

Semi-Regular Tessellations consist of more than one type of regular polygon. You can arrange any
combination of regular polygons to create a semi-regular tessellation, just as long as there are no overlaps
and no gaps.

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Unit 2.3. TESSELLATIONS IN NATURE

Nature can be thought of as the glue or the substrate that binds art and mathematics, and observing
nature teaches us about both art and math. The following are some examples of tessellations in nature:

• The scales of a lizard’s leg can be modeled as a tessellation of

hexagons.

• A dragonfly’s wing exhibits a complex and beautiful tessellation. On the

line drawing of a portion of the zoomed-in region, each number indicates
the number of edges on the containing tile.

• The spots of a giraffe can be thought of as a tessellation. In the patch of

tiles drawn from the side of the front giraffe, there are 2 quadrilaterals, 16
pentagons, 11 hexagons, and 6 heptagons.

• A characteristic East Asian tessellation adorns a door panel in the

Forbidden City (left). A tessellation commonly associated with Cairo,
Egypt makes a bold façade for a hotel in Beijing (right).

• The cracks in dried mud create a tessellation (left). Modelling this with a
line drawing reveals little regularity beyond the size of the tiles. Networks
of cracks are also observed in synthetic materials such as plate glass
(right).

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Unit 2.4. WHAT IS A TILING?

A tiling is what you get when you fit a collection of individual tiles together with no gaps or
overlaps to fill some flat space like a floor or a table top. Tilings surround us everyday.

Brick walls are tilings. The

The game checkers is played on
rectangular face of each brick is a
a tiling. Each colored square on
tile on the wall.
the board is a tile. The checker
board is an example of a
periodic tiling.

Unit 2.5. WHAT MAKES A TILING A TILING?

As we have seen from our examples, a tiling is just a way of covering a flat surface with smaller
shapes or tiles, subject to a couple of rules: we want the tiles to fit together nicely, without gaps or overlaps.

Below is an example of tilings.

• In the image, there are no gaps or overlaps and the squares really do
form a tiling of the larger rectangle.

Below is NOT an example of tilings

Notice the yellow tile in the In the picture on the right, there
middle row overlaps the light is a gap between the light green
green tile next to it. Since gaps and yellow tiles in the middle
and overlaps are not allowed, this row. Again, since gaps and
is not a tiling. overlaps are not allowed, this is
not a tiling.

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Unit 3. FRACTALS, SYMMETRY AND WEAVING

Unit 3.1. FRACTALS
A fractal is a never-ending pattern. Fractals are infinitely complex patterns that are self-similar across
different scales. Fractals are some of the most beautiful and most bizarre geometric shapes. They look the
same at various different scales. You can take a small extract of the shape and it looks the same as the entire
shape.

To create a fractal, you can start with a simple pattern and repeat it at smaller scales, again and again,
forever.

Here you can see, step by step, how to create two famous fractals: Sierpinski Gasket and the von
Koch Snowflake.

• The Sierpinski triangle may be constructed from an equilateral triangle by repeated removal of
triangular subsets:

1. Start with an equilateral triangle.

2. Subdivide it into four smaller congruent equilateral triangles and remove central triangle.
3. Repeat step 2 with each of the remaining smaller triangles forever.

• The Koch Snowflake can be constructed by starting with an equilateral triangle, then recursively
altering each line segment as follows:

1. Divide the line segment into three segments of equal length.

2. Draw an equilateral triangle that has the middle segment from step 1 as its base and points
outward.
3. Remove the line segment that is the base of the triangle from step 2.

The first four iterations of the

Koch Snowflake

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Unit 3.2. FRACTALS IN NATURE

Below are examples of fractals found in nature.

• The Nautilus is one of the most famous examples of a fractal in nature.

The perfect pattern is called a Fibonacci spiral.

• Males of both the white peacock and standard peacock variety are
resplendent examples of fractals in the animal kingdom.

• Observe the self-replicating patterns of how flowers bloom to

attract bees. Gardens are amazing places to explore the fractal
nature of growth.

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Unit 3.3. SYMMETRY

Symmetry comes from a Greek word meaning “to measure together” and is widely used in the
study of geometry. Mathematically, symmetry means that one shape becomes exactly like another when
you move it in some way: turn, flip or slide. For two objects to be symmetrical, they must be the same size
and shape, with one object having a different orientation from the first. There can also be symmetry in one
object, such as a face. If you draw a line of symmetry down the center of your face, you can see that the
left side is a mirror image of the right side.

Unit 3.4. SOME TYPES OF SYMMETRY IN NATURE

1. Linear or Bilateral Symmetry
Sometimes called reflection symmetry, mirror symmetry or reflection symmetry is when an object
is reflected across a line, like looking in a mirror. Below are examples of linear or bilateral symmetry.

2. Radial Symmetry
This type of symmetry means that the parts of an organism are all arranged around one main axis.
Below are examples of radial symmetry.

3. Strip Pattern Symmetry

This is most often found with striping patterns on snakes and the spacing tracks and tree branches.
There are seven (7) main patterns within this category. They are Translation symmetry, Horizontal
mirror symmetry, Vertical mirror symmetry, Rotational symmetry, or Glide reflection symmetry. Below
are examples of Strip Pattern Symmetry.

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4. Wallpaper Symmetry
This is the most complex and is based on tessellation. Below is an example of wallpaper symmetry.

Unit 3.5. WEAVING

A method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right
angles to form a fabric or cloth. Other methods are knitting, crocheting, felting and braiding or plaiting.
• Knitting – is a method by which yarn is manipulated to create a textile or fabric; it is used in many
types of garments. Knitting may be done by hand or by machine.

• Crocheting – is a process of creating textiles by using a crochet hook to interlock loops of yarn,
thread, or strands of other materials.

• Felting – is a process of turning loose wool locks into a piece of fabric by connecting the individual
fibers.

• Braiding - in textiles, machine or hand method of interlacing three or more yarns or bias-cut cloth
strips in such a way that they cross one another and are laid together in diagonal formation, forming
a narrow strip of flat or tubular fabric.

• Plaiting – is the process of making plaits or folds, or interweaving or braiding two or more strands,
fibers, etc.

• The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. (Weft is
an old English word meaning “that which is woven”.)

Warp and Weft in plain weaving. A satin weave, common for

silk, each warp threads floats
over 16 weft threads.

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• Loom is a device that holds the warp thread in place while filling thread are woven through them.
• Weaving can be summarized as a repletion of these three actions (Shedding, Picking, and
Battening).
- Shedding: where the warp threads (ends) are separated by raising or lowering heald frames
(heddles) to form a clean space where the pick can pass.
- Picking: where the weft of pick is propelled across the loom by hand, an air-jet, a rapier
or a shuttle.
- Beating-up or battening: where the weft is pushed up against the fell of the cloth by the
reed.

EXAMPLES OF WEAVING

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Unit 4. FUNDAMENTALS OF STATISTICS

Unit 4.1. INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

In this unit, you will be introduce to Statistics – its origin, definition, tools and uses. You will be
introduce to terms that you might have encountered before but did not quite get its meaning and use. You
will also learn to appreciate Statistics and its importance in our daily life especially in this age or research
and big data. So dive right in and have fun learning.

