CHEMISTRY

- The study of composition and structure of matter & changes that occur in matter.

MATTER

- matter is any substance that has

mass and takes up space by
having volume. Can occupy
space.

MIXTURES VS. PURE SUBSTANCES (MATTER)

PURE SUBSTANCES

- Composed of only one type of atom or molecule

- Ex. Iron, Carbon Monoxide,

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Types of pure substances:

a. ELEMENT - can’t break into simpler or smaller units

b. COMPOUND - composed of two or more elements (Ionic & Covalent compounds)

MIXTURES

- Two or more pure substances that are not chemically bound(but physically bound)
together
- Composed of two or more different types of atoms or molecules

Ex. AIR - Air contains many different substances, such as N2, O2, and CO2. Importantly,
these substances are not chemically bonded to each other, so air is a mixture.

● Seawater contains many different substances, mainly H2O and salts like NaCl, but
also lots of other substances. Importantly though, these substances are not
chemically bonded to each other, so seawater is a mixture.

a. HOMOGENOUS
- Has indistinguishable parts, can only see one solution. The composition is the same
everywhere in the mixture (ex. Saltwater)
b. HETEROGENOUS
- Can visibly see different parts. The composition can
vary by position (ex. Oil and water, blood)
- Suspension - is a heterogeneous mixture of a fluid that
contains solid particles sufficiently large for
sedimentation.
- Precipitation - the process of conversion of a solution
into a solid by converting the substance into an
insoluble form or by making the solution a supersaturated one.

Colloid - a mixture that has particles ranging between 1 and 1000 nanometers in
diameter, yet is still able to remain evenly distributed throughout the solution. These are

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 also known as colloidal dispersions because the substances remain dispersed and do
not settle to the bottom of the container.

Testing Mixtures

Tyndall Effect - the scattering of a beam of light by a medium containing small

suspended particles—e.g., smoke or dust in a room

TECHNIQUES OF SEPARATION OF MATTER

SEPERATION TECHNIQUE SEPARATION TYPE APPLICATION AND LIMITS

Magnet Physical Used to separate ferromagnetic

materials (contain iron, nickel, and
cobalt) from non-ferromagnetic
materials

Sieving/Screening Physical Used to separate solids with different

particle sizes

Filtration Physical Used to remove small particles that are

large enough to pass through a porous
material (filter) Commonly employed in
liquid-solid separation

Decantation Physical Used to separate a liquid of lower

density from a mixture by settling

Evaporation Physical Used to remove liquid, with a relatively

low boiling point from the mixture

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Distillation Physical Used to separate components of
relatively different boiling points. The
component with the lower boiling point
is also collected as a distillate

Dissolution Chemical Used to separate the components of

organic elements and results in ion
formation

Electrolysis Chemical process by which electric current is

passed through a substance to effect a
chemical change

Crystallization Physical To prevent the decomposition of solids,

crystallization is used.

is a technique that chemists use to

purify solid compounds.

ELEMENTS

- A element is a pure chemical substance that cannot be broken down into other
substances
- Scientists have discovered 100+ (180) elements so far
- 98 are known to occur in nature
- Four elements make up about 96% of the mass of most living organisms (Carbon,
Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen)

ATOM

- Is the smallest elemental unit in a sample of

matter that retains its identity. The smallest unit
of an element

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 - Each atom is made up of smaller particles such as electrons, protons, and
neutrons(Subatomic Particles) (P and N are contained within a nucleus). (ex.
Oxygen, Hydrogen, Iron, Magnesium)
- In general, atoms have a radius of 0.1 nanometers

=> PROTONS hydrogen). These have no electric

charge(0) and are, therefore,
- Are positively charged(1+)
neutral. Has a relative mass of 1
subatomic particles which has a
relative mass of 1 (Mass number - => ELECTRONS
atomic number)
- Is a negative charged(-1)
- The number of protons in an atom
subatomic particle that has a
determines what element it is.
relative mass of 0.0005
=> NEUTRONS - The electrons move very fast
around the nucleus in orbital paths
- Are subatomic particles found in
called shells
every atomic nucleus (except

ATOMIC NO. - the number of protons. The atomic number does not change (and
electrons since the number of p & e are the same)

