[+ . ‘When a gas is heated, its molecules gain extra kinetic energy and move about at greater speeds. We detect this change as a rise in temperature of the gas, The increase i GAS LAWS ‘energy of gas molecules may cause both the volume _and the pressure of the gas to increase. : ‘When dealing with a fixed mass of gas, there are always three (3) factors to consider: pressure, volume and temperature. A change in one of these factors always produces a change in at least one of the others, often all three changes at once. This happens, for example, when a balloon rises through the atmosphere. ‘THE PARTICLE THEORY OF MATTER What is matter? Matter is defined as anything that has miass and occupies space. Phases of Matter Y Matter can exist asa solid, liquid, gas Y The properties of solids, liquids, gases can be explained by the kinetic theory of matter. Y The Kinetic Theory of Matter is a prediction of how matter should behave, based on certain assumptions, ‘and approximations. Assumption 1 Y All matter is made of many small discrete particles (atoms, ions, & molecules) © Insolids, the partictes are closely packed in an orderly manner, © In liquids, the particles are not as closely packed as solids and are arranged in a disorderly © In gases, the particles are distributed very far apart in a random manner. Assumption 2 The particles are always in constant random motion, ‘© Insolids, the partictes vibrate about their fixed positions. © Inliquids, the particles move about sliding and rolling past one other in random motion. © Ingases, the particles move about freely at high speeds and in random motion. ———>.-- Properties Solid Liquid Gas Shape © Fined ‘Takes the shape of the ‘Takes the shape ofthe container container Diagram showing the faa oe & arrangement of particles = \o e Forees of attraction between | © Very strong © Seong @. ery axek particles (intermolecular forces) e © Vibrate about | © Rollandslide past | © Moveabout Motloniof parties their fixed each other freely at high ; positions (© Random motion speeds © Random motion © Low (© Moderate © High Energy contentPHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOLID, LIQUID AND GASEOUS STATES. “Takes the shape of the container ‘Same as the ‘volume of the container Density i Moderate Low Compressibility Cannot te compresses ‘THE KINETIC THEORY Remember!!! Temperature is the measure of the average kinetic energy of an object. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. Y The motion of molecules produces heat. ¥ The more motion, the more heat is generated. Explain gas pressure, temperature and volume in terms of the behaviour of gas molecules. Y The molecules of a gas are always in random motion. They do not remain still but move around in ai directions. Y They will keep moving in a straight line until they collide with another molecule or the walls of t container. How is gas pressure produced? Imagine a molecule of mass, m, approaching one wall with velocity, v ¥ Sts momentum = my m Y It rebounds with velocity (-v) because it experiences an elastic Ov collision. Ve—O ¥ Its momentum now is—mv in ¥ So the change of momentum = -2mv ‘When collisions occur, what happens to the container? Y- Every time a collision occurs, there is a change in momentum of the gas molecule. Y As we know, force is the rate of change of momentum; therefore a force acts on the walls ‘container. YY Pressure is defines as force per unit area. Y Therefore the pressure of a gas is due to the foree of the collisions of the gas molecules with the of the container.‘What happens when a gas is heated? Y Atroom temperature, gas molecules are fast moving, ¥ When the gas is heated, the heat energy received is converted into This causes the molecules to move faster. Y The average kinetic energy of the gas particles depends only on the temperature of the gas. The higher the temperature, the higher the average speed of the gas molecules. Y The gas molecules will therefore collide with the walls of the container more often. Y For a constant volume of a fixed mass of gas, when its temperature increase, its pressure will also increase as the gas molecules move faster and collide with the walls more often. ‘When the piston is pressed down, what happens to the volume of the gas? etic energy of the molecules. When the piston is pressed down, the volume of the container decreases and so the volume of the ‘gas also decreases. Y When the volume of a gas decreases, the gas molecules travel a shorter distance before colliding with the walls of the container. ¥ This means they will collide with the walls of the container more frequently. ‘What happens to the pressure of