Statistics can be a powerful tool for making decisions in the face of uncertainty. The word statistics
comes from the Latin status, which is also the root for our modern term state or political unit. Statistics was
a necessary tool of the state, because to levy a tax or to wage war, a ruler had to know the number of subjects
in the state and the amount of their wealth. Gradually the meaning of the term expanded to include any type
of data.

Statistics is the scientific discipline that provides methods to help us make sense of data. Statistical
methods, used intelligently, offer a set of powerful tools for gaining insight into the world around us. The
widespread use of statistical analyses in diverse fields such as business, medicine, agriculture, social
sciences, natural sciences, and engineering has led to increased recognition that statistical literacy—a
familiarity with the goals and methods of statistics—should be a basic component of a well-rounded
educational program.

As you study statistics, you will learn how to read and analyze many types of statistical measures
so that you can then arrive at appropriate conclusions. So as we embark on our journey into the study of
statistics, we must begin with the definition of statistics and expand on the details involved.

Unit 4.2. WHAT IS STATISTICS?

In its singular sense,

Definition 4.1. Statistics is a branch of science that deals with the development of methods for a more
effective way of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data.

In its plural sense,

Definition 4.2. Statistics refers to the data collected or some numerical quantities derived from a set of
data.

Statistics, like any branch of science is systematic and just like its definition, you will learn the
different methods of collecting data. You will also learn how to properly organize data, and the different
ways to present it in a way that is meaningful and truthful. And finally you will learn different statistical
tools to help you analyze data to get meaningful information and insight while interpreting the results in a
way that will help you make decisions.

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Unit 4.3. CONCEPTS IN STATISTICS

Unit 4.3.1. POPULATION AND SAMPLE
Many statistical terms are a legacy from the time when statistics was concerned only with the
condition of the state. Population, for example, originally meant, and still means, the total number of
inhabitants of a state, however, its meaning in statistics is broader.

Definition 4.3. A population is the collection of all people, objects, or events having one or more specified
characteristics from which data is to be collected. A unit in the population is called an element of the
population.

All Filipino citizens who are currently registered to vote, all patients treated at a particular hospital
last year, the entire daily output of a cereal factory’s production line and the fishes found in a certain marine
protected area.

You as the researcher will be the one to identify the scope of the population. Meaning, you will
have to clearly define who or what is included in the population. Just like the examples above, they are
clear on who or what are included in the population.

The population of telephone book listees contains a finite number of elements; the population of all
people who might use aspirin and the population of all 40-watt light bulbs to be produced by General
Electric are infinite.

A population is either concrete or conceptual. For example, the population of telephone book listees
is concrete—given sufficient time you could contact each person because the number of elements is finite
and the population is well defined. The population of heads and tails is conceptual—try as you may, you
cannot record all the results of tossing a coin for eternity. This population exists as an idea rather than as a
material object.

Definition 4.4. A sample is a proper subset of a population or a representative part of the population, which
has the characteristics of that population.

That is, a sample can contain a single element or all but one of the population elements. For practical
reasons—such as limited resources and time or because the population is infinite in size—most research is
carried out with samples rather than with populations. It is assumed that the study of a sample will reveal
something about the population. This leap of faith often appears to be justified, as when a laboratory
technician analyzes a sample of a patient’s blood or when an automobile manufacturer crash-tests a sample
of bumpers. Occasionally, however, samples lead us astray. Later you’ll see how and why.
The selection of an appropriate population for an experiment is determined by the nature of the
research questions that a researcher wants to answer as well as by such practical matters as the availability
of population elements.

Definition 4.5. Variable (or response variable) A characteristic of interest about each individual element
of a population or sample.

It is a measurable characteristic of the elements. The characteristics of all Filipino citizens who are
currently registered to vote might be their age, marital status or highest educational attainment. For
students in a university, it might be their GPAs, their weekly transportation expense, or the number of
subjects they are currently enrolled in.

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Definition 4.6. Data value is the value of the variable associated with one element of a population or
sample. This value may be a number, a word, or a symbol.

For example, the voter Faizal is 34 years old, single and is a college graduate. These three data
values are the values for the three variables as applied to Faizal, a registered voter.
Can you think of data values for Hanna, a university student? Like her GPA, her weekly
transportation expense, or the number of subjects she is currently enrolled in.

Definition 4.7. Data is the set of values collected from the variable from each of the elements that belong
to the sample. Once all the data are collected, it is common practice to refer to the set of data as the sample.

The set of ages collected from a sample of registered Filipino voters, or the set of 300 GPAs
collected from 300 university students are examples of a set of data.

Definition 4.8. An experiment is a planned activity whose results yield a set of data.

An experiment includes the activities for both selecting the elements and obtaining the data values.

Definition 4.9. A parameter is a numerical value summarizing all the data of an entire population.

The “average” age at time of admission for all students who have ever attended our college and the
“proportion” of students who were older than 21 years of age when they entered college are examples of
two population parameters. A parameter is a value that describes the entire population. Often a Greek letter
is used to symbolize the name of a parameter. These symbols will be assigned as we study specific
parameters.

Definition 4.10. A statistic is a numerical value summarizing the sample data.

For every parameter there is a corresponding sample statistic. The statistic describes the sample the
same way the parameter describes the population.
The “average” height, found by using the sample set of 25 heights, is an example of a sample
statistic. A statistic is a value that describes a sample. Most sample statistics are found with the aid of
formulas and are typically assigned symbolic names that are letters of the English alphabet (for example,
𝑥̅ , s, and r).

Examples

APPLYING THE BASIC TERMS

Example 1. A statistics student is interested in finding out something about the average peso value of cars
owned by the faculty members of our university. Each of the eight terms just described can be identified in
this situation.

1. The population is the collection of all vehicles owned by all faculty members at our university.
2. A sample is any subset of that population. For example, the cars owned by members of the
Mathematics and Sciences Department is a sample.
3. The variable is the “peso value” of each individual vehicle.
4. One data value is the peso value of a particular vehicle. Mr. Pon’s vehicle, for example, is valued
at Php25,400.00.
5. The data are the set of values that correspond to the sample obtained (19400, 19700, 25950, . . .).
6. The experiment consists of the methods used to select the vehicles that form the sample and to
determine the value of each vehicle in the sample. It could be carried out by questioning each
member of the mathematics department that owns the selected vehicles, or in other ways.
7. The parameter about which we are seeking information is the “average” value of all vehicles in the
population. This is usually not computed since you only get a sample.
8. The statistic that will be found is the “average” value of the cars in the sample.

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Example 2. A group of student researchers from IOES are interested in the monthly internet use
expenditures of fellow students aged below 20 years old in their college. Below are eight terms just
described can be identified in this situation.

1. The population is the collection of all students below 20 years old in the student researchers’
college.
2. A sample of this population can be students enrolled in the marine biology program
3. The variable is the “monthly internet use expenditure” of each student.
4. One data value is the monthly internet use expenditure of a particular student. Fatima’s monthly
internet use expenditure, for example, is valued at Php1,300.00.
5. The data are the set of values that correspond to the sample obtained (1300, 1350, 1975, 1500, …).
6. The experiment consists of the methods used to select the student that form the sample and to
determine the monthly internet use expenditure of each student in the sample. It could be carried
out by questioning each student enrolled in the marine biology program, or in other ways.
7. The parameter about which we are seeking information is the “average” value of the monthly
internet use expenditure of students in the population. This is usually not computed since you only
get a sample.
8. The statistic that will be found is the “average” value of the monthly internet use expenditure of
students in the sample.