ATOMIC WEIGHT / MASS- the total number of neutrons and protons. mass number =
protons + neutrons

Ex. Fe (Iron). Iron has an atomic number of 26, meaning that iron has 26 protons. Iron has
30 neutrons and has 26 protons, as a result, Iron has an atomic mass of 56 or 55.845

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LAWS

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS - states that mass cannot be created or destroyed in a

chemical reaction

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS

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LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
ATOMIC THEORY
- is the scientific theory that
matter is composed of particles
called atoms.
1. John Dalton’s atomic theory - are
made up of atoms, which are
indivisible and indestructible
building units. While an element’s
atoms were all the same size and
mass, various elements possessed
atoms of varying sizes and masses.
2. Thomson Atomic Model - In 1904,
English physicist Joseph J.
Thomson proposed the “plum
pudding” theory of the divisible
atom. He did so after discovering
electrons in 1897.
3. Rutherford’s Hypothesis - In 1911,
Ernest Rutherford (British physicist)
proposed a nuclear model on
atoms. An atom in which a nucleus
exists.He further hypothesised that
the number of protons and
electrons are equals in an atom.
4. Bohr’s Theory - In 1913, Danish
physicist Niels Bohr proposed a
planetary model, which states that
electrons revolve about the nucleus
just as the planets orbit the sun.
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 When the electrons are in orbit,
they possess “constant energy.”
5. Einstein, Heisenberg and Quantum
Mechanics - As far as the earlier
theories are concerned, the atom
consists of a central and heavy
nucleus centred by a number of
electrons. Earlier theories used to
treat electrons, and other tiny
particles as fixed solid “lumps,”. On
the other hand, modern quantum
theory specifies them as statistical
“clouds.
ATOMIC MODELS

JOHN DALTON’S
ATOMIC

THEORY/HYPOTHESIS

1. All matter is composed of tiny, definite particles called atoms.

2. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
3. All atoms of a particular element share identical properties, including weight.
4. Atoms of different elements contain different masses.

5. Atoms of different elements combine in fixed whole-number ratios when forming

compounds.

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 IONS

- An atom or a group of atoms that have an electric charge. Atoms can be neutral.

CATION(LOSE) - positively charged ions, lost

one or more electrons. More protons than
electrons

ANION (gAin)- negatively charged ions,

gained one or more electrons. More electrons
than protons

MOLECULE

- Group of two or more (same or different)

atoms that are held together by chemical
bonds (bonded together)

Ex.

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CO - Carbon Monoxide N2 - nitrogen gas

CO2 - Carbon Dioxide H2 - hydrogen gas

O2 - dioxygen gas

COMPOUNDS - a group of two or more different atoms that are held together by
chemical bonds IN A FIXED RATIO. Are always found in the same proportions

Ex.

CH4 - Methane Table salt, NaCl

H2O - water O2 (not a compound)

Sodium Bicarbonate, NaHCO₃.

ISOTOPES

- Are the different forms of the same element, that have the same number of
protons but a different number of neutrons.

Ex. Carbon-12 is the most common carbon found on earth (6 protons, 6 neutrons, 6
electrons) however Carbon-13 has (6 protons, 7 neutrons, 6 electrons) which is rare
but still exists. The element does not change since it is only the number of neutrons
that change, not the proton. Carbon-14 is used for carbon dating since the decay
rate of it is constant

ISOTOPE ABUNDANCE
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 - refers to the abundance of isotopes of a chemical element as naturally found on a
planet.

ISOELECTRONIC

- Species with the same

electronic configuration
- two atoms, ions, or molecules
that have the same electronic
structure and the same number of valence electrons.

PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

key scientists behind the periodic table including Dmitri Mendeleev, Henry Moseley and
John Newlands

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VERTICAL COLUMNS - GROUP
1. ALKALI METALS - all have 1 valence
electron which means they are
highly reactive. namely, lithium (Li),
sodium (Na), potassium (K),
rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and
francium (Fr). The alkali metals are
ROWS - PERIODS
so-called reactions with water form
alkalies (i.e., strong bases capable
of neutralizing acids). Sodium and
potassium are the sixth and
seventh most abundant elements,
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 constituting, respectively, 2.6 and
2.4 percent of Earth’s crust.
2. ALKALINE EARTH METALS - All have
2 valence electrons, are reactive,
and tend to form oxides with
oxygen. Mostly stable. The elements
are beryllium (Be), magnesium
(Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr),
barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).
3. HALOGENS - All have 7 valence
electrons. The halogen elements
are fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl),
bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine
(At), and tennessine (Ts). They were
given the name halogen, from the
Greek roots hal- (“salt”) and -gen
(“to produce”), because they all
produce sodium salts of similar
properties, of which sodium
chloride—table salt, or halite—is
best known. Are also highly
reactive.
4. NOBLE GASES - Have 8 valence
electrons. The elements are helium
(He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton
(Kr), xenon (Xe), radon (Rn), and
oganesson (Og). The noble gases
are colorless, odorless, tasteless,
nonflammable gases. Highly stable.
5. NON-METALS (CHNOPS) - Carbon,
Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen,
- All stable elements have 8 valence electrons
Phosphorus, Sulfur,. Are vital inside
living materials.
6. TRANSITION METALS - similarities
shared by the 24 elements in
question are that they are all
metals and that most of them are
hard, strong, and lustrous, have
high melting and boiling points,
and are good conductors of heat
and electricity.
7. METALLOIDS - an imprecise term
used to describe a chemical
element that forms a simple
substance having properties
intermediate between. All are
semi-conductors of electricity.
Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic,
Antimony, Telurium, Polonium,
Astatine, Bismuth
8. LANTHANIDE AND ACTINIDE SERIES
- Lanthanides are all metals with
reactivity similar to group 2
elements. Also known as rare earth
elements Actinides are all
radioactive elements. Lanthanides
are used in optical devices (night
vision goggles), petroleum refining,
and alloy
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PNICTOGENS

- Group 15 are regarded as the pnictogens, all of which have 5 valence electrons.
Aside from nitrogen, pnictogens are solid at room temperature

CHALCOGENS

- are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table. This group is also
known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S),
selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the radioactive element polonium (Po).

The numbers represent the number of valence electrons

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REPRESENTATION OF ELEMENTS =

Ex. 3723X-2

ATOMIC ORBITAL DIAGRAM

QUANTUM NUMBERS

- The set of numbers used to describe the position and energy of the electron in an
atom
- Describe the overall orbital of an atom

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 a. Principal quantum
number (N)
- Which can have any
positive integer value &
represents the energy
level of an electron
- a larger value of the
principal quantum number implies a greater distance between the electron and
the nucleus (which, in turn, implies a greater atomic size).
b. Angular Momentum Quantum number (l)
- Can have any values from zero to n-1
- Describes the shape of the orbital
- l = 0 (s orbital) | l = 1 (p orbitals) | l = 2 (d orbitals) | l = 3 (f orbitals)
c. Magnetic Quantum Number (m1)
- Can have a value from -l to l
- Determines how many orbitals there are of a type per energy level, and describes a
specific orbital among a set.
d. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
- Either be ½ or -½ no matter what circumstances. Represents the arrows in an
electron configuration

Angular Momentum

s l=0

p l=1

d l=2

f l=3

If l = 1, then m1 = -1, 0, 1

If l = 3, then m1 = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

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 ORBITALS

- Are areas within atoms where there is a high probability of finding electrons
- a mathematical term in atomic theory and quantum mechanics that describes the
wave-like behaviour of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom. Every
such orbital will occupy a maximum of two electrons, each having its own quantity
of spin.
- The orbital 1s hold the highest energy.

there are four different kinds of orbitals, denoted s, p, d, and f each with a different shape.
Of the four, s and p orbitals are considered because these orbitals are the most common
in organic and biological chemistry.

SHAPE OF S ORBITAL

- The boundary surface diagram for the s

orbital looks like a sphere having the
nucleus as its centre which in two
dimensions can be seen as a circle.
- The nodes of s orbital is n-1; the angular
nodes is l, which is 0 for all s orbitals;

SHAPE OF P ORBITAL

- Each p orbital consists of two

sections better known as lobes
which lie on either side of the plane
passing through the nucleus.
- As the lobes lie along one of the x, y
or z-axis, these three orbitals are
given the designations 2px, 2py, and 2pz. Thus, we can say that there are three p
orbitals whose axes are mutually perpendicular.
- Dumbbell shape

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SHAPE OF D ORBITAL

- The magnetic orbital quantum number for d orbitals is given as (-2,-1,0, 1,2). Hence,
we can say that there are five d-orbitals.
- These orbitals are designated as dxy, dyz, dxz, dx2–y 2 and dz2.

