CE 364 SOIL MECHANICS 2

Lecture 1: Introduction & Mohr Circles

CE 364
 Monday 13.30-14:20
 Instructor:

Prof. Dr. S. Oğuzhan AKBAŞ

Room No: 214
soakbas@gazi.edu.tr / soakbas@gmail.com

 Teaching Assistant:
Araş. Gör. Kaan Yünkül
CE 364 – Course Content
 Shear strength of soils
 Slope stability
 Bearing capacity and design of shallow foundations
 Lateral earth pressures & introduction to retaining structures
CE 364 – References
 Main recommended reference:
 Coduto DP, Yeung MR & Kitch WA, (2011), Geotechnical
Engineering: Principles and Practices, 2nd Ed., Pearson.

 Others:
 Das BM & Sobhan K, (2014), Principles of Geotechnical Engineering,
8th Ed., CENGAGE Learning.
 Knappet JA & Craig RF, (2012), Craig’s Soil Mechanics, 8th Ed.,
Spon Pres.
CE 364 – Evaluation
 Two midterms and/or homeworks (%60)
 Final exam (%40)
 Attendance is strongly recommended.
 Homeworks are an important part of learning process.
 No tolerance for cheating! Will be punished to the highest
possible extent.
Strength of Soils
 Strength: The maximum stress a material can sustain.
 Stress:
 Tensile
 Compressive

 Shear

 The tensile strength of soils is negligible.

 In almost all geotechnical problems, the geometry is
such that the soil is under compression.
Soil Strength Analyses
 Soil failure occurs under shear stresses, not under compressive stresses.
 Therefore, almost all geotechnical strength analyses focus on shear stresses.
Shear Failure
 In general, the shear strength of engineering materials (such as
steel) is controlled by their molecular structure.
 However, the physical mechanisms that control the shear
strength of soils are much different.
Shear Failure
 As we have
learned
previously, soil is
composed of
particles with
different sizes.
 In addition it is a
three-phase
system (solid,
liquid, gas).
Shear Failure
 Shear stresses are resisted not only by the internal strength of
particles but also by the interaction between them.
 Particle interaction:
 Rearrangement (sliding and rolling)
 (Less important) mineral crushing
Shear Failure
 Water and air has no shear resistance.
 But, they indirectly change the shear resistance because they
influence the particle interaction.
 The shear failure in the field usually occurs confined at a
narrow zone (failure zone/plane).
 Shear failure occurs when the shear stresses break the particle
rearrengement resistance in this zone.
Shear Strength
 Generally can be divided into two categories:
 Frictional strength
 Cohesive strength
 Frictional strength
 Remember the classical frictional plane problem you have learned in
high school:
Frictional Strength
 In geotechnical analysis we will use effective stress friction
angle instead of friction coefficient:
’ = tan-1
 Friction-based shear strength (in terms of stresses):

 = ’tan’ = (-u)tan’
Frictional Strength
 Please note that we use effective stresses in the equation
below:
 = ’tan’ = (-u)tan’

 Can you see the effect of pore water pressure?

Frictional Strength
 Effective stress friction angle varies both according to the
properties of particle surfaces & geometry, and how the
particles are «packed».
 Main factors:
 Void ratio and relative density
 Mineral structure
 Particle shape
 Gradation
 Existence of organic material
 Water ???
Homework
 A geotechnical engineer is working on the stability of the slope shown
below. The potential failure surface is shown. For the soil ’=30o, and the
cohesion is zero. Determine the shear strength at point A, when the
groundwater table is at B and C levels. The dry and saturated unit weights
of soil are 18 and 19 kN/m3, respectively.
Cohesion
 Some soils have shear strength even when the effective stresses
are zero.
 This strength is called cohesion (or cohesive strength) and is
denoted by c’.
 If the soil has both frictional and cohesive strength:

 = c’ + ’tan’ = c’ + (-u)tan’
Cohesion
 Real cohesion:
 Cementation (calcium carbonate CaCO3 or iron oxide Fe2O3)
 Electrostatic attraction forces (very small)
 Valance bonds (adhesion) – overconsolidated clays

 Apparent cohesion:
 Negative pore water pressures
 Mechanical forces such as compaction

 «Cohesive soil»
Definition of Failure
 For soils, unlike many other engineering materials, stress-strain
relationship is nonlinear and plastic even at small strains.
 Therefore, definition of failure can be problematic.
 Curves can be classified as ductile or brittle:
Definition of Failure
 Sands and gravels have shear stress-strain curves that are either ductile or
mildly brittle.
 However, some clays have very brittle curves, so the distinction between
peak and residual strengths becomes very important.
 Curves are also effected from intermediate principal stress, rate of strain,
strain constraints etc.
 Thus, we try to use test conditions that simulate field conditions or by using
standardized test conditions and calibrating the results with observed
behavior in the field.
The Drained and Undrained Conditions