Remember that as the researcher, it is you who will have to define the population which you will base on
the needs of the research you have.

Unit 4.3.2. MAJOR AREAS OF STATISTICS

Statistics is equipped with methods (how to do it) and theories (why it is done that way) to deal with data.

Definition 4.11. Statistical Method refers to the procedure and techniques used; from the collection of data
to the proper presentation and analysis of the results.

Definition 4.12. Statistical Theory refers to the development of the formulas used in the computation and
development of scientific procedures that constitute the basis of the statistical methods.

Statistical method and theory are important parts of Statistics as it enables us to properly apply it
to real world and theoretical problems. It is important that as you go through this module, and as a beginner,
you need to focus on familiarizing yourself of the different Statistical methods presented herein. It would
greatly benefit you especially that your course entails a lot of research in the field.

Techniques in Statistics are broadly divided into two categories: descriptive and inferential.
Although this course is focused on inferential statistics, I find it important to properly introduce and talk
about descriptive statistics.

Definition 4.13. Descriptive statistics are tools for depicting or summarizing data so that they can be more
readily comprehended. It deals largely with summary calculation, graphical and tabular displays, and
describing important features of a set of data. It doesn’t attempt to draw conclusions about anything that
pertains to more than the data themselves.

When we say that a certain fish’s lifespan is five (5) years or when we determine that 51% of voters
favor a presidential candidate, we are using descriptive statistics. A computer printout listing the System
Admission and Scholarship Examination (SASE) scores of all college students in Mindanao would boggle
our minds; however, a statement that their mean SASE score is 85 would not. Large masses of data are
difficult to comprehend. Descriptive statistics reduce data to some form, usually a number that one can
easily comprehend. You’ll be introduced to a variety of descriptive statistics in this module.

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Definition 4.14. Inferential statistics are tools for inferring the properties of one or more populations by
inspecting samples drawn from the populations. It is concerned with making generalizations for a bigger
group of observations called population based on information gathered from a small group of observations
or sample drawn from the given population.

It is usually impossible for researchers to observe all the elements in a population. Instead they
observe a sample of elements and generalize from the sample to all the elements—a process called induction
in which the researcher reasons from the particular facts or cases to draw general conclusions.

Unit 4.3.3. FORMS OF DATA

The basic elements of a statistical analysis is data. These are obtained by measuring some
characteristics or properties of the objects, people or things or what we defined before as variables. Data
values are taken, observed or measured from variables to create data.

Data may come into two forms, namely: Qualitative and Quantitative Data.

Definition 4.15. Quantitative data are those data that can be expressed in numbers. These are the things
that can be measured, like person’s age, height and weight, or a family’s annual income and merchant’s
profit. These data can also be counted like the number of students who passed Math 31, number of pupils
enrolled in an elementary public schools, and the number of male and female employees.

Definition 4.16. Qualitative data are those data for which no numerical measures exist and are usually
expressed in categories or kind. Example of qualitative data are the color of the eyes which can be brawn,
black, gray, or blue; a person’s gender which is male or female’ a person’s educational level which can be
elementary, secondary, college masters and doctorate.

Unit 4.3.4. TYPES OF VARIABLES

Variables are the characteristics or properties measured from objects, persons or things. For
Quantitative data, these variables can either be Discrete or Continuous.

Definition 4.17. Discrete variables have a set of possible data values that is either finite or countably
infinite. Discrete variables on the other words, assumes a value which is a whole number and that can’t take
the form of decimals. Examples are football scores, age, class size, number of household members.

Definition 4.18. Continuous variables have a set of possible data values including all values in an interval
or the real line. These variables can take the form of decimals. Examples are income, body mass index,
height, weight, length of a ruler, student’s grade. Other words, continuous variables are numeric variables
which do not have a fixed number of values.

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Unit 4.3.5. SCALES OF MEASUREMENT

Another way of looking at data is on the way they are measured.

Definition 4.19. Measurement is the process of assigning a number or a numerical value to a characteristic
(variable) of the object that is being measured.

To understand the different types of measurements, it is essential to review the properties of

numbers since measurements are associated with numbers. The properties of numbers are identity, order,
and additivity.

Definition 4.1. Identity is the property of a number that enables a person to distinguish one number form
the other and is used for classification purposes only. They are identified by their shapes or the way they
are written. A number 3 is different from the number 5 because they look different in appearance. This is
the simplest property of numbers.

Definition 4.2. Order refers to the way the numbers are arranged in a sequence. It is an established
convention that 1 comes before 2, and 2 comes before 3, 3 comes before 4 and so on. It is said that 5 is
greater than 3, or 2 is less than 4. It is the property or order that allows us to state that one number is “less
than” or “greater than” another.

Definition 4.3. Additivity is the property that allows us to add numbers. When we say that “1 meter + 2
meters = 3 meters”, we are confident that we are correct because of equality of scales. This means that in
the sequence 1m, 2m, 3m, …, the distance from 1m to 2m is the same as the distance from 3m to 4m, and
so on. However, 1 dog + 2 cats is not equal to 3 pies, or 1st honor + 2nd honor is not equal to 3rd honor
since the scales used in the sequence 1, 2 and 3 are not equal and not additive.

The measurement scale is an important factor in determining the appropriate statistical methods to
be used in analyzing the data of a particular research study. Scales of measurement is classified into
nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale.

Definition 4.4. Nominal measurement is the lowest level of measurement. It is merely when you group or
classify different objects into categories.

Let’s say we have to assign color of red while another object is assigned a color of blue, it cannot
be claimed that red is better than blue or the blue is greater than red. Thus, nominal scale possesses a
characteristic without paying attention to order or arrangement. In other words, it possesses only the
property of identity and do not possess the properties of order and equality of scales.

Definition 4.5. Ordinal measurement possesses the properties of both identity and order but not the
equality of scale property. The data values represent categories with some intrinsic order (for example, low,
medium, high; strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree).

Ordinal variables can be either string (alphanumeric) or numeric values that represent distinct
categories (for example, 1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high). Another example is student rank according to
class performance, an order of 1 st 2nd 3rd and so on can be established. However, these numbers cannot be
added because the difference between the 1st and 2nd may not be the same as the difference between the 2 nd
and 3rd. Ordinal measurement are usually associated with ranks, and ranks cannot be added. Other examples
of variables measured in ordinal scales are Faculty Collegiate Ranks, Military Ranks, Teacher and
Administrative Ranks.

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Definition 4.6. Interval Measurement is the third higher level of measurement. It possesses all the
properties of the preceding scales with some additional properties.

The common variable measured on an interval scale is temperature and intelligence score. Example
the difference between temperature of 65 and 85 is regarded as the different between temperature 13 and
16. In recoding temperature, the characteristic being measured is the amount of heat possessed by an object.
A temperature of 0 oC does not mean that the object does not have any “amount of heat”. Similarly, if a
student received a score of zero in an intelligence exam, it does not necessarily mean that the student has
“no intelligence at all.”