SHAPE OF F ORBITAL

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ELECTRON CONGIFURATION

- describes how electrons are distributed in its atomic

orbitals. Electron configurations of atoms follow a
standard notation in which all electron-containing
atomic subshells
- VALENCE ELECTRONS are electrons located at the
outermost (highest) principal energy level of a
representative or noble gas element. CORE ELECTRONS are electrons located
between the valence electrons and the nucleus.

4 TYPES OF SUBSHELLS

S - has 1 orbital that can hold up to 2 D - has 5 orbitals that can hold up to 10
electrons electrons

P - has 3 orbitals that can hold up to 6 F - has 7 orbitals that can hold up to 14
electrons electron

S BLOCK consists of the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, including helium

P BLOCK consists of the rightmost side of the periodic table, including halogens, noble
gases, and metalloids

D BLOCK consists of the transition metals

F BLOCK consists of the lanthanides and actinides

(Aufbau’s Principle)

CONDENSED ELECTRON CONFIGURATION

- includes the symbol for the nearest, smaller noble gas in square brackets and
then the symbols for occupied orbitals that contain valence electrons.

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Ex. [Ne] 3s2 3p4 = SULFUR [Kr] 3s2 3d3 = NIOBIUM

STRUCTURAL FORMULA LINES

1. A dashed line indicates that the bond is

extending behind the plane of the drawing
surface
1. A bold-wedged line indicates that the bond is
protruding out from the plane of the drawing
surface
2. A solid line indicates that the bond exists in the
plane of the drawing surface.
3. A wavy line indicates that the stereochemistry of the bond is unknown.
4. A dotted line indicates that the bond is not a full bond, it is only a partial bond as in a hydrogen
bond or a partially formed or broken bond in a transition state.
5. An arrow indicates a dative bond in which both electrons in the bond originate from one atom
(not common)

CHEMICAL BONDS Compounds

Reviewer (filipiknow.net)

- The attraction between atoms or

molecules

IONIC BOND

- Electrons are transferred to one element to another

- when the valence (outermost) electrons of one atom are transferred permanently
to another atom.
- Typically occurs between metals & non-metals
- Metals like to give away electrons so they form positively charged ions (cation)
- Non-metals like to receive electrons so they form negatively charged ions (anion)

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- Sodium gave chlorine an electron which made sodium a cation and chloride an anion.
In physics, when two positive or negative charges meet, they repel against each other.
However, when you have opposite charges, they are attracted to each other.
(Opposites-attract rule), therefore, sodium and chlorine attract each other and form
sodium chloride

COVALENT BOND

- which consists of the mutual sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between two
atoms.
- Happens usually between non-metals
- First row elements(H and He) want to have 2 valence electrons to be stable while
the second-row elements want to have 8 electrons (octet rule)

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POLAR COVALENT BOND

- When electrons are shared unequally. Usually occurs in two different elements
- When an atom is more electronegative than another different atom, it pulls to
electron towards itself. One atom is going to attain a partially positive charge while
the other atom will attain a partially negative charge (electronegative atom). This
will result to a dipole (literally, means "two poles," two electrical charges, one
negative and one positive. are common in atoms whenever electrons (-) are
unevenly distributed around nuclei (+))
- Electronegativity - is the ability of an atom to attract electrons towards itself

NON POLAR COVALENT BOND

- Electrons are shared equally between elements/atoms.

- When there are two same elements which is a non-metal, it is automatically a
non-polar covalent bond
- (NaF, MgO)

METALLIC BOND

Solid metal - is a giant structure of

atoms arranged in a regular pattern.
Regular atoms have a shell with
electrons surrounding it, however, in

22
metals, there are no shells for electrons so these electrons float freely and share them
with other atoms. These atoms then become positive ions since they have lost all of their
negative electrons. These delocalized electrons combined with positive ions maintain a
stable electrostatic energy in these solid metals.