the gas? ¥ Since the frequency of collisions between the gas molecules and the walls of the container increases, the pressure of the gas inereases. ‘The Kinetic Theory Applied to Gases The kinetic theory offers satisfactory explanation for the behaviour of gases. The important assumptions of this theory as it applies to gases are: ¥ Gases are made up of very small particles (molecules) which are very far part and which occupy very little volume compared to the bulk of the gas ~ that is, most of the given volume of gas is empty space. The particles are constant in volume; Y The particles of a gas are in rapid, random motion, colliding with each other and with the sides of the container. The pressure exerted by the gas results from the collisions of the particles with the sides of the container; Y Collisions of the particles are perfectly elastic- that is no kinetic energy is lost o» collision; Y There is very little attraction between the particles of the gas; 28The average kinetic energy ofthe particles is proportional tothe absolute temperature: ¥ Asthe temperature increases the particles move faster. From the above you can see ¥ The volume ofa gs is sensitive to changes in pressure and temperature; ¥ As temperature is increased, at constant volume, the particles hit the sides ofthe contziner ‘more often: pressure, therefore, increases. _nvunon.__ The molecules move freely in random motion and fill up the whole space in the a Cyoly ma ey container. The volume of the gas is equal to the volume of the container. harder and Caos Ec eee aes ee incon random motion and have average kinetic LENPERATS EE energy which is proportional to the temperature. CPressu SEoy The molecules are in continuous random motion, When the molecules eolides SERRE” with the walls of the container and bounces back, there is @ change in momentum and a force is exerted on the wall. The force per unit area is the pressure of the gas. REVISION Pressure Pressure is defined as the force the gas exerts on a given area of the container in which itis contained. ¥ The SI unit for pressure is the Pascal, Pa. Volume Volume is the three-dimensional space inside the container holding the gas. Y The SI unit for volume is the cubic meter, m?. Amount of Substance ¥ The SI unit for amount of substance is the mole (mol). ¥ Since we can't count molecules, we can convert measured mass (in kg) to the number of moles, n using the molecular or formula weight of the gas. ¥ By definition, one mole of a substance contains approximately 6.022 x 10% particles of the substanc: ‘You can understand why we use mass and molest ‘Property and Symbol ‘SIUnit ‘Symbol for SI Uni ‘Other Units Pressure, P Pascal Pa Bar, mmBg Volume, V Cabie metre a mum em (Temperature, T Kelvin e CF . By ‘squeezing’ and heating gases, we can readily conclude that pressure, temperature and volume of aii ‘gases are significantly inter-related. Experimental investigation of the relationships, which are involved ‘would need to be systematically conducted iff one is to be able to deduce them from results which may be obtained. Since there are three variables (or parameter) P, V and T to find the laws linking the pressure, volum* ‘and temperature of @ gas experimentally, each factor must be kept constant in tum while the lin! between the other two is investigated. Boyle, Charles and Gay-Lussac are credited with having investigated the relationship between: Pressure and Volume (temperature, constant)Y ‘Temperature and Volume ( Pressure, constant) and. Pressure and Temperature (volume, constant respectively RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND VOLUME From Kinetic Theory ‘When the volume of a gas is decreased; the number of molecules/particles per unit volume increases, that is, the same number of molecules/particles will move in a smaller space. The molecules/particles collides more frequently with the walls of the container. This inerease in the rate of collision results in an increase in the pressure exerted by the gas. BOYLE’S LAW The relationship of a gas with pressure and volume was developed by the scientist Robert Boyle at around 1660 and is known as Boyle's Law. Boyle’s Law states that: Y Fora fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is inversely proportional ‘o its volume when the temperature is kept constant OR Y For a fixed mass of gas, at a constant temperature, the product (pressure x volume) is 2 constant. Pov PY= constant Pressure x Volume = constant px V = constant The pressure of a gas with constant mass is inversely proportional to its volume provided th temperature of the gas is kept constant. P= Pressure of the gas V = Volume of the gas ‘Temperature must be constant 30rreauragvene | XC o> x The above set up is used to investigate the relationship between pressure and volume for a gas. A force exerted on the piston to compress the gas. The coresponding pressure and volume values are recorded different applied forces. Pressure ph | Volume) | Pav, al cI = 2. ¥ 16 375 601 i 26. 