Definition 4.7. Ratio Measurement is the highest level of measurement. All properties of the interval scale
are applicable in the ration scale plus one additional property which is known as the “true zero point” which
reflects the absence of the characteristics measured.

Examples of ratio measurements are length, density, age, volume and weight. The numbers of
associated by these measurements have identity, order, and can be added. Let’s say in addition for example,
a length of zero meters means the object has “absolutely no length”. An object with a weight of zero pounds
is certainly “weightless”. Another example, if the teacher in statistics gives a quiz and the student got zero,
then the student got “no correct answer (score=0)”.

In summary:

• The nominal measurement categorizes without order.

• The ordinal measurement categorizes with order
• The interval measurement categorizes with order and established an equal unit in the scale.
• The ratio scale categorizes with order, establishes an equal unit in the scale, and contains a true
zero point.
• Variables with nominal measurement are called nominal variables containing nominal data, and
variables with ordinal measurement are called ordinal variables containing ordinal data. The rest
follow similarly.

Unit 4.4. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

An effective presentation of data is necessary in any research. Data which have been collected and
organized well but not presented clearly would be of little use.

Like its definition, the goal of this branch of statistics is to organize and describe data so that
relevant and reliable information can be gleamed from seemingly random sets of data value. One way to
do this to present your data in a meaningful manner. Take a look at the following topic.

Unit 4.4.1. PRESENTATION OF DATA

There are generally two methods of presenting the data: (1) tabular presentation and (2) graphical
presentation.

Tabular presentations may be in the form of a percentage table, cross tabulation or contingency
table, and a frequency distribution table.

Graphical presentations can be any of the popular statistical graphs, which are the bar chart,
frequency histogram, line chart or frequency polygon and the pie chart. With more statistical and
mathematical software emerging nowadays, graphical presentations have become very attractive, colorful
and more powerful in projecting some information. We’ll be discussing some of these graphical
presentations in this module.

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TABULAR PRESENTATIONS
Tabular presentation of data is one of the methods of presenting data. It is a systematic and logical
arrangement of data in the form of rows and columns with respect to the characteristics of data with headings
and descriptions. The classification or arrangement process is putting together similar items from the mass
of data that had been collected. It is an orderly arrangement which is compact and self-explanatory. The
tables are brief, easy to comprehend, and convenient.

Typically, a table contains the heading, which includes a table number to easily identify the table
and the title, which briefly describes the contents of the table, the body of the table, which is the main part
of the table and a footnote (optional), which indicates the sources of data.

Tabular presentations may be in the form of a frequency table, percentage tables, cross tabulation
tables, or a frequency distribution table. We will only be discussing frequency distribution table for
ungrouped data in this module since we will be sticking to ungrouped data.

Definition 4.27. Ungrouped data is the data you first gather from an experiment or study. The data is raw
— that is, it’s not sorted into categories, intervals, classified, or otherwise grouped. An ungrouped set of
data is basically a list of numbers.

Definition 4.28. Grouped data is the data that has been sorted into categories, intervals, or classified into
groups. An example would be an age group like 11 – 15 years old or regions like Region IX or BARMM.

PERCENTAGE OR FREQUENCY TABLES

When data are in categories, nominal or ordinal, results can be presented percentage table,
frequency table or a combination of both percentage and frequency tables.

The process entails a listing of the unique values or categories of a variable and attaching the
corresponding frequencies and percentages. Adding a column for percentages will also provide valuable
information.

You are familiar with categories since we’ve discussed data with nominal and ordinal
measurements. These nominal and ordinal variables can be easily presented using these kinds of tables.

Definition 4.29. Frequency refers to the number of times or the count of a certain category in a nominal or
ordinal variable. Say, in a group of 20 students, 12 are females and 8 are males. 12 and 8 are frequency
counts for females and males respectively.

Definition 4.30. In mathematics, a percentage is a number or ratio expressed as a fraction of 100. It is often
denoted using the percent sign, "%", although the abbreviations "pct.", "pct" and sometimes "pc" are also
used. A percentage is a dimensionless number; it has no unit of measurement.

Below is a frequency table. Take a look and let’s discuss its parts and how to make one. The data
for the table was taken from Appendix A.

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Table 1. Frequency Count of Male and Female Students in the Mathematics and Sciences Department of
the College of Arts and Sciences.

Sex Count*

Female 45

Male 40

Total 85

* This refers to the number or count of male and female students.

The data for the Table 1 was taken from Appendix A. Now let’s discuss the table and how to create
one. Take a look at Figure 2 below.

Figure 1. Parts of a Table

Figure 2. Usual parts of a table. A Frequency Table; a – table heading; b – body of the table; c – footer.

In Figure 2, you have, a – table heading, b – body of the table and c – footer.

The table heading should clearly describe what the table is about in this case a table showing the
distribution of male and female students in that department. Table number is also important to keep track
if you have many tables in your report.

The body of the table, as its name suggests, is the table itself. In here you can see relevant
information about the table. Table 2 has two (2) columns, and four (4) rows. The first column from the left
has the categories of the variable sex, that is F for female and M for male. For the variable sex, the categories
are easily identified. However, for other variables, like Scholarship or Ethnic Group, you need to carefully
list all unique categories to form your table.

The next column is the frequency column or as it is labelled, Count. You can also label it Frequency.
Sex and Count are in the first row, and is called the column headers, it basically labels what the column is
about. Now the rows. You already know about the first row, the column headers. The row just below the
column headers is the row that describes the female students and how many there while the row below it
describes the number of male students. The last row shows the total or the sum of the number of students.
Although it doesn’t talk about the male and female students, it is always good practice to show totals, just
to paint a bigger picture of the data that you have.

The footer, when it appears, talks about things that appear in the table. In Table 2, the footer is
preceded by an asterisk (*). It can also be preceded by a superscript like ( 1 ) This asterisk is seen after the
table header, count. When you see an asterisk or a superscript, this usually means there is a footer or some
additional information that would better describe or explain the information presented. In this example it
describes what count is.

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Table 2 can also be presented in a different way. Table 3 is the same as Table 2, except instead of
having your categories on the rows, it is written in the columns. Take a look at Table 3

Table 2. Frequency Count of Male and Female Students in the Mathematics and Sciences Department of
the College of Arts and Sciences.

Sex Female Male Total

Count 45 40 85

The next table is a percentage table. Instead of a frequency count you will see percentages of each
category with respect to the total sample size.

Table 3. Percentage of Male and Females Students in the Mathematics and Sciences Department of the
College of Arts and Sciences.

Sex Percentage

Female 53%

Male 47%

Total 100.00%

Now, I would like to assume that you already know how to compute for the percentages of male
and female students but I won’t. So, here’s how.

The 53% was computed by dividing the female count (look at table 2) which is 45 by the total
number of students which is 85. Multiply that quotient by 100 then round the product to the nearest ones
and then attack the percent symbol (%) and there you have it. The percentage of male student was computed
in a similar way which I leave to you to check. If you have a much larger data set and more categories, it is
okay to round your percentages to the nearest thousandths.

Like I stated before, you can combine the frequency count and percentages in a single table. It is
some sort of summary table.