- Delocalized Electrons - an electron in an atom, ion, or molecule that is not

connected to a single atom or covalent bond.

LEWIS DOT DIAGRAM How to Draw the Lewis Structure

● To estimate the number as well as the type of bonds around an atom.

● They also tell us about the geometry of molecule.

Methane = CH4

Step 1: Calculate the total number of valence electrons

Carbon = 4

Hydrogen = 1 * 4 = 4

Step 2: Choose a central atom

- If there is a carbon in the equation, then the carbon is always the central atom.
Hydrogen can never be a central atom.
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 - A central atom is the weakest electronegative atom or in other words, the atom
with the largest valence. The periodic table trends can be used for determining
electronegativity.
- As a result, the most electronegative elements are found on the top right of the
periodic table, while the least electronegative elements are found on the bottom
left.

Step 3: Place a bond between each element and make sure the number of electrons
adds up

- A number of electrons required to fill the atom's electron shell: When an atom’s
external electron shell (or the valence electrons) is full, the atom is said to be
“happy.” You need to find out the number of electrons to make the atom happy.
Elements till the 4th period in the periodic table need 8 electrons to meet this
criterion. This characteristic is known as the ‘octet rule’.

EXCEPTIONS OF THE OCTET RULE

● An incomplete octet has less than 8 electrons in a central atom (these include
group 2 and 3 since they have
less than 4 valence electrons)
● An expanded octet has more
than 8 electrons on the central
atom. These have the
possibility to have a expanded
octet, it is not going to have a
expanded octet every time

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COMPOUNDS

- a group of two or more different atoms that are held together by chemical bonds
IN A FIXED RATIO. Are always found in the same proportions

Ex.

CH4 - Methane Table salt, NaCl

H2O - water O2 (not a compound)

Sodium Bicarbonate, NaHCO₃.

TYPES OF COMPOUNDS AND NAMING COMPOUNDS

IONIC COMPOUNDS

- Consist of one metal(+) and one non-metal(-) atom

NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS

BINARY IONIC COMPOUNDS

- A binary ionic compound is a compound composed of a monatomic metal cation

and a monatomic nonmetal anion.
- For a binary ionic compound, metal will always be the first element in the formula,
while a nonmetal will always be the second. The metal cation is named first,
followed by the nonmetal anion. Subscripts in the formula do not affect the name.
- Cation = (Element) Ion / Anion = (Element)-ide. To write together: Cation Anion
(Sodium Chloride)

Ex. NaCl (Sodium Chlorine) => Sodium MgBr2 = (Magnesium Bromine) =>
Chloride Magnesium Bromide

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AlF2 = (Aluminum Fluorine) = Aluminum CaO (Calcium Oxygen) => Calcium Oxide
Fluoride

POLYATOMIC ION

- is an ion composed of more than

one atom

Li2SO4 => Lithium Sulfate

Na2CO3 => Sodium Carbonate

WRITING IONIC FORMULAS

- Element columns have different

ionic charges (check periodic
table)
a. SODIUM CHLORIDE

Na+1Cl-1 = the charges cancels out and

thus creates NaCl

b. CALCIUM SULFIDE

Ca+2s-2= the charges cancel out and

thus create CaS

c. LITHIUM OXIDE

(the charges will not be equal)

a. Use the criss-cross method.

Subscripts appear on the bottom left or right of the symbol. If on the left, it indicates the atomic

number of the element. If it is on the right side, it denotes the number of atoms of the element

in the formula. Superscripts are usually for ions.

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NAMING COVALENT MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

- Consists of two non-metals (-)

Ex. N2O5 = dinitrogen Pentoxide

NO2 => Nitrogen monoxide

PCl3 = Phosphorus Trichloride

WRITING COVALENT FORMULAS

- Writing formulas for molecular compounds are the same as naming them,
however, the process is utilized backward

Ex. Sulfur Trioxide => SO3

Dinitrogen Pentoxide => N2O5

Selenium Tetrabromide => SBr4

NAMING ACIDS

Acids - are formed when hydrogen bonds

to a negative ion.

