Coding, Capacity, and duration

Q1 Outline one way in which psychologists have investigated the duration of short-
term memory (STM). In your answer, refer to the stimulus materials used, what the
participants were asked to do and how duration was measured. (4 marks)
Peterson and Peterson wanted to find out how long items remained in STM without
rehearsal. They presented participants with a consonant trigram (e.g. CXK). Rehearsal was
prevented by asking them to count backwards in threes from a specified number. After
intervals of 3, 6, 9-, 12-, 15- or 18-seconds participants were asked to stop counting and to
repeat the trigram. The percentage of trigrams correctly recalled was recorded for each time
interval. This procedure was repeated several times using different trigrams.

Q2 Describe strategies for memory improvement (5)

One strategy is method of loci. In this method you need to identify a set of familiar places, for
example 15 locations in your house. The number you choose depends on the number of
items you need to remember. You then convert each item you want to remember into an
image and mentally place it in a location. The locations act as retrieval cues because you
already know them well.

Another is chunking. Chunking involves combining individual items into larger units, thereby
making them more understandable. Understanding allows us to integrate and unify material
and this in turn reduces the load on memory. For example, to remember a mobile number
the individual digits can be chunked into groups rather than having to remember the string of
individual digits, such as 075-403. as opposed to 0-7-5-4-0-3

Q3 Describe one way in which psychologists have investigated the capacity of short-
term memory. (4
Baddeley et al. investigated whether people could remember more short words than long
words in a serial recall test and so demonstrate that pronunciation time, rather than the
number of items to be recalled, determines the capacity of the STM.
Participants were presented with sets of five words on a screen, each either one-syllable or
polysyllabic. They were then asked to write down the words immediately after the
presentation.
Baddeley et al. found that participants could recall considerably more short words than long
words and that there was a strong positive correlation between reading speed and memory
span.

Atkinson and Shiffrin Multistore Model (MSM)

Q1 Outline and evaluate the MSM (16)
Atkinson and Shiffrin's multi-store model of memory is a structural model and makes a distinction
between the separate stores of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory. Information passes
from store to store in a linear way. The sensory store retains the impressions of information
received from the senses in a relatively unprocessed form for fractions of a second. This
information needs to be paid attention to for it to move to the STM store .STM is an active
memory store that has a limited capacity of 7 items +/- 2. Its duration is up to 30 seconds and for
information to be held for longer, it must be rehearsed and transferred to LTM.
LTM has an unlimited capacity and information can be stored here for up to a lifetime.

A strength of the MSM is that there is plenty of supporting evidence from case studies of people
with brain damage. For example, Milner studied a man referred to as HM who was left with
memory impairment after brain surgery. He was unable to retain any new information however he
could recall information in his long-term memory from before the surgery. This proves that
memory is based on separate stores, and therefore the basis of the MSM is sound. The findings
from case studies are useful as they have a high level of external validity and so can be applied
to real-life situations.

However, a case study which undermines the MSM is KF, who suffered from brain damage
which resulted in difficulty dealing with verbal information in STM but a normal ability to process
visual information. This suggests that STM is not a unitary store as the MSM proposes.

Another study which supports the MSM is Glanzer and Cunitz who provided evidence of the
primacy effect. They found that participants could recall items from the start of a list more
accurately than words at the end of the list because they'd been transferred to LTM. They
explained this by suggesting that the task of counting backwards in threes had displaced the last
few words in the list from the fragile STM but the task had not affected the earlier words because
they had been rehearsed and therefore transferred to the robust LTM. This supports the view
that STM differs from LTM in terms of its limited capacity.