Table 4. Frequency Count and Percentage of Male and Female Students in the Mathematics and Sciences
Department of the College of Arts and Sciences.

Sex Count Percentage

Female 45 53%

Male 40 47%

Total 85 100.00%

Table 5 shows the count of male and female students and also their respective percentages with
respect to the total number students.

You can do this type of table with other categorical data or qualitative data. Variables like year
level, course, college, highest educational attainment and the like.

Just make sure that you properly label your column headers and clearly write your column heading.

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CROSS TABULATION TABLE

The next table is called a cross tabulation table. A table listing the frequencies for the different
combination of values of two categorical or qualitative variables is called a cross tabulation table.

The cross tabulation table has the same parts as the previous examples. It has a table heading, body of the
table and an optional footnote. Below is an example of a cross tabulation table.

Table 5. Cross Tabulation Table of the Sex and Program of the Students of Mathematics and Sciences
Department of the College of Arts and Sciences.

Program

Sex BS MATH BS STAT Row Total

Female 33 12 45

Male 33 7 40

Column
66 19 85
Total

The data was taken from Appendix A. Table 6 shows the distribution of the students based on their
sex and the program they belong too. The cross tabulation table is a good way to dissect your information
and to see how data is distributed among the different categories present in the population. This table offers
a deeper look into your data, giving you a more information from the data you have.

For example, you know that there are more than three times the number of students in the BS
Mathematics program compared to the number of students in the BS Statistics program. There are also
more female students in the BS Statistics program while there are equal number of female and male students
in the BS Mathematics program.

You can also see from the table that there are thirty-three (33) female students in the BS
Mathematics Program and twelve (12) female students in the BS Statistics program. You can see in the row
total that there are a total of 45 female students and 40 male students. On the column totals, you can see
that there are a total of sixty-six (66) students, thirty-three (33) male and thirty-three (33) female, in the BS
Mathematics program.

The cross tabulation table combines multiple frequency tables into one compact table. You can get
the same information from multiple tables in just this one table. So, when you’re dealing with multiple
nominal or categorical data, consider using cross tabulation tables to present your data.

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FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE FOR UNGROUPED DATA

Frequency distribution tables for ungrouped data are similar to frequency tables but the categories
are not qualitative but quantitative.

In the previous examples of frequency tables, the categories are nominal or ordinal variables
however for a frequency distribution table for ungrouped data the categories are numerical values like age,
length, price, etc.

The main limitation of this kind of table is the number of possible categories. For qualitative
variables, the categories are manageable, usually only having 2 to 6 categories. But for quantitative
variables, there can be as much as 100 unique numerical values, this is a huge disadvantage. However, for
instances where the unique numerical values are few, a well-made frequency table is also a good way to
describe your data.

The table below is a sample frequency distribution table.

Table 6. Frequency Distribution of Siblings of College Professors in University A.

Siblings Count

9 1

8 0

7 1

6 2

5 4

4 10

3 3

2 8

1 5

n = 34

In a certain university, professors were asked how many siblings they have. There were a total of
34 professors who were part of the sample. The first column shows the different responses of the professors.
These professors gave their answers which were numerical values ranging from 1 to 9, and these are listed
below the first column header. The second column is simply what it is, it shows the number of times a
professor answered a specific value. One information you can get from the table, is that no professor have
8 siblings.

We will not discuss graphical ways of presenting data. You can research that on your own time.

Unit 4.4.2. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

As an analogy, when you are faced a large amount of data you start to put order into it by identifying
the value where the majority of the observations tend to cluster. This unit describes three statistics for doing
just that or in other words, summarizing data.

In the previous unit, you learned how to use tabular presentations to summarize data and sometimes
it is desirable to summarize further by using numbers to describe interesting properties of the data.

The most important property of data is usually its central tendency, the score value on which a
distribution centers. This value is popularly called the average; it connotes what is typical, usual,
representative, or expected. Because of these different connotations, statisticians prefer to use the more

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precise terms of mode, mean, and median in referring to the central tendency of a distribution. As you will
see, these terms refer to three distinct concepts of central tendency.

The word “score” refers to data values. For quantitative variables, scores values are the data you
get like the length, height, age, intelligence, etcetera, while number of scores would refer to the sample size.

Definition 4.31. Measures of central tendency are numerical values that locate, in some sense, the center
of a set of data. The term average is often associated with all measures of central tendency.

A. MODE, Mo
The simplest of the three conceptions of central tendency is the mode, denoted by Mo.

Definition 4.32. The mode is the score or qualitative category that occurs with the greatest frequency.

To better show what mode is, take a look at the frequency table below.

Table 6. Frequency Distribution of Siblings of College Professors in University A.

Siblings Count

9 1

8 0

7 1

6 2

5 4

4 10

3 3

2 8

1 5

n = 34

Table 6 shows the number of faculty members in university A and the how many siblings they
have. From the table, you can see that there are thirty-four (34) faculty members who were asked and that
none of them are an only child.

With a frequency distribution table like the one in Table 6, it’s very easy to get useful information.
Just take a look at the raw data where the table was derived from.

6 5 2 4 2 2 5 2 2 4 2 9 2 4 4 1 7 1 1 1 4 3 4 6 3 3 2 4 5 5 4 4 1 4

Can you easily get information from the raw data above? No, you can’t. That is why it is very
important to learn how to create useful table to help you easily grasps useful information.

Going back to Table 6, apart from the useful information you can gleam from it, it is also useful to
get a value that would represent the faculty members’ number of siblings. For that you can use mode. By
definition, the mode is the score or qualitative category that occurs with the most frequency.

In the case of the faculty from University A, the mode is 4.

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The mode is 4 because ten (10) of the faculty members said that they have four siblings and that no
other value occurs more than 4. This tells you that the most typical number of siblings for this sample is 4,
an easy-to-understand concept.

As these example shows, the mode is determined by inspection rather than by computation. The
mode can be used to describe the central tendency of both qualitative and quantitative variables, but it is
most often used for qualitative variables. You will see why this is true when we compare the relative merits
of the three measures of central tendency later.

There are times that two observations occur the most times. When this happen both observations
are modes and the data or distribution is called bimodal. However, when there are more than two modes, it
is better to use other measures of central tendency to describe your data.

̅
B. MEAN, 𝑿
Definition 4.33. The most widely used and familiar measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean—
the sum of scores divided by the number of scores.

The mean1 is commonly known as the average. The usual symbol for a sample mean is 𝑋̅ and is
read “X bar.”2 The letter X identifies the variable that has been measured; the bar above X indicates the
mean of the X variable. Other letters toward the end of the English alphabet—for example, Y and Z—also
are used as symbols for variables, and the corresponding means are denoted by 𝑌̅ and 𝑍̅.

It is customary to denote characteristics of samples by English letters and characteristics of

populations by lowercase Greek letters. As you have seen, the mean of a sample is usually denoted by 𝑋̅.
The mean of a population is denoted by µ, the Greek letter mu, and is pronounced “mew.” When it is
necessary to distinguish among several sample means or several population means, number or letter
subscripts can be used, for example, 𝑋̅1 and 𝑋̅2 , 𝑋̅𝐴 and 𝑋̅𝐵 , and µ1 and µ2 .

