Standard Test Signals

The signals which are most commonly used as test inputs in control
are known as standard test signals.

The standard test signals are:

1. Impulse function
2. Step function
3. Ramp function
4. Parabolic function
1. The impulse function
The impulse function is represented as
r t 

A/

 t

Fig. 1. The impulse function.

Mathematically, impulse function can be denoted as

 A /   / 2  t   / 2
r t    (1)
 0 otherwise

 r t   A (2)
t 

where A is known as strength of impulse function and   0 .

The unit ramp function:
The ramp function whose slop is unity is called unit ramp function. The
unit ramp function is plotted in Fig. 6.
Mathematically, it is represented as
t t0
ur  t    (7)
0 otherwise

r t 

45
t

Fig. 6. The unit ramp function.

2. The step function
The step function is plotted in Fig. 3.
r t 
A

Fig. 3. The step function.

Mathematically, step function can be represented as

A t0
r t    (4)
 0 otherwise
where A is the magnitude of step function.

Significance of step function:

Step function represents a constant excitation (input) for certain
duration of time.
The unit step function:
The step function whose magnitude is unity is termed as unit step
function. The unit step function is plotted in Fig. 4.
Mathematically, it is represented as
1 t0
us  t    (5)
0 otherwise

r t 
1

Fig. 4. The unit step function.

3. The ramp function
The ramp function is presented in Fig. 5.
r t 

Fig. 5. The ramp function.

Mathematically, ramp function can be denoted as

 At t0
r t    (6)
 0 otherwise
where A is the slop of ramp function.

Significance of ramp function:

Ramp function represents a constantly increasing excitation (input).
The unit ramp function:
The ramp function whose slop is unity is called unit ramp function. The
unit ramp function is plotted in Fig. 6.
Mathematically, it is represented as
t t0
ur  t    (7)
0 otherwise

r t 

45
t

Fig. 6. The unit ramp function.

4. Laplace transform of unit parabolic function:
Mathematically, it is represented as
t2
 t0
u p t    2 (16)
 0 otherwise

The Laplace transform of unit parabolic function can be obtained as
  1
L u p  t    u p  t  e dt    t 2 / 2  e  st dt  3
 st
(17)
0 0 s
 TABLE I. Laplace transforms of different unit test functions
Laplace
SN Function Defining expression Plot
transform
 t 

Unit 1 t 0 1

1  t    L   t   1
impulse 0 otherwise t

r t 

1 t0 1
1
2 Unit step us  t    L us  t  
0 otherwise t
s
r t 

t t0 1 1
3 Unit ramp ur  t    L ur  t  
0 otherwise 45
t
s2
r t 
t2
Unit  t0 1
4 u p t    2 1
L u p  t   3
parabolic 0
2
s
 otherwise 1 t
 Transfer Function and Error for Canonical Closed-Loop Control
System

The canonical closed-loop control system with negative feedback is

given in following figure.

R s E s C s

G  s
_

H s

Fig. 9. The closed-loop control.

E s  R s  H sC s (18)

C s  E sG s (19)
From (18) and (19), it is obtained
C  s    R  s   H  s  C  s   G  s   R  s  G  s   H  s  C  s  G  s  (20)
So, closed-loop transfer function obtained from (20) is
C s G s
 (21)
R s 1 G s H s
Now, from (18) and (19), it is also obtained
E s  R s  H s E sG s (22)
From (22), the error in s -domain obtained is
Rs
E s  (23)
1 G s H s
Hence, from (23), error in time domain can be determined as
 R s 
e  t   L  E  s   L 
1 1
 (24)
1  G  s  H  s  
The steady-state error
The error when time approaches infinity is known as steady state
error. Mathematically, steady-state error is denoted as
 sR  s  
ess  limt  e  t   lim s0 sE  s   lim s0   (25)
1  G  s  H  s  
 Static Error Constants

1. Steady-state error for step input

The steady-state error is given as

 sR  s  
ess  limt  e  t   lim s0 sE  s   lim s0   (26)
1  G  s  H  s  
For step input,
A
Rs  (27)
s
From (26) and (27), it is obtained
  A 
 s 
ess  lim s0  s

1  G  s  H  s  
 
 A 
 lim s0   (28)
 1  G     
s H s
A

1  lim s0 G  s  H  s 
which can be written as
A
ess  (29)
1 K p
if
K p  lim s0 G  s  H  s  (30)
where K p is known as position error constant.
2. Steady-state error for ramp input

