CHAPTER II: Related Literature and Studies
Related Literature
is composed of discussions of facts and principles to which the
present study is related. The materials are usually printed and
found in books, encyclopedias, professional journals, magazines,
newspapers, and other publications.
Related Studies
Studies, inquiries, or investigations already conducted to which
the present proposed study is relate or has some bearing or
similarity. They are usually unpublished materials such as
manuscripts, theses, and dissertations.
Ways to Organize Your Literature Review
o Chronological of Events
o Problem-cause-solution order
o Thematic
o Methodological
o Broad-to-specific
o Known to unknown order.
Conceptual Framework - A diagram representing the
relationship of concepts/ variables.
Theoretical Framework - Defines the key concepts in your
research, proposes relations between them, and discusses relevant
theories based on a literature review. You explain the theories that
support your research, showing that your work is grounded in
established ideas.
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY
Research Design
is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical
data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:
• Your overall research objectives and approach
• Whether you’ll rely on primary research or secondary
research
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects.
• Your data collection methods and the procedures you’ll
follow to collect data.
• Your data analysis methods
Non-experimental Research
Embody a group of techniques used to conduct quantitative
research where there is no manipulation done to any variable in
the study.
➢ Descriptive Research - Seeks to describe the status of an
identified variable. These research projects are designed to
provide systematic information about a phenomenon.
Example: A researcher wants to know the effectivity of
Distance Education toward high school students during
COVID-19 pandemic.
➢ Correlational Research - a type of non-experimental
research method in which a researcher measures two
variables, understands and assesses the statistical
relationship between them with no influence from any
extraneous variable.
Example: Average monthly high temperatures have a
relationship with COVID-19-related death rates in different
geographical areas
➢ Causal-comparative Research - In this type of research
investigators attempt to determine the cause or consequences
of differences that already exist between or among groups of
individuals.
Example: Why Covid-19 is different for men and women?
Experimental Research
is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It
includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the
researcher, and variables that can be measured, calculated, and
compared. Most importantly, experimental research is completed
in a controlled environment. The researcher collects data and
results will either support or reject the hypothesis. This method of
research is referred to a hypothesis testing or deductive research
method.
➢ Pre-experimental Research - follows basic experimental
steps but fails to include a control group. In other words, a
single group is often studied but no comparison between an
equivalent non-treatment group is made.
➢ Quasi – Experimental - Is research that resembles
experimental research but is not true experimental research.
Although the independent variable is manipulated,
participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or
orders of conditions.
Example: Different people test each condition, so that each
person is only exposed to a single user interface.
➢ True Experimental - Is regarded as the most accurate form
of experimental research. It includes randomization,
manipulation, and control in its set-up.
Subject of the Study
➢ Participant - is a human who willingly takes part in a
research study.
➢ Respondents - is one who answer/respond to questions
(written/oral) or other stimuli.
Locale of the Study
This discusses the place or setting of the study. It describes in
brief the place where the study is conducted. Only important
features which have the bearing on the present study are included.
➢ Laboratory Studies - designed to be more highly
controlled in relation to both the environment in which
the study is conducted & the control of extraneous &
intervening variables.
➢ Field Studies - Real world or natural setting
Sampling Techniques
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a
predetermined number of observations are taken from a larger
population.
Sample Size
The number of individuals you should include in your sample
depends on various factors, including the size and variability of
the population and your research design.
Probability Sampling
Involves random selection, allowing you to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group.
➢ Simple Random Sampling -
every member of the population
has an equal chance of being
selected. Your sampling frame
should include the whole
population.
➢ Systematic Random Sampling - Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
regular intervals.
➢ Stratified Sampling - involves dividing the population
into subpopulations that may differ in important ways. It
 allows you draw more precise conclusions by ensuring
that every subgroup is properly represented in the
sample.
➢ Cluster Sampling - also involves dividing the
population into subgroups, but each subgroup should
have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead
of sampling individuals from each subgroup, you
randomly select entire subgroups.
Non-probability Sampling
involves non-random selection based on convenience or other
criteria, allowing you to easily collect data.
➢ Convenience Sampling - simply includes the
individuals who happen to be most accessible to the
researcher.
➢ Voluntary Sampling - Instead of the researcher
choosing participants and directly contacting them,
people volunteer themselves.
➢ Purposive Sampling - also known as judgement
sampling, involves the researcher using their expertise
to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of
the research.
➢ Snowball Sampling - If the population is hard to
access, snowball sampling can be used to recruit
participants via other participants.
Sample Size - refers to the number of participants or observations
included in a study. This number is usually represented by n. The
size of a sample influences two statistical properties:
1) the precision of our estimates
2) the power of the study to draw conclusions.
Research Instruments
Are tools used to obtain, measure, and analyze data from subjects
around the research topic.
Questionnaire - is a research instrument consisting of a series of
questions (or other types of prompts) for the purpose of gathering
information from respondents.
➢ Open ended Questionnaire - Questions that allow the target
audience to voice their feelings and notions freely.
➢ Close ended Questionnaire - Questions which have
multiple options as answers and allow respondents to select a
single option from amongst them.
Likert Questions - The degree to which respondents agree to a
specific statement can be ascertained.
Example: How often do you visit the zoo?
1 – Never 3 – Sometimes 5 – Always
2 – Rarely 4 – Often
Dichotomous Questions - Questions that make respondents
answer with a simple "yes/no", Male/ Female or are called
dichotomous questions.
Example: Do you think the number of branches available for our
bank is adequate? Yes or No?
Multiple Choice Questions - contains a set of alternatives or
possible answers that contain one that is the best answer to the
question and several distractors that are plausible but incorrect
answers to the question.
Data Gathering Procedure
Identify your sources of data. If a questionnaire will be
used, explain what kind and how it will be constructed if it is
original, how it is pre-tested, distribution, retrieval, collation, etc.
Thus, your procedures may include Construction of the
questionnaire, Validation, Distribution, Retrieval, Collation,
Presentation of Data, and Interpretation of Data.
Research Ethics - provides guidelines for the responsible
conduct of research. It educates and monitors researchers
conducting research to ensure a high ethical standard.
➢ Fabrication - Making up data or results and recording or
reporting them.
➢ Falsification - Manipulating research materials or changing
or omitting data or results such that the research is not
accurately represented in the research record.
➢ Plagiarism - The appropriation of another person's ideas,
processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit.
o Verbatim (Direct) plagiarism occurs any time you
quote another author's work word-for-word, or close to
it, without citing the original author.
o Hired Plagiarism - involves paying someone else to
write an essay or research paper for you. This also
includes buying essays from internet sites or essay-
writing services.
o Aggregated Plagiarism - When a person copies from
multiple sources and submits or publishes the work as if
it is her own.
o Outline Plagiarism (re-tweet Plagiarism) - using the
same structure with new information is considered
plagiarism.
o Global Plagiarism - Presenting an entire text by
someone else as your own work.
o Paraphrasing Plagiarism - Rephrasing someone else’s
ideas without citation.
o Non – existent Source - make up a non-existent source
or include inaccurate information about a source.
Validity of Instrument - If a method measures what it claims to
measure, and the results closely correspond to real-world values,
then it can be considered valid/ accurate.
Reliability - Refers to how consistently a method measures
something. If the same result can be consistently achieved by
using the same methods under the same circumstances, the
measurement is considered reliable.
Statistical methods allow us to investigate the statistical
relationships between the data and identify possible errors in the
study.