The distinction between samples and populations appears in another way—a descriptive measure
for a sample is called a statistic; a descriptive measure for a population is called a parameter. Thus, 𝑋̅ is
a statistic, but µ is a parameter.

SUMMATION NOTATION FOR THE MEAN

The mean of a sample is obtained by dividing the sum of the scores by the number of scores. At
this point, I will describe a useful notation for the sum of scores.

Suppose that you are interested in the frequency of movie attendance of college students. You can
denote this variable by the capital letter X and individual values of the variable by 𝑋 and a subscript:
𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑖 , … 𝑋𝑛 .
1
There are several kinds of means, but this book discusses only the arithmetic mean.

2
Research journals that follow the guidelines in the Publication Manual (2001) of the American
Psychological Association denote the sample mean by M. The use of to denote the mean is recommended
by the American Statistical Association (Halperin, Hartley, & Hoel, 1965).

According to this notation, 𝑋1 is the frequency of movie attendance for student 1, 𝑋2 is the
frequency for student 2, and 𝑋𝑛 denotes the frequency for the nth or last student in the sample.

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We’ll let i be a general subscript that designates an unspecified one of the 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛 students
(read “i equals one through n students”). The i in 𝑋𝑖 can be replaced by any integer between 1 and n
inclusive.3 Suppose that we obtained the following values of 𝑋𝑖 for frequency of movie attendance: 𝑋1 =
3, 𝑋2 = 1, 𝑋3 = 4, and 𝑋4 = 2. The mean of these 𝑛 = 4 scores is given by
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 3 + 1 + 4 + 2 10
𝑋̅ = = = = 2.5
𝑛 4 4
Therefore, the average frequency a student attends a movie is 2.5 times.

When there is a large number of scores, this formula is tedious to write. In this case it is customary
to write the formula using the summation symbol ∑ , the Greek capital sigma. The symbol ∑ , like + ,
indicates that you should perform the operation of addition. However, + indicates the addition of only two
numbers, whereas , which is also written as , means to perform addition until all 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 numbers
have been added. The expression ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 is equivalent to 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛 . The expression ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 says
to let the first value of 𝑋𝑖 be 𝑋1 ; add to this the second value, 𝑋2 ; and continue until the 𝑋𝑛 th value has been
added.

In the notation , i is called the index of summation, 1 is the initial value of i, and n is its
terminal value. Using summation notation, the formula for the mean movie attendance of four students is
written

which is equivalent to
𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4
𝑋̅ =
4

The general formula for a sample mean is written as

∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
𝑋̅ =
𝑛
where 𝑋𝑖 denotes the variable of interest, say to sum the 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 scores, and 𝑛 is the number of
scores.

3
The letter i also is used to denote the size of a class interval;

When the initial and terminal values for the summation are clearly understood, the formula can be
simplified to
∑ 𝑋𝑖 ∑𝑋
𝑋̅ = or 𝑋̅ =
𝑛 𝑛

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SUMMATION RULES
The following summation rules are widely used in statistical proofs and derivations. An
understanding of these rules will go far toward taking derivations out of the realm of magic.

1. The Sum of a Constant

Let c be a constant; the sum over 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 of the constant can be written as the product of the
upper limit of the summation, n, and c. That is,

𝑛 𝑛 terms
∑𝑐 =⏞
𝑐 + 𝑐+. . . +𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐
𝑖=1

For example, let 𝑐 = 2 and 𝑖 = 1, … ,3; then

3 3 terms
∑2 =⏞
2 + 2 + 2 = 3(2) = 6
𝑖=1

Thus, anytime you see ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑐 , you can write it as nc. Similarly, ∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑐 can be written as kc.

2. The Sum of a Variable

This rule was introduced in Summation Notation for Mean.

Let 𝑉𝑖 be a variable with values 𝑉1 , 𝑉2 , … , 𝑉𝑛 ; the sum over 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 of the variable is

𝑛

∑ 𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛
𝑖=1

For example, let 𝑉1 = 2, 𝑉2 = 3, and 𝑉3 = 4; then

3

∑ 𝑉𝑖 = 2 + 3 + 4 = 9
𝑖=1

3. The Sum of the Product of a Constant, c, and a Variable, 𝑽𝒊

The expression ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑐𝑉𝑖 can be written as the product of the constant and the sum of the variable—
that is,
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑐𝑉𝑖 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑉𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

For example, let 𝑐 = 2, 𝑉1 = 2, 𝑉2 = 3, and 𝑉3 = 4; then

3 𝑛

∑ 𝑐𝑉𝑖 = ∑ 2𝑉𝑖 = 2(2) + 2(3) + 2(4) = 18

𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛

2 ∑ 𝑉𝑖 = 2(2 + 3 + 4) = 2(9) = 18
𝑖=1

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Similarly, the sum of a variable, 𝑉𝑖 , divided by a constant, 𝑐,

𝑛
𝑉𝑖
∑
𝑐
𝑖=1

can be written as the reciprocal of the constant times the sum of the variable—that is,
𝑛
1
∑ 𝑉𝑖
𝑐
𝑖=1

For example, let 𝑐 = 2, 𝑉1 = 2, 𝑉2 = 3, and 𝑉3 = 4; then

3 3
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 2 3 4
∑ = ∑ = + + = 4.5
𝑐 2 2 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1 1
= ∑ 𝑉𝑖 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖 = (2 + 3 + 4) = (9) = 4.5
𝑐 2 2 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

4. Distribution of Summation

If the only operation to be performed before summation is addition or subtraction, the summation
sign can be distributed among the separate terms of the sum. Let V and W be two variables; then
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(𝑉𝑖 + 𝑊𝑖 ) = ∑ 𝑉𝑖 + ∑ 𝑊𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

For example, let 𝑉𝑖 = 2, 𝑉2 = 3, 𝑉3 = 4, 𝑊1 = 5, 𝑊2 = 6, and 𝑊3 = 7; then

3

∑(𝑉𝑖 + 𝑊𝑖 ) = (2 + 5) + (3 + 6) + (4 + 7) = 27
𝑖=1

3 3

= ∑ 𝑉𝑖 + ∑ 𝑊𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

= (2 + 3 + 4) + (5 + 6 + 7) = 27

This rule applies to any number of terms, For example, let 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑊𝑖 and 𝑋𝑖 be variables and 𝑎, 𝑏, and
𝑐 be constants; then, according to Rules 1, 2 and 4,
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑(𝑉𝑖 + 𝑊𝑖 + 𝑋𝑖 + 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) = ∑ 𝑉𝑖 + ∑ 𝑊𝑖 + ∑ 𝑋𝑖 + 𝑛𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏 + 𝑛𝑐
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

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COMPUTING THE MEAN FROM A FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The formula 𝑋̅ = ∑ 𝑋𝑖 ⁄𝑛 is appropriate for data in their original unordered or raw state. However,
if the data is already processed and is now in a frequency distribution table for ungrouped data, the following
formula can be used to take advantage of the tabular form of the data.

If the data have been ordered in a frequency distribution, the mean can be computed from

∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑓𝑗 𝑋𝑗
𝑋̅ =
𝑛
where 𝑋𝑗 denotes the jth unique individual value of the variable, 𝑓𝑗 is the frequency of scores in the jth
unique individual value, say to sum over the 𝑗 = 1, … , 𝑘 unique value, and n is the number of scores
or the total sample size.