The steady-state error is given as

 sR  s  
ess  limt  e  t   lim s0 sE  s   lim s0   (31)
1  G     
s H s
For ramp input,
A
Rs  2 (32)
s
From (26) and (27), it is obtained
  A 
 s 2 
ess  lim s0  s

1  G  s  H  s  
 
 A 
 lim s0   (33)
 s  sG     
s H s
A

lim s0 sG  s  H  s 
which can be written as
A
ess  (34)
Kv
if
K v  lim s0 sG  s  H  s  (35)
where K v is known as velocity error constant.
3. Steady-state error for parabolic input

The steady-state error is given as

 sR  s  
ess  limt  e  t   lim s0 sE  s   lim s0   (36)
1  G  s  H  s  
For parabolic input,
A
Rs  3 (37)
s
From (26) and (27), it is obtained
  A 
 s 3 
ess  lim s0  s

1  G  s  H  s  
 
 A 
 lim s0  2 2  (38)
 s  s G     
s H s
A

lim s0 s 2G  s  H  s 
which can be written as
A
ess  (39)
Ka
if
K a  lim s0 s 2G  s  H  s  (40)
where K a is called acceleration error constant.
 TABLE II. Summary of static error constants and respective errors
SN Static error constant Defining expression Error
A
1 Position error constant K p  lim s0 G  s  H  s  ess 
1 K p
A
2 Velocity error constant K v  lim s0 s G  s  H  s  ess 
Kv
2 A
3 Acceleration error constant K a  lim s0 s G  s  H  s  ss
e 
Ka
 Type of the System

The open-loop transfer function G  s  H  s  can be written as

K '  s  z1  s  z2   s  z3 
G s H s  (41)
s  s  p1  s  p2   s  p3 
k

which again can be rewritten as

K 1  sT1z 1  sT2z 1  sT3z 
G s H s  (42)
s 1  sT1
k p
1  sT 1  sT 
2
p
3
p

where k denotes the type of the system.

The transfer function form given in (41) is known as pole-zero form.

However, the form given by (42) is termed as time constant form.
The summary for type of the system is provided in Table III.

TABLE III. Type of the system

SN k Type Remark
1 0 Type zero system There are no open-loop pole at origin
2 1 Type one system There is one open-loop pole at origin
3 2 Type two system There are two open-loop poles at origin
4 3 Type three system There are three open-loop poles at origin
   
n 1 n Type n system There are n open-loop poles at origin
3. Steady-state error for parabolic input

The steady-state error is given as

 sR  s  
ess  limt  e  t   lim s0 sE  s   lim s0   (36)
1  G  s  H  s  
For parabolic input,
A
Rs  3 (37)
s
From (26) and (27), it is obtained
  A 
 s 3 
ess  lim s0  s

1  G  s  H  s  
 
 A 
 lim s0  2 2  (38)
 s  s G     
s H s
A

lim s0 s 2G  s  H  s 
which can be written as
A
ess  (39)
Ka
if
K a  lim s0 s 2G  s  H  s  (40)
where K a is called acceleration error constant.
 TABLE II. Summary of static error constants and respective errors
SN Static error constant Defining expression Error
A
1 Position error constant K p  lim s0 G  s  H  s  ess 
1 K p
A
2 Velocity error constant K v  lim s0 s G  s  H  s  ess 
Kv
2 A
3 Acceleration error constant K a  lim s0 s G  s  H  s  ss
e 
Ka
 Type of the System

The open-loop transfer function G  s  H  s  can be written as

K '  s  z1  s  z2   s  z3 
G s H s  (41)
s  s  p1  s  p2   s  p3 
k

which again can be rewritten as

K 1  sT1z 1  sT2z 1  sT3z 
G s H s  (42)
s 1  sT1
k p
1  sT 1  sT 
2
p
3
p

where k denotes the type of the system.

The transfer function form given in (41) is known as pole-zero form.

However, the form given by (42) is termed as time constant form.
The summary for type of the system is provided in Table III.