30) 60. 28. 2a 0. Volum (v) is iaverzaly proportional pressure (p) Walp oF Vmconstanup, therefore, pV constant From this we can get By plotting the recorded values of pressure (p) against volume (V) a curve is produced, We can see from values that when the pressure is doubled the volume is halved. If the pressure was to increase by 3 the vol would decrease to a third. Thus, the volume is inversely proportional to the pressure. By plotting pressure against the reciprocal of the volume (1/V) a straight line is obtained the gradient of which is the constant Boyle's Law.+ Volume decreases + Increased gas particles per unit volume + More collisions on the cylinder ws + Increased force per area + Greater pressure Pressure vege, ‘A decrease in volume increases the number of gas particles per unit volume. This results in an inerease in the number of gas particles close to the cylinder walls and therefore an increase in the number of collisions with the wall. As the number of collisions per unit area increases so does the force per unit area thereby giving an increase in pressure. 100% BOYLE’S LAW EXAMPLE Using the example of the sealed cylinder above, the volume of gas at the start is 50 cm? with a pressure of 1.2.x 10° Pascals. The piston is pushed slowly into the syringe until the pressure on the gauge reads 2.0 x 10° Pascals, What is the volume of gas? Solution: We know px V = constant therefore, pix Vi=p2x V2 pr= 1.2 x 10° Pascals Vi = 50 om? p2= 2.0.x 10° Pascals V2=? pix Vim px V2 vi Vow BRYA Pa 1.2x10°x 50 Vi= ZOx10” = 300m? Question 2 'A bubble of air is formed at the base of a lake. At that moment its volume is 30 em’ and it experiences pressure of 190cmllg. What is the volume of the bubble when it reaches the surface of the lake? Tak 6 cmHig, atmospheric pressureQuestion 3 A weather balloon is filled with helium gas to a volume of 30 litres of 1.0 atm pressure. The balloon is then released. As the balloon rises up to the sky, its volume increases. What is the pressure of the helium gas when the volume of the balloon increases to 120 litres? ‘ Question 4 ‘A small mass of gas is trapped by 3cm length of mercury in a small tube as shown in the diagram below. The tube is then tured around so that it is upright. What is the new length of the trapped gas? (atmospheric pressure = 75 cm Hg) Ni Question 5 A deep-sea diver is working at a depth where the pressure is 3.0 atmospheres. He is breathing out air bubbl: ‘The volume of each bubble is 2 cm’, At the surface the pressure is 1.0 atmosphere. What is the volume cach bubble when it reaches the surface?eS < Question 12 ‘A sample of carbon dioxide gas occupies a volume of 125 cm’ and exerts a pressure of 7.2 kPa. If this mass of gas were transferred to» 750 cm’ flask, what pressure would the gas exert at the same temperature? Determine the relationship between volume and temperature for a fixed mass of gas Kinetic Theory For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the frequency of collisions between the gas molecules and the walls of the container is constant. ‘As the gas is heated, the temperature of the gas is increased. The molecules move faster as their kinetic ‘energy increase. They collide with the walls of the container more frequently and at greater speed. So they exert a larger pressure on the walls of the containers. ‘The molecules push the piston so that the gas expands. ‘The faster molecules now move in larger space. The frequency of collisions with the walls will not increase but remain as before. “The pressure of the gas remains constant and the volume of the gas increases with temperature. The volume of a gas decreases when its. tomperature Ie RRO°G, the gas has certain volume. When the araph sxtrapolated Backwards, Itcute the hortzontal axia at the temperature of — 273 cer At te teraperature, the Volume of the one becomes zeroo‘What is absolute zero of temperature? The lowest possible temperature that is -273°C (0 Kelvin OK) is known as the absolute zero of temperature, ¥ The gas particles theoretically stop moving and have zero volume. ¥ The temperature measured in Kelvin scale i called the absolute temperature, Temperature Celsius scale Kelvin scale ‘Unknown temperature *C to K occ (@+273)K Unknown tempera to (= 273)°C XK ee - 273°C oK i mais orc 273K