The use of this formula is illustrated in Table 7. The data are scores on the Wakefield Self-
Assessment Depression Inventory for a sample of 20 men facing exploratory cancer surgery.

Table 7. Depression Scores of Males Facing Exploratory Cancer Surgery

(A Score of 25 or above Indicates Extremely High Depression)

𝑿𝒋 𝒇𝒋 𝒇𝒋 𝑿𝒋
28 1 28
27 0 0
26 1 26
25 2 50
24 3 72
23 4 92
22 3 66
21 0 0
20 1 20
19 2 38
18 1 18
17 0 0
16 1 16
15 0 0
14 1 14
𝒌

n = 20 ∑ 𝒇𝒋 𝑿𝒋 = 𝟒𝟒𝟎
𝒋=𝟏

Take Table 7, there are three columns. The first column 𝑋𝑗 is the column with all the unique
numerical values, in this case the depression scores. The second column 𝑓𝑗 is the frequency count, in this
case the number of male facing exploratory cancer surgery with the given depression score. The third
column, 𝑓𝑗 𝑋𝑗 , is the column with the product of corresponding depression score, 𝑋𝑗 and its frequency count,
𝑓𝑗 . Take note that j = 1, … , k, in this case k = 15.

Take note that the total of the third column, ∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑓𝑗 𝑋𝑗 = 440, is the numerator for the formula for
computing the mean for a frequency distribution, so after dividing it with the total number of responses,
you get the mean. That is shown in the equation below.

∑𝑘𝑗=1 𝑓𝑗 𝑋𝑗 440
𝑋̅ = = = 22
𝑛 20
Therefore, the mean depression score of the men who faces exploratory cancer surgery is 22.

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C. MEDIAN, Mdn
Definition 4.34. The median, denoted by Mdn, is the point in a distribution that divides the data
into two groups having equal frequency.

The median is denoted by Mdn. As its name suggests, the median is the middle score when scores
have been arranged in order of size and n, the number of scores, is odd.

When n is even, the median is the midway point between the two middle scores. The procedure for
determining the median is slightly different, depending on whether n is odd or even and whether a frequency
distribution has been constructed for the data. If the number of scores is small, the median can be determined
by inspection.

Consider the case in which n is odd, and the scores are 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12. When the scores are
ordered or arranged from smallest to largest, it is immediately apparent that the median is 8. This follows
because there are three scores below the median of 8 and three scores above 8. Check Figure 3.

2 3 5 8 9 11 12

3 scores below the median 8 median 3 scores above the median 8

Figure 2. Determination of median when n is odd.

3 5 8 9 11 12

Mdn = 8.5
Figure 3. Determination of the median when n is even.

RULES FOR DETERMINING THE MEDIAN

For observations that have been arranged either in ascending or descending order the median is as follows;

If 𝑛 is odd,
𝑛+1
𝑀𝑑𝑛 is the th score from either end of the ordered line,
2

If 𝑛 is even,
𝑛 𝑛
𝑀𝑑𝑛 is the midway point between the th score and the ( + 1)th score from either end of the
2 2
ordered line.
𝑛+1
Consider Figure 3 again. Because n is odd, the median is the th score from either end of the
2
ordered line. Remember that the scores or data have been arranged from smallest to largest value. You can
also arrange it the other way around, from largest to smallest, it wouldn’t matter.
𝑛+1 7+1
For example, in Figure 3, there are seven (7) observations or scores, so = = 4; hence, the
2 2
median is the fourth score counting from either end.

Figure 4 illustrates the location of the median along the line when n is even and the scores are 3, 5,
8, 9, 11, 12. Any point along the ordered line larger than 8 and less than 9 would qualify as the median. By
𝑛 𝑛
convention, the median is taken as the midway point or the average between the th score and the ( + 1)th
2 2
6 6
score. For example, = 3 and + 1 = 4. The midway point between the third score (8) and the fourth
2 2
8+9
score (9), counting from the left, is = 8.5, which is the median.
2

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ACTIVITIES

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Activity 1. Quali-Quanti
Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished________________

Directions. Identify whether the following variable has a qualitative data or quantitative data.
Write QUALI if the data from the variable is qualitative, and QUANTI if the data from the
variable is quantitative.

Identify whether the data is qualitative or quantitative.

________1. Number of bicycles sold in 1 year by a large sporting goods store.

________2. Tourists’ destination in Tawi-Tawi.

________3. Weights of cats in a pet shelter.

________4. Capacity in cubic feet of six trucks beds.

________5. Classification of children in a day care center (infant, toddler, preschool).

________6. Weights of fish caught in Sulu and Tawi-Tawi Seas.

________7. Marital status of faculty members in a large university.

________8. Number of doughnuts sold each day by Dunkin Donut.

________9. Times it takes to cut a lawn.

________10. Water temperatures of six swimming pools in Zamboanga City on a

given day.

________11. Colors of baseball caps in a store.

________12. Lifetime (in hours) of 12 flashlight batteries.

________13. Socioeconomic status of each person in Bongao.

________14. The smell of a perfume (aromatic, buttery, sweet, etc.)

________15. Ethnicity of people in Tawi-Tawi.

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Activity 2. What is the measurement?

Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished ________________

Directions. Identify the measurement scale of the following variables. Write NOMINAL,
ORDINAL, INTERVAL or RATIO on the line before each item.

Identify the measurement scale of the following variables.

______________1. Rating of movies as G, PG, and R.

______________2. Rankings of tennis players.

______________3. The shoe size of each main character Spider Man: No Way Home.

______________4. Temperatures inside 10 refrigerators.

______________5. Number of candy bars sold on a fund drive.

______________6. Ratings of eight local plays (poor, fair, good, excellent).

______________7. Classification of automobiles as subcompact, compact, standard,

and luxury.

______________8. Ages of students in a classroom.

______________9. Temperatures of hair dryers.

______________10. Horsepower of tractor engines.

______________11. Weights of air conditioners.

______________12. Salaries of the top five CEOs in Manila.

______________13. Number of hours to study.

______________14. Marital status of patients in a physician’s office.

______________15. Weights of suitcases on a commercial airline.

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Activity 3. Tabular Presentation

Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished________________

Directions. In this activity, you are going to create tables for the following data. Include all the
necessary parts of a table and write it on the space provided. You can use additional sheets papers
if necessary. No erasures.

1. Given the data in Appendix A, create a combined frequency and percentage table on the
distribution base on their ethic group.

2. Given the data in Appendix A, create a combined frequency and percentage table on the
distribution of students based on their scholarship status.

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Activity 3. Tabular Presentation (continuation)

1. From the data on Appendix, create a cross tabulation table o the distribution of students
based on their year level and religion.

2. From the data on Appendix A, create a cross tabulation table on the distribution of
students based on their scholarship status and Sex.

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Activity 4. Summation Notation (Part I)

Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished________________

Directions. Write the following expressions as the sum of individual values of the variables X and
Y or the constant a; for example ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖 = 𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝑋𝑛 . Write your answer on the line
provided. No erasures.