TABLE III. Type of the system

SN k Type Remark
1 0 Type zero system There are no open-loop pole at origin
2 1 Type one system There is one open-loop pole at origin
3 2 Type two system There are two open-loop poles at origin
4 3 Type three system There are three open-loop poles at origin
   
n 1 n Type n system There are n open-loop poles at origin
Case 3: Application of parabolic input
A
ess  (60)
Kv
K a  lim s0 s 2G  s  H  s   0 (61)
Hence
A
ess    (62)
0
TABLE V. Application of test inputs to type one system
SN Test input Static error constant Error
1 Step Kp   ess  0
A
2 Ramp K v  K ess 
K
3 Parabolic K a  0 ess  
 Application of Test Inputs to Type Two System

The open-loop transfer function G  s  H  s  for type two system is given

as
K 1  sT1z 1  sT2z 1  sT3z 
G s H s  (63)
s 1  sT1
2 p
1  sT 1  sT 
2
p
3
p

Case 1: Application of step input

A
ess  (64)
1 K p
K p  lim s0 G  s  H  s    (65)
Hence
A
ess  0 (66)
1 
Case 2: Application of ramp input
A
ess  (67)
Kv
K v  lim s0 sG  s  H  s   0 (68)
Hence
A
ess    (69)
0
Case 3: Application of parabolic input
A
ess  (70)
Kv
K a  lim s0 s 2G  s  H  s   K (71)
Hence
A
ess  (72)
K
TABLE VI. Application of test inputs to type two system
SN Test input Static error constant Error
1 Step Kp   ess  0
2 Ramp Kv   ess  0
A
3 Parabolic K a  K ess 
K
TABLE VII. Summary of errors for different test inputs
SN Type Test input Error constant Error
A
Step K p  K ess 
1 K
1 Zero Kv  0 ess  
Ramp
Parabolic K a  0 ess  
Step Kp   ess  0
A
2 One Ramp Kv  K ess 
K
Parabolic K a  0 ess  
Step Kp   ess  0
Ramp Kv   ess  0
3 Two
A
Parabolic K a  K ess 
K
Advantages and Limitations of Static Error Constant Method

Advantages:
1. It provides simple expressions to calculate the steady-state
errors.

2. The steady-state errors for step, ramp and parabolic inputs can
directly be obtained.

3. It can directly be deduced that the system will have zero, finite
or infinite error for specific type of input.

4. The error analysis of canonical control system for step, ramp

and parabolic inputs becomes easy.
Limitations:

1. The method is applicable only to stable systems (i.e. it is must

to check the stability of system before applying this method).

2. It cannot provide the errors for inputs other than three standard
inputs.

3. It does not provide the variation of error with time.

4. The information regarding when the system is settled is not

provided by this method.

5. It is applicable only to canonical control system.

 Analysis of First-Order System

The transfer-function of first-order system can have following forms

Y s 1
 (73)
R  s  1  sT
Y s 1
 (74)
Rs s
Y s 1
 (75)
R  s  1  sT
where T is a constant such that T  0 .

All the transfer functions stated in (73), (74) and (75) have single pole
only.
In case of (73), the pole is located in right-half of s -plane . The pole is
located at origin in case of (74). While the pole is located on left-half of
s -plane .
The pole-zero plots for different first-order transfer functions are given
as

j j j

  
1 1

T T

Y s 1 Y s 1 Y s 1

  
R  s  1  sT Rs s R  s  1  sT

Conclusion: As the value of T decreases, the pole shifts towards  in

first case and shifts towards  in third case.
In another way, it can be said that the pole will deviate from y -axis
( j -axis ) if the value of T decreases.
Representation of first-order system in canonical form:

The first-order system given by

Y s 1
 (76)
R  s  1  sT
can by represented as unity feedback system given in following figure.

R s 1 Y s

sT
_

Figure: The closed-loop system.

The first-order system given by
Y s 1
 (77)
Rs s
can by represented as unity feedback system given in following figure.

R s 1 Y s
s 1
_

Figure: The closed-loop system.

The first-order system given by
Y s 1
 (78)
R  s  1  sT
can by represented as unity feedback system given in following figure.

R s 1 Y s
sT
_

Figure: The closed-loop system.

 Step response of first-order system

1. The step-response of the system having pole in right half of

s - plane :

The first-order system having pole in right-half of s -plane is given as

Y s 1
 (79)
R  s  1  sT
For unit step response
1
Rs  (80)
s
Hence,
1 1 
Y s    (81)
s  1  sT 
1  T  1  1 
Y s        (82)
s  1  sT  s  s  1/ T  
So,
 t
y t   1  e T
(83)
 Analysis of Second-Order System

The standard transfer function of second-order system is given as

Y s n2
 2 2
(84)
R  s  s  2n s  n
where  is damping factor and n is natural frequency of oscillations.