A weakness of the MSM is that it is reductionist; it is over-simplified and fails to reflect the
complexity of human memory. For example, it places great emphasis on the amount of
information we can handle at any one time but disregards the nature of the information. Some
things are easier to remember than others because they are more interesting, relevant, funny
etc.
Q2 Describe one way in which psychologists have investigated the capacity of short-
term memory. (4)
Baddeley et al. investigated whether people could remember more short words than long
words in a serial recall test and so demonstrate that pronunciation time, rather than the
number of items to be recalled, determines the capacity of the STM.
Participants were presented with sets of five words on a screen, each either one-syllable or
polysyllabic. They were then asked to write down the words immediately after the
presentation. Baddeley found that participants could recall considerably more short words
than long words and that there was a strong positive correlation between reading speed and
memory span.
Q3 According to the multi-store model of memory, there are several ways in which
short-term memory and long-term memory differ.
Q4Explain how the findings of one or more studies demonstrate that short-term
memory and long-term memory are different. (4 marks)
lanzer and Cunitz provided evidence of the primacy effect. They found that participants could
recall items from the start of a list more accurately than words at the end of the list because
they'd been transferred to LTM. They explained this by suggesting that the task of counting
backwards in threes had displaced the last few words in the list from the fragile STM but the
task had not affected the earlier words because they had been rehearsed and therefore
transferred to the robust LTM. This suggests that STM differs from LTM in terms of its limited
capacity.
Q5 Outline the difference between the capacity of short-term memory and the capacity
of long-term memory. (2 marks)
The capacity of LTM is much larger than STM.
Unlimited capacity in LTM, 7 + / - 2 items in STM

Q5 Jamie wanted to contact his doctor. He looked up the number in his telephone directory.
Before he dialled the number, he had a short conversation with his friend. Jamie was about
to phone his doctor, but he had forgotten the number.
Use your knowledge of the multi-store model to explain why Jamie would not
remember the doctor's number. (4)
according to the MSM rehearsal is needed to keep information in the STM or transfer it to
LTM. The conversation with his friend will have prevented Jamie from rehearsing the phone
number.

Also according to the MSM, short term memory has limited capacity. Therefore information
held in the STM store, in this case the phone number, will be displaced by new information,
i.e. information from the conversation with his friend.

Q6 A case study was carried out on Peter whose brain was damaged in a motorcycle
accident. Psychologists tested how many numbers he could hold in his short-term memory.
They did this by reading him lists of numbers and asking him to recall the numbers
immediately in the right order. He could recall a maximum of two items. The psychologists
found that his long-term memory was normal.
(a) How was Peter's short-term memory after the accident different from most adults'
short-term memory? (2 marks)
Digit span is normally considered to be 7+ / -2, so Peter's was much shorter.

Peter's digit span of two items was much shorter than the average span of around 7 items.
(b) Does this case study support the multi-store model of memory? Explain your
answer. (4 marks)
Support
The MSM suggests there are separate ST and LT stores. Peter's short-term memory was
impaired, but his long-term memory was not. This supports the idea of separate ST and LT
stores, because one was damaged but not the other.

Against
If memory has to pass through the ST store to reach the LT store, it is likely that damage to
the ST store would impair the transfer.
Q7 The multi-store model of memory has been criticised in many ways. The following
example illustrates a possible criticism.
Some students read through their revision notes lots of times before an examination, but still
find it difficult to remember the information. However, the same students can remember the
information in a celebrity magazine, even though they read it only once.
Explain why this can be used as a criticism of the multi-store model of memory. ( 4
marks)
rehearsal is too simple a process to account for the transfer of information from STM to LTM.
Candidates might also point out that the type of information is important in whether it is
recalled or not. For example, 1 mark for identifying rehearsal as a transfer mechanism and
up to 3 further marks for explaining that even though students rehearse the information it
doesn't transfer from STM to LTM as predicted by the model. However, information in the
magazine is only presented once, but it does transfer to LTM, despite lack of rehearsal.