1. ∑ 2𝑋𝑖 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

5
2. ∑ 𝑌𝑖 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=2

3. ∑ 3𝑓𝑖 𝑌𝑗 = _________________________________________________
𝑗=1

𝑘
4. ∑ 𝑓𝑖 𝐾𝑗 = _________________________________________________
𝑗=1

5
5. ∑ 𝑏𝑖 𝑋𝑖 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

6. ∑(𝑋𝑖 + 𝑎) = ______________________________________________
𝑖=3

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Activity 4. Summation Notation (Part II)

Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished________________
Directions. Let X and Y denote variables and let a and b denote constants. Assume

that the values of the variables and the constants are as follows.

𝑋3 = −2 𝑌4 = 2 𝑎=5
𝑋2 = 1 𝑌3 = −3 𝑏 = −2
𝑋1 = 3 𝑌2 = 5
𝑌1 = 4

Determine the values of the following expressions. Write your answer on the space
provided, Show your steps. No erasures.
1. 5 = _________________________________________________
∑𝑎
𝑖=1
4

2. ∑ 𝑏2 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

3. ∑ 2𝑋𝑖 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

4
4. ∑(𝑌𝑖 )2 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

3
3
5. ∑(𝑋𝑖 ) = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

6. ∑ 𝑎𝑋𝑖 = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

7. ∑(𝑋𝑖 + 𝑏) = _________________________________________________
𝑖=1

8. ∑(𝑌𝑖 + 𝑏 − 𝑎) = _____________________________________________
𝑖=2

9. ∑(𝑋𝑖 − 2𝑎) = _________________________________________________

𝑖=1

10. ∑(𝑌𝑖 + 3𝑏) = _________________________________________________

𝑖=1

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Activity 5. Mean, Median and Mode

Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished________________
Directions. Compute the mean, median and mode of the following samples, show yours steps.
Write your answers on the available space. You can use additional sheet if needed. No erasures.

1. An experiment was conducted to determine whether fish scales could be used as fertilizer to
accelerate the growth of plants. The height (in centimeters) of the plants that had fish scales
as fertilizers were measured after 12 days. Find the mean, median and mode of the following
sample data.

41.42 41.25 35.57 25.75 51.50 40.75

41.25 30.58 53.75 44.42 44.58 33.00

2. Compute the mean, median and mode of the following teachers’ efficiency grades obtained
by 25 faculty members.

90 93 88 83 78 91 92 87 82 77
96 91 96 81 86 90 85 90 75 88
84 79 84 91 92

3. Listed below are a number of calories in selected entrée salads at several popular restaurants.
Find the mean, median and mode for the given data.
730.75 1180.5 1090.7 1595.003 900.03 1100.8
1 1 1 3 1 1
985 4 1120 8 940 2 730 4 1270 4 1180 2
1180 700 1260 605 920 855
755 840

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Activity 6 Frequency distribution

Name _____________________________ Date Accomplished________________

Directions. Construct the ungrouped frequency distribution for the data below.
23 10 13 2 10 9 16 11 8 9
14 11 8 13 10 10 12 10 10 6
12 8 12 5 7 10 7 9 9 7

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APPENDIX A. LIST of AB History and AB Political Science Students

Year Level
Programs Scholarship Sex Religion Ethic Group
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Islam Jama Mapun 1st
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) F Roman Catholic Tagalog 1st
AB HISTORY Paying M Roman Catholic Tagalog 1st
AB HISTORY Paying F Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) F Islam Sama 1st
AB HISTORY SSST M Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY SSST F Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY TES F Roman Catholic Tagalog 1st
AB HISTORY Paying F Roman Catholic Tagalog 1st
AB HISTORY TES F Islam Jama Mapun 1st
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Jama Mapun 1st
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Roman Catholic Visaya 1st
AB HISTORY PAMANA M Roman Catholic Tagalog 1st
AB HISTORY SMG M Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Paying F Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY Paying F Islam Tausug 1st
AB HISTORY TES F Islam Sama 2nd
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Tausug 2nd
AB HISTORY Paying M Roman Catholic Tagalog 2nd
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Tausug 2nd
AB HISTORY TES M Islam Tausug 2nd
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Islam Jama Mapun 2nd
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Islam Jama Mapun 2nd
AB HISTORY Paying M Roman Catholic Visaya 2nd
AB HISTORY TES M Roman Catholic Visaya 3rd
AB HISTORY SSST F Islam Sama 3rd
AB HISTORY CCG F Islam Sama 3rd
AB HISTORY CCG F Islam Tausug 3rd
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) F Islam Tausug 3rd
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) F Islam Tausug 3rd
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Jama Mapun 3rd
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Jama Mapun 3rd
AB HISTORY TES M Islam Tausug 3rd
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Islam Tausug 4th
AB HISTORY PAMANA M Islam Tausug 4th
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) M Islam Tausug 4th
AB HISTORY Academic(SSM) F Islam Tausug 4th
AB HISTORY Paying F Roman Catholic Tagalog 4th
AB HISTORY Paying M Roman Catholic Visaya 4th
AB HISTORY Paying F Islam Sama 4th
AB HISTORY Paying M Islam Tausug 4th
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AB HISTORY TES F Islam Jama Mapun 4th

AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) M Roman Catholic Tagalog 1st
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) F Roman Catholic Visaya 1st
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) F Islam Tausug 1st
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) F Islam Tausug 1st
AB POL SCI Paying F Islam Tausug 1st
AB POL SCI Paying F Roman Catholic Visaya 1st
AB POL SCI Paying M Roman Catholic Visaya 1st
AB POL SCI TES M Islam Jama Mapun 1st
AB POL SCI PAMANA M Roman Catholic Visaya 1st
AB POL SCI CCG M Islam Tausug 1st
AB POL SCI SST M Islam Tausug 1st
AB POL SCI SST F Islam Sama 1st
AB POL SCI TES F Islam Tausug 1st
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) F Islam Tausug 2nd
AB POL SCI Paying M Islam Jama Mapun 2nd
AB POL SCI PAMANA F Islam Jama Mapun 2nd
AB POL SCI CCG F Islam Tausug 2nd
AB POL SCI Paying F Islam Tausug 2nd
AB POL SCI Paying F Islam Tausug 2nd
AB POL SCI TES M Islam Tausug 2nd
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) M Roman Catholic Tagalog 2nd
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) M Islam Sama 2nd
AB POL SCI Paying M Islam Tausug 3rd
AB POL SCI Paying M Islam Tausug 3rd
AB POL SCI TES M Islam Tausug 3rd
AB POL SCI Paying F Islam Tausug 3rd
AB POL SCI Paying F Roman Catholic Visaya 3rd
AB POL SCI Paying F Roman Catholic Visaya 3rd
AB POL SCI TES M Roman Catholic Visaya 3rd
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) M Islam Tausug 3rd
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) M Islam Tausug 3rd
AB POL SCI Paying M Islam Tausug 4th
AB POL SCI Paying F Islam Tausug 4th
AB POL SCI Paying F Islam Sama 4th
AB POL SCI CCG M Roman Catholic Tagalog 4th
AB POL SCI TES F Roman Catholic Tagalog 4th
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) M Roman Catholic Tagalog 4th
AB POL SCI Academic(SSM) F Roman Catholic Tagalog 4th

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