The characteristic equation for above system can be given as

s 2  2n s  n2  0 (85)
Representation of second-order system in canonical form:

The second-order system given by

Y s n2
 2 2
(86)
R  s  s  2n s  n
can by represented as unity feedback system as given in following
figure.

R s n2 Y s

s 2  2n s
_

Figure: The closed-loop system.

 Unit step response of second-order system

The transfer function of second-order system is given as

Y s n2
 2 (87)
R  s  s  2n s  n2
Y s n2
 (88)
Rs
 
s  n  n  2  1 s  n  n  2  1 
From (88), it is clear that nature of roots of (88) will depend on damping
factor.

The roots of transfer function of second-order system are

a  n  n  2  1
(89)
b  n  n  2  1
SN Value of Roots Nature of roots

1 1     a      2  1 Negative and j
n n
unequal
b  n  n  2  1 (such that

a  b) a b

2  1 a  n Negative and j

b  n equal

a, b
3 0    1 a    j 1   2 Complex j
n n
conjugate with b
2
b  n  jn 1   negative real

part
a

4  0 a   jn Complex j

b   jn conjugate with b

zero real part



a
1. Unit step response in Case 1 (when 1     )
In this case, the roots of transfer function are
a  n  n  2  1   k1
(90)
2
b  n  n   1   k2
The transfer function is
Y s n2
 2 (91)
R  s  s  2n s  n2
Y s n2
 (92)
R  s   s  k1  s  k2 
For unit step response
1
Rs  (93)
s
Hence,
1 n2 
Y s    (94)
s   s  k1  s  k2  
 1 1  1  1  1 
Y s     2  
s 2  2  2   1   s  k1   2  2  2   1   s  k2  
2 2 2

(95)
1  k1t 1
y t   1  e  e  k2t (96)
2 2 2 2
2  2  2   1 2  2  2   1

y t 
1

t
Example:
Y s 52
 2 (97)
R  s  s   2   5  s  52

Amplitude
 Unit step response of second-order system

The transfer function of second-order system is given as

Y s n2
 2 (87)
R  s  s  2n s  n2
Y s n2
 (88)
Rs
 
s  n  n  2  1 s  n  n  2  1 
From (88), it is clear that nature of roots of (88) will depend on damping
factor.

The roots of transfer function of second-order system are

a  n  n  2  1
(89)
b  n  n  2  1
SN Value of Roots Nature of roots

1 1     a      2  1 Negative and j
n n
unequal
b  n  n  2  1 (such that

a  b) a b

2  1 a  n Negative and j

b  n equal

a, b
3 0    1 a    j 1   2 Complex j
n n
conjugate with b
2
b  n  jn 1   negative real

part
a

4  0 a   jn Complex j

b   jn conjugate with b

zero real part



a
1. Unit step response in Case 1 (when 1     )
In this case, the roots of transfer function are
a  n  n  2  1   k1
(90)
2
b  n  n   1   k2
The transfer function is
Y s n2
 2 (91)
R  s  s  2n s  n2
Y s n2
 (92)
R  s   s  k1  s  k2 
For unit step response
1
Rs  (93)
s
Hence,
1 n2 
Y s    (94)
s   s  k1  s  k2  
 1 1  1  1  1 
Y s     2  
s 2  2  2   1   s  k1   2  2  2   1   s  k2  
2 2 2

(95)
1  k1t 1
y t   1  e  e  k2t (96)
2 2 2 2
2  2  2   1 2  2  2   1

y t 
1

t
Example:
Y s 52
 2 (97)
R  s  s   2   5  s  52

Amplitude
2. Unit step response in Case 2 (when   1)
In this case, the roots of transfer function are
a  n
(98)
b  n
The transfer function is
Y s n2
 2 (99)
R  s  s  2n s  n2
Y s n2
 (100)
R  s   s  n  s  n 
For unit step response
1
Rs  (101)
s
Hence,
1 n2 
Y s    (102)
s   s  n  s  n  
 1 1 n
Y s    (103)
s  s  n   s  n 2
y  t   1  e nt  nte nt (104)

y t 
1

t
Example:
Y s 52
 2 (105)
R  s  s   2   5  s  52

Amplitude
3. Unit step response in Case 3 (when 0    1)
In this case, the roots of transfer function are
a  n  jn 1   2
(106)
2
b  n  jn 1  
The transfer function is
Y s n2
 2 (107)
R  s  s  2n s  n2
For unit step response
1
Rs  (108)
s
Hence,
1 n2 
Y s   2  (109)
s  s  2n s  n2 
e nt
y t   1 
1  2

sin n 1   2 t    (110)

where
  1   2 
  tan 1  
  
 

y t 

t
Note here
d  n 1   2 is known as damped frequency of oscillations.
Example:
Y s 52
 2 (111)
R  s  s   2   5  s  52