 Excess pore water pressures generated from loading will

impact the effective stress, and thus the shear strength of soil.
 So, the generation and dissipation of these excess pore water
pressures are important considerations in shear strength
evaluations.
 Geotechnical engineers often evaluate shear strengths by
considering two limiting conditions:
 Drained
 Undrained
Volume Change During Loading
 When soils are loaded (or unloaded) there is always volume
change:
 Contraction (compression)
 Dilation (expansion)
 These changes can ocur under hydrostatic (all-around) or
deviator stress.
 Shear stresses are induced under increased deviator stresses.
Volume Change During Loading
 The magnitude and sign of volumetric change due to deviator
stress increase depends on both the density of the soil and the
magnitude of the mean normal stress.
Volume Change During Loading
 If the soil is saturated, volume change tendencies will drive
some of the pore water into or out of the voids.
The Drained Condition
 Limiting condition under which there is no excess pore water
pressure in the soil.
 The pore water pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pore water
pressure in the soil and thus can easily be computed (so that
the effective stress also).
 If the soil is saturated, its hydraulic conductivity is sufficiently
high, and the rate of loading is sufficiently low, then the water
can easily flow into or out of the voids. Any excess pore water
pressure will be quickly dissipated.
 Sands and graveşs under static loading are usually under
drained condition. Clays will be under drained conditions if a
long time has elapsed after the end of the loading.
 Drained strength, drained loading…
The Undrained Condition
 Occurs if the soil is saturated, has a low hydraulic conductivity,
and/or the loading is very rapid.
 In this case, the rate of loading, and thus the rate of voids
volume change is high relative to the rate of drainage. So,
there is not enough time for the necessary volume of pore
water to flow into or out of the voids.
 The limiting condition, under which virtually no pore water
movement takes place and excess pore water pressures are
generated is called the undrained condition.
The Undrained Condition
 Undrained shear strength, undrained loading…
 If the mean normal stress increases or if the deviator stress
causes the soil skeleton to contract during shear, then the excess
pore water pressure will be positive because the soil wants to
push water out of the pores to contract.
 Conversely, if the mean normal stress decreases or if the
deviator stress causes the soil skeleton to dilate during shear,
then the excess pore water pressure will be negative because
the soil wants to draw water into the pores to dilate.
 In either case, the excess pore water generation can have a
significant impact on the effective stress and thus on shear
strength.
The Undrained Condition
 The hydraulic conductivity of clays is much smaller than that of
sands, so even typical rates of loading are very high relative
to the rate of drainage.
 Thus, saturated clays are most often assumed to be under
undrained conditions during the loading or construction period
in the short term and their shear strength must be analyzed
accordingly.
 However, a long time after the end of construction, all the
excess pore water pressures will have dissipated, and the
condition in clay reaches the drained condition.
 Therefore, for clays, the condition for shear strength evaluation
changes from the undrained condition in the short term to the
drained condition in the long term.
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 The most commonly used failure criterion for soils:
 = c’ + ’tan’ = c’ + (-u)tan’
or
 = c + tan
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Consider a series of laboratory strength tests each at a
different value of ’:
Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb Example
 Compute the shear strength on horizontal and vertical planes
at points A, B and C.
 Assume drained conditions.
Mohr-Coulomb Example
 Draw the shear strength envelope for the ML stratum, then plot
the upper half of the Mohr circle for Point A on this diagram.
Assume the principal stresses act horizontally and vertically.
Mohr-Coulomb Example
 Draw the shear strength envelope for the ML stratum, then plot
the upper half of the Mohr circle for Point A on this diagram.
Assume the principal stresses act horizontally and vertically.
Mohr-Coulomb Example
Mohr-Coulomb Homework
 The effective stress at a point in soil is 120 kPa. The effective
cohesion and the effective stress friction anglefor this soil are
given as 10 kPa and 31o, respectively. A foundation that is
going to be constructed is designed to exert a shear stress of
50 kPa on this point. Find the factor of safety against shear
failure for this point.
Total Stress Analysis
 Analyses based on effective stresses are possible only if the
effective stresses can be predicted in the field.
 This is a simple matter under drained conditions, but can
become very complex under the undrained condition when
there are excess pore water pressures.
 Because of these difficulties, geotechnical engineers sometimes
evaluate problems based on total stresses:
 = cT + tanT
 «Total Stress Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion»
Total Stress Analysis
 Total stress analysis method assumes the excess pore water
pressures developed in the laboratory test are the same as
those in the field, and thus are implicitly incorporated into
shear strength parameters.
 This assumption introduces some error into the analysis, but it
becomes an unfortunate necessity when we cannot predict the
magnitudes of excess pore water pressures in the field.
 It also demands the lab tests to be conducted in a way that
simulates the field conditions as closely as possible.
 The shear strength of a soil really depends on effective
stresses, however there are many times when we must use total
stress analyses because we have no other practical alternative.
Shear Strength of Saturated Sands and Gravels

 Under typical static loading conditions, little or no excess pore

water pressures are generated in clean sands and gravels
because their hydraulic conductivities are high.
 Therefore, the pore water pressure is equal to the hydrostatic
pore water pressure and shear strength analyses are based on
drained conditions and effective stresses.
 Only under dynamic loads such as during an earthquake a
sand may not drain quickly enough to dissipate all excess
pore water pressures.
 If no cementaion or clay are present, c’ = 0.
 ’ can be determined by field or laboratory tests.
Shear Strength of Saturated Sands and Gravels
Shear Strength of Saturated Sands and Gravels