The Working memory Model (WMM) Baddeley and Hitch

Q1 Briefly describe the working memory model. (4 marks)

The working memory model proposes that the short-term memory isn't unitary but is split into
separate stores. One store is the central executive which is involved in attention and higher
mental processes. There is also the episodic buffer which acts as a temporary back-up store
for the central executive. A third store is the phonological loop, associated with sound-based
information. Finally, there is the visuo-spatial sketchpad, associated with visual information.
Q2 Explain one strength and one weakness of the working memory model. 4
marks
One strength is of this model is that there is evidence to support the separate stores within STM
from the case study KF.KF rapidly forgot things he heard but remembered things he had seen. This
suggests that just his phonological loop had been damaged leaving other areas of memory intact.
This provides support for the separate stores in STM. However, there are methodological issues with
case studies
However, there is little evidence for how the central executive works. The central executive
is the least understood component of WM. This is a problem since we are referring to it all
of the time without really understanding how it works. In addition, The WMM only focuses
on STM and neglects LTM- reductionist

Q3 Outline 2 features of the working memory model 4 marks (any 2 features)

 Central executive – oversees the activity of the subsystems, an attentional system,

retrieves information from LTM.

 Articulatory loop / articulatory control process / articulatory rehearsal process – is a

verbal rehearsal system / inner voice.

 Primary acoustic store / phonological store – is a sound-based system / inner ear.

(these may be subsumed under Phonological loop – the sound system)
Visuospatial scratch / sketch pad – where visual and spatial information is imaged
and manipulated / inner eye.

 Episodic buffer – where information from each subsystem can inter-connect.

Allow broader features of the model including parallel processing, limited capacity,
active processing in STM.

Q4 Claire can search through family photos on her laptop and listen to music at the
same time. However, she finds it difficult to read her e-mails when talking to a friend on
the phone.

Use your knowledge of the working memory model to explain why Claire is able to
perform the first two tasks at the same time, but finds it difficult to perform the
second two tasks at the same time 4 marks
Two tasks using separate stores can be performed simultaneously but performing two tasks
that involve the same store impairs performance Claire is able to search for photos and
listen to music as these tasks involve different sub-systems in working memory, such as the
visuo-spatial sketch. Claire finds it difficult to read her e-mails and talk on the phone as these
tasks involve the same store, such as the phonological loop.
Long Term Memory
Annie can still skateboard even though she hasn’t skated for many years. Germaine
can still recall what happened on his first day at university even though it was ages
ago. Billy remembers the names of the tools he needs to repair the broken tap.
Identify three types of long-term memory and explain how each type is shown in one of the
examples above. [6 marks]
Suggested Answer:
Episodic – Germaine ‘can still recall what happened on his first day at university’ which is
an episodic personal memory (of an event) because it contains details of the time and
place.  
Semantic – Billy ‘remembers the names of the tools he needs to repair the broken tap’
which is memory for shared facts and knowledge otherwise known as semantic memory. 
Procedural – Annie ‘can still skateboard even though she hasn’t skated for many years’
which is a skill-based memory which typically becomes more automatic because of practice.
Explanation of Forgetting – Interference Theory
Outline and evaluate interference as an explanation of forgetting
Proactive interference occurs when old information stored in long-term memory, interferes
with the learning of new information. This usually occurs when the new information is similar
to the old information. An everyday example of proactive interference is when you get a new
mobile phone number: your memory for your old number will disrupt your attempts to re-
member your new number. Retroactive interference occurs when the learning of new in-
formation, interferes with the recall of old information from long-term memory. For example,
once you have learned your new mobile number, it is often very difficult to recall your old
number.

There is research support for interference theory. Baddeley and Hitch (1977) examined

rugby union players who had played every match in the season and players who had missed
some games due to injury. The players were asked to recall the names of the teams they
had played against earlier in the season. Baddeley and Hitch found that players who had
played the most games forgot proportionately more games than those who had played fewer
games due to injury.  These results support the idea of retroactive inference, as the learning
of new information (new team names) interfered with the memory of old information (earlier
team names).