Amplitude
4. Unit step response in Case 4 (when   0 )
In this case, the roots of transfer function are
a   jn
(112)
b   jn
The transfer function is
Y s n2 n2
 2  2 (113)
R  s  s  2n s  n s  n2
2

For unit step response

1
Rs  (114)
s
Hence,
1  n2 
Y s   2  (115)
s  s  n2 
1  s 
Y s    2  (116)
s  s  n2 
y  t   1  sin nt  (117)
Example:
Y s 52
 2 (118)
R  s  s   2   5  s  52

Amplitude
Oscillatory nature of step response is changing into exponential nature
as the damping factor is increasing.
5. Delay time Td  : The time required to reach 50% of desired value in
first attempt is known as delay time time.

Expression for rise time:

e nt
y t   1  sin d t    (137)
2
1 
For rise time
e nTr
1  1 sin d Tr    (138)
2
1 
So,
sin d Tr     0  d Tr     (139)
 
Tr  (140)
d
Expression for peak time and peak overshoot:

e nt
y t   1  sin d t    (141)
2
1 
dy  t  e nt e nt
 sin d t    d   n  sin d t    (142)
dt 1  2
1  2

dy  t 
Equating to 0 gives
dt
e nt e nt
 cos d t    d   n  sin d t     0 (143)
2 2
1  1 
cos d t    d   n  sin d t     0 (144)

d
tan d t     (145)
n
 n 1   2
tan d t     (146)
n

1  2
tan d t     (147)

tan d t     tan   (148)
So
d t  n (149)
Since tan  n     tan 
For first over shoot, n  1; so we have

Tp  (150)
d
For first under shoot, n  2 , so the time when first undershoot occurs is
2
t (151)
d
The peak value at peak time is given as
  T
e np
y t   1  sin d Tp    (152)
2
1 


n
d
e   
y t   1  sin  d   (153)
 d
2
1  


1 2
e
y t   1  sin     (154)
2
1 


1 2
e
y t   1  sin   (155)
2
1 


1 2
e
y t   1  1  2 (156)
2
1 
Expression for settling time:

 4
  2% tolerance band
 n
Ts   (160)
 3 5% tolerance band
 n

Expression for delay time:

1  0.7
Td  (161)
n
5. Delay time Td  : The time required to reach 50% of desired value in
first attempt is known as delay time time.

Expression for rise time:

e nt
y t   1  sin d t    (137)
2
1 
For rise time
e nTr
1  1 sin d Tr    (138)
2
1 
So,
sin d Tr     0  d Tr     (139)
 
Tr  (140)
d
Expression for peak time and peak overshoot:

e nt
y t   1  sin d t    (141)
2
1 
dy  t  e nt e nt
 sin d t    d   n  sin d t    (142)
dt 1  2
1  2

dy  t 
Equating to 0 gives
dt
e nt e nt
 cos d t    d   n  sin d t     0 (143)
2 2
1  1 
cos d t    d   n  sin d t     0 (144)

d
tan d t     (145)
n
 n 1   2
tan d t     (146)
n

1  2
tan d t     (147)

tan d t     tan   (148)
So
d t  n (149)
Since tan  n     tan 
For first over shoot, n  1; so we have

Tp  (150)
d
For first under shoot, n  2 , so the time when first undershoot occurs is
2
t (151)
d
The peak value at peak time is given as
  T
e np
y t   1  sin d Tp    (152)
2
1 


n
d
e   
y t   1  sin  d   (153)
 d
2
1  


1 2
e
y t   1  sin     (154)
2
1 


1 2
e
y t   1  sin   (155)
2
1 


1 2
e
y t   1  1  2 (156)
2
1 
 

1 2
y t   1  e (157)

So, peak over shoot becomes



1 2
M p  y  t t T  1  e (158)
p


1 2
Mp e (159)
Expression for settling time:

 4
  2% tolerance band
 n
Ts   (160)
 3 5% tolerance band
 n

Expression for delay time:

1  0.7
Td  (161)
n