 What should we use for

effective stress?
 What if there is
unloading?
Liquefaction

 The loading during earthquakes is sometimes so rapid that

even cohesionless soils cannot drain quickly enough and the
undrained condition applies.
 This is especially problematic in loose, saturated sands becasue
they tend to compress when loaded, which would normally
force some water out of the voids.
 However, due to quick loading, the water cannot eaisly drain
away and positive excess pore water pressures develop.
 As these pressures build up, both the effective stress and the
strength decrease (sometimes drop to zero!), and soil behaves
as a dense liquid.
Liquefaction
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays

The evaluation of the shear strength of a clay is more difficult

than that of a sand or gravel because:
 Clay particles undergo more significant changes and therefore
cause greater volume change during loading.
 The low hydraulic conductivity impedes the flow of water into

and out of the voids, so the undrained condition applies in the

short term and significant excess pore water pressures often
develop in the soil.
 In the long term, water does flow into or out of the soil,

allowing the excess pore water pressures generated during

loading to dissipate virtually completely, and the drained
condition applies.
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays – Drained
Condition

 Loading is very slow with respect to drainage or long time

after loading when all excess pore water pressures have
dissipated:
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays – Drained
Condition
Example

 The natural earth slope shown below has been in its present
configuration for a very long time. A slope stability analysis is
to be performed on the potential failure surface shown in the
figure. What shear strength should be used in the analysis?
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays - +ue

 The rate of construction for most projects is

high relative to the rate of drainage in
saturated clays, so the undrained condition
prevails during and immediately after
construction.
 If the new construction causes an increase in
the mean normal stress, then the excess
pore water pressures will be positive.
 The lowest FS occurs immediately after
construction.
 We need to evaluate end-of-construction
or short-term) shear strength.
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays - +ue

 Unfortunately, it is difficult to predict the

magnitudes of excess pore pressures, so
total stress analysis is used:  = cT + tanT
 If the soil is fully saturated, then T=0
becasuse applied loads are carried
entirely by pore water and do not change
effective stress.
 This is called T=0 analysis.
  = su
 «undrained shear strength»
Undrained Shear Strength – Typical Values
Shear Strength of Saturated Clays - -ue

 When the construction causes the mean normal

stress in saturated clays to decrease, negative
excess pore water pressures develop. The most
common example is an excavation.
 This negative excess pore pressure gradually
dissipates, but it causes a corresponding loss in
shear strength with time.
 FS decreases with time, which means the most
likely time for a failure is long after construction.
 So an effective stress analysis should be
conducted with hydrostatic pore water pressures
and postconstruction effective stresses.
EXAMPLE

 A cut slope is to be made in a clayey soil to permit construction of a new

highway. A slope stability analysis is to be performed along the potential
shear surface shown in the figüre. The soils are silty clays with c’ = 18 kPa,
’ = 20o and su = 100 kPa. If the shear stress at Point A is 60 kPa, compute
the short term and long-term factors of safety at this point.
SENSITIVITY

 Sensitivity means the strength of a clay in a remolded or highly

disturbed condition is less than that in an undisturbed condition.
 St = undisturbed / remolded
SENSITIVE CLAYS
RESIDUAL STRENGTH

 Most NC clays are slightly ductile, and thus have residual strength that are
slightly less than the peak strength.
 This strain softening is largely due to particle reorientation and a
breakdown of the soil fabric.
 In sensitive clays, the residual strength can be much less than the peak.
 OC clays nearly always have a brittle stress-strain curve. (Remember:
Increase in void ratio during shear and resulting increase in water content!)
RESIDUAL STRENGTH
EVALUATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH
Direct Shear Test

 Collin (1846)
 ASTM D3080
 Cylindirical soil specimen of 60-75
mm in diameter under varying
vertical load P, subjected to shear
force V until failure.
 V is applied slowly enough to
maintain drained conditions.
 Failure occurs in few minutes for
sandds, few hours for clays.
Direct Shear Test

 Typical results:
Direct Shear Test

 Results:
Direct Shear Test

 Simple and inexpensive

 Especially useful for obtaining the drained strength of sandy soils.
 Can also be used with clays, but produces less reliable results, because;
 No way of controlling the drainage conditions other than varying the speed of the test
 It is very difficult to fully saturate the specimen
 It also has the disadvantage of forcing the shearing to ocur along a specific
plane, instead of allowing the soil to fail through the weakest zone.
 Another disadvantage is that it produces non-uniform strains in the
specimen, which can produce erroneous results in strain-softening soils.
Direct Shear Test

 Direct shear test results conducted on a saturated sand specimen compacted

to its field relative density are shown below:

Normal Stress (kPa) 50 100 200 300

Shear stress at failure 36 80 154 235

(kPa)

 Calculate the drained shear strength parameters (c’ = 0)

 Will failure occur on a plane in this sand where the shear stress is 122 kPa,
and the effective normal stress is 246 kPa?
Direct Shear Test

o
’ = 38