pomp 100°C 373 K ‘Temperatures measured in the Kelvin, K scale. Convert °C to Kelvin: @ +273 Convert Kelvin to °C: T-273 The graph of volume against temperature (in the Kelvin scale) isa straight line passing through the origi if the pressure and mass of the gas are kept constant. | vem | a i Tx CHARLES’ LAW ‘The relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas was first put forward by the French sc! Jacques-Alexandre-César Charles at around 1787 and is known as Charles’ Law. Charles Law states that ¥ Fora fixed mass of gas the volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature (Kelvin), its pressure is kept constant. OR Y Fora fixed mass of gas, at a constant pressure, the volume (V) is directly proportio temperature (1). 0 the abet ‘Volume a Temperature Volume __ Temperature = constant Notes: The temperature must be the absolute temperature (Kelvin Seale)Piston Cylinder Gas molecules A sealed cylinder with no leaks contains a fixed mass. In order to keep the gas pressure constant the piston i allowed to move freely so that the internal pressure created by the gas particles can equal the constant externa Pressure. If the internal pressure increases the piston will move up to allow the pressure to equalise. wr 20 28 25 a7 ‘50 - 254 75 273 300 Thermometer ‘The above set up is used to investigate the relationship between temperature and volume for a gas. H energy is applied to the cylinder and the temperature of the gas increases. The average velocity of the ¢: particles increases resulting in an increase in the rate of collisions and the average force per collision, Thi produces an increase in pressure inside the cylinder, the cylinder pressure becomes greater than the externa! pressure and the piston moves up increasing the volume. Vane ; wo 20 Oo] 21g [2s | 237 | 50 asa [75 | 273 | 100 P3 vamepraararnc & By plotting the recorded values of volume (V) against temperature (T) a straight line is produced. We can s+ from the values that the gas expands uniformly with temperature, We can extrapolate the straight line and s. the relationship between cooling the gas and the volume. Further extrapolation gives the temperature at wh'ci the volume of gas would become zero. This temperature is at -273°C and is called the absolute zero o. temperature, a9[Wrenches] (0073, 218, 0.073 237 (0.073 254 (0073 273 100 [373 0.073 ‘Volume (V) is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (T) or, Veet of V= constant xT therefore, V/T= constant. From this we can get; nh ts ‘where, ‘Vyand'T are the volume and temperature atthe start = Vaan Thare the volume andter Converting the recorded temperatures into the Kelvin scale and plotting the volume (V) against the absolv ‘temperature (T) gives a straight line which when extrapolated passes through the origin. This shows ¢ volume of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas. Doubling the temperatu ‘will double the volume. The gradient of the slope is the constant in Charles’ Law. CHARLES’ LAW EXAMPLE: Question 1 Using the example of the sealed cylinder above, the volume of gas at the start is recorded as 30 cm? with temperature of 30°C. The cylinder is heated further till the thermometer records 60°C. What is the volume ¢ gas? Question 2 ‘The column of air in a capillary tube has length of 100 mm at 27°C. If it is free to expand, what temperate must you warm it to for its length to become 120mm? reattheendDetermine the relationship between pressure and temperature ‘pea pete Kinetic Theory When the temperature of a gas is raised, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases. Y The molecules move faster and collide more frequency with the walls of the container. Y Thus, the pressure of gas increases. When the graph is extrapolated, It Is found that the gas pressure becomes. zeroat = -273 °c The temperature scale Is known ao the absolute temperature. -273 oc=OK 0 TK THE PRESSURE LAW The pressure law states: V Fora fixed mass of gas, the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to its absolute temper: (Kelvin), when the volume is kept constant. Y Fora fixed mass of gas, at a constant volume, the pressure (p) is directly proportional to the abso} temperature (T). Pressure a Temperature Pressure = constant Temperature P= Pressure of the gas T= Temperture ofthe gos Volume must be constant Notes: The temperature must be the absolute temperature (Kelvin Scale)Question 3 Bee ‘A.50 cm’ sample of nitrogen gas was kept constant in a leak-proof syringe at 30°C. What would the volume of the gas be ifthe syringe were placed in a water bath 50°C? Question 4 A cylinder contains 200cm’ of gas at a temperature of 