Although interference research (proactive and retroactive) provides an insight into one type
of forgetting, it only explains a specific type of forgetting – memory for similar information.
For example, the results of Baddeley and Hitch demonstrate retroactive interference in rugby
union players trying to recall team names from earlier that season. While this example high-
lights interference effects of very similar information, the research is somewhat limited as it
fails to explain forgetting in other situations when information is not similar.
Cue Dependent Forgetting
Eyewitness Testimony – Misleading information
Outline how one research study investigated the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
(EWT).

Answers can refer to any research study relating to eyewitness testimony. This may be
by naming a relevant study, or by identifying the study in some other way. Likely
research would include a number of studies by Loftus including those into the role of
leading questions, and Yuille & Cutshall (1986) who investigated evidence from an
actual crime. Studies into factors affecting the accuracy of EWT including anxiety (eg
weapon focus) or age of witnesses would also be relevant. Flin et al (1992) used a
staged event and compared deterioration of children’s and adults’ memories over time,
while Karpel et al (2001) showed a video of a robbery and compared information given
by young adults (17 – 25) with that given by older adults (65 – 85). Allport and
Postman’s (1947) study using a picture of two men arguing is relevant to EWT.
However, Bartlett’s research using a story or simple drawings is not.
One mark for a basic outline of the method, eg in Loftus and Palmer’s study,
participants were asked questions about a film. Three further marks for accurate
details, eg participants were tested in a laboratory situation. They were asked how fast
a car was travelling when an accident occurred. Some questions included the words
“smashed into”. Others included collided with, bumped into, hit or contacted.
Whilst the question does not ask for findings, conclusions, or criticisms, candidates
may receive credit for procedural detail included in such material.
Anxiety 1a Yerkes – Dodson / 1b the weapon focus effect
Zina witnessed a violent incident. The attacker pulled out a knife and threatened the victim. Zina was
close to the attacker and was very frightened and anxious. Her friend, Amanda, was further away
and less anxious. The police took witness statements from both Zina and Amanda. Their statements
were very different. Using your knowledge of research into the effects of anxiety on eye-witness
testimony, explain why Zina’s and Amanda’s statements are different.

Deffenbacher put forward the Yerkes-Dodson effect which suggests that when anxiety is

moderate, then EWT is enhanced; however when anxiety is very high then accuracy is re-
duced.

The Yerkes-Dodson effect could explain why Zina and Amanda's statements are different.
As Zina was closer to the attacker and more anxious it would be reasonable to assume that
her statement would be less accurate; however, as Amanda’s was less anxious, this mild
level of anxiety may have improved the accuracy of her eyewitness account. This would ex-
plain why their statements were different. 
The Cognitive Interview
Q1 Psychologists have carried out research into the use of cognitive interviews. One
possible ethical issue which might arise during this research is protection of
participants from harm. Explain how psychologists could deal with this ethical issue.
3 marks
Right to withdraw Participants should be reminded of their right to withdraw from the
research If participants are showing signs of distress, the psychologist should remind the
participants of their right to withdraw
Q2) Traditionally, police have questioned eyewitnesses using the standard
interview procedure. This involves a period of free recall about an event,
followed by specific questions. However, an increasing number of police forces
are now using the cognitive interview technique.

Explain how a cognitive interview differs from a standard interview. 4 marks

Differences could include effectiveness of cognitive interviews and implications such

as cost of training required, time it takes, etc.

The main techniques used in a cognitive interview include context reinstatement (CR),
reporting everything (RE), recall from a changed perspective (CP) recall in reverse
order.
Candidates who show some understanding of a cognitive interview, e.g. by naming /
outlining one or more of the techniques above, but make no attempt to explain a

difference should be awarded a maximum of 2 marks. Further marks for elaboration,

eg a standard interview might just ask witnesses to recall an event, but a cognitive
interview could ask them to recall the context in which the event occurred. This could
include environmental details (such as the weather) and emotional factors (such as
how they felt at the time).