27°C. The gas is heated until its temperature increase: to 30°C. If the piston of the cylinder expands under constant pressure, what is the final volume of the gas? Question 5 ‘The volume of a fixed mass of gas is 150cm’ at 37°C. If the gas is heated at constant pressure, calculate ib. volume of the gas when the temperature reaches 77°C. Question 6 ‘The diagram shows a glass tube containing some trapped air inside it. At 17°C, the vertical column of trap; air is 29 em. What is the vertical column of trapped air at a temperature of S7°C? Mercuy—Hl's em F fH 29 em at 17% jcPRESSURE LAW EXAMPLE: Question 1 Using the example of the sealed cylinder above the pressure of gas is recorded as 1.0 x 10° N/m? at temperature of O°C. The cylinder is heated further till the thermometer records 150°C. What isthe pressure of the gas? Question 2 ‘The pressure of nitrogen gas in a light bulb is 60 kPa at 20°C. Calculate the temperature of the gas when th pressure inside the bulb rises to 90kPa after the bulb is lit up. Question 3 ‘An iron cylinder containing gas has a pressure of 360 kPa when it is kept in a store at 27°C. Calculate the pressure of the gas when the cylinder is moved outdoors where the temperature is 50°C. Question 4 A sealed container contains a gas at a pressure of 4 atmospheres and at a temperature of 27°C. Find the pressure of the gas in the container if the temperature is raised to 102°C,Sealed tinder A sealed cylinder with no leaks contains a fixed mass. The volume of the gas is kept constant by using @ cylinder with a fixed roof capable of withstanding high pressures. The gas pressure is ercated by the collision of the moving gas particles with each other and against the walls of the cylinder. Presaureip) scien | “hs ¥0 o 273 7 25 298 7 30 323 Me 13, 75 348. 1a 100 373 “Thermometer Pressure guage The following set up is used to investigate the relationship between temperature and pressure for a gas. Hest energy is applied to the cylinder and the temperature of the gas increases. The average velocity of the gas 3. Because particles increases resulting in an increase in the rate of collisions and the average force per coll the areas of the walls are kept constant, the force per unit area increases resulting in an increase in pressure. (oso? [mare im 3 mm e z ra iz = a is 7 mer 1 ro Sareataren o. pet ox po onstantxt | aude, Sorts tonsa Tom the canore ee ands are the pveasurs ond temperature at the start puntyiteemadd Wm ates Plotiing the pressure (p) against the absolute temperature (I) gives a straight line which when extrapolated passes through the origin. This shows the pressure of the gas is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas. Doubling the temperature will double the volume. The gradient of the slope is th constant in Charles’ Law. It also shows that if the gas is cooled to absolute zero then the energy of t molecules is at the lowest energy state and therefore cannot generate any pressure.Question 4 oD ‘A motorcycle tire is found to possess a pressure of 3.2 atmospheres when it was tested in a garage at a temperature of 27°C. By assuming that the volume of the air in the tire is fixed, what is the surrounding temperature if the tire is found to possess a pressure of 2.8 atmosphere? FORMULA OF UNIVERSAL GAS LAW The three gas laws give the following equations: v J constant when pis kept constant Charles’ Law i B—comstant (when Vs hep constant). Pressure Law. ‘These 3 equations are combined to give the ideal gas equation: pv = constant T ‘V = the volume the gas occupies the gas temperature on the Kelvin scale From this equation we know that if a fix mass of gas has starting values of pi, V1 and 7, and then some time later has value pa, V2 and T, the equation can be written as: P= Pressure af the gas ‘T= Temperature of the gas V = Volume of the gas* Rule for using this formula: a) The mass of gas must be constant b) The temperature Tyand Tz must be given in Kelvin ©) The units in which p and V are calculated must be the same on both sides of the equation (but any ‘convenient units such as mm of mercury and cm? may be used). ‘Worked example Sarah pumps up her front bicycle tyre to 1.7 x 105 Pa. The volume of air in the tyre at this pressure is 300 em®, She takes her bike for a long ride during which the temperature of the air in the tyre increases from 20°C to 30°C. Calculate the new front tyre pressure assuming the tyre had no leaks and so the volume remained constant? Solutioy pr=1.7x 10° Pa Using: piv: V2 Th hh Rearranging for P2 piViTa p= vali We know Vi = V3, therefore the equation can be simplified to: pits p= Tr 1.7.x 10° x 303 p= 2B p2= 1.76 x 10°Pa