- -ate (polyatomic ion. Ex. Sulfate)

=>(suffix) ic => acid
- -ite (polyatomic ion. Ex. Chlorite) =>
(suffix)ous => acid
- -ide (monatomic ion. Ex. Chloride) =>
(prefix)hydro => (suffix)ic => Acid

Ex. H2SO4 = SO4 = Sulfate => Sulfur => Sulfuric Acid

H2SO3 = SO3 = Sulfite => Sulfur => Sulfurous Acid

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H2S = S-2 = Sulfide => Sulfur => HC2H3O2 = Acetate => Acetic Acid
Hydrosulfuric Acid
HCl = Chloride => Hydrochloric Acid
HClO4 = Perchlorate => Perchloric Acid

WRITING ACIDIC FORMULAS

- Uses the same process, but backwards and add a hydrogen atom at the front. The
hydrogen atoms must neutralize the ion’s negative charge, so the hydrogen will
attain the negative charge of the ion.

Phosphoric Acid => Phosphate => PO4-3 = H3PO4

GAS & GAS LAWS

- a fluid (such as air) that has neither independent shape nor volume but tends to
expand indefinitely
- Always round to the least significant figures

CHARACTERISTICS OF GAS

a. TEMPERATURE (T) - the higher the temperature, the faster the gas molecules.
Always uses kelvin
b. PRESSURE (P) - how hard the gas
molecules are hitting the surface.
(atm, torr, mmHg, kpa)
c. VOLUME (V) - uses liters
d. AMOUNT OF GAS (n / mole) - usually
reported in moles - scientific unit for
measuring large quantities of very
small entities such as atoms, and
molecules

28
 BOYLE’S LAW

- relates the pressure and volume of an ideal gas

under constant temperature. (Robert Boyle)
- It states that at a constant temperature, the
pressure of a fixed amount of gas is inversely
proportional to the volume of the gas.
- Relationship between pressure and volume
- Increasing the volume results in the decreasing of
pressure and decreasing the volume results to the
increase of pressure
- Keep in mind that this formula is valid only under constant temperature, and as
long as the amount of the gas does not change.
- To easily recall what parameter is constant in Boyle’s law, just remember BOYLET
(Boyle’s Law, constant T!)

29
 -

Example problems:

1. The initial volume of a gas is 5 liters at the pressure 1 atm. What is the volume of the
gas if the pressure is increased to 2 atm?

Step 1: identify the given

P1 = 1 atm P2 = 2 atm

V1 = 5 L

Step 2: Write into formula

Step 2: Divide or Multiply

(1 atm)(5 L) = (2 atm) V2

● 5 times 1 = 5, 5 divided by 2 = 2.5 L

= 2.5 L

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 2. A sample of oxygen gas exerts a pressure of 2.50 atm in a 20.0 L container. What
will be the new pressure it will exert if all of it will be transferred to a 16.0 L container
at constant temperature? Assume that the gas behaves ideally.

Step 1 & 2

Initially, the volume occupied by the gas is 20 L and exerts a pressure of 2.50 atm. Since
the temperature and the amount of gas are constant, and the gas was assumed to
behave ideally, we can use Boyle’s law to solve the new pressure after it was transferred
to a 16 L container.

= 3.125 atm

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 CHARLES’S LAW

- The relationship between Volume &

Temperature
- the volume of a fixed amount of gas
maintained at constant pressure is
directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas.
- AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES THE VOLUME
WILL ALSO INCREASE. AS TEMPERATURE
DECREASES THE VOLUME WILL ALSO DECREASE
- THE TEMPERATURE HAS TO BE IN KELVIN (Jacque Charles) and pressure must be
constant
- CHARLEP (Charles’ Law, constant Pressure).

32
 - Bread rises because of air expanding

Ex. problems

1. The initial volume of oxygen is 5 liters at 30°C. What is the volume if we increase the
temperature to 50°C?

State:

V1 = 5 L T2 = 50°

T1 = 30°C.

Convert to Kelvin (if needed)

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30 + 273.15 = 303.15 50 + 273.15 = 323.15

Solve:

5𝐿 𝑉2
303.15𝐾 323.15𝐾
= 5.33 L

2. A 3.5 L flexible container holds gas at 250K. What will be the new volume if the
temperature is increased to 400K?

Given:

V1 = 3.5 L T2 = 400K

T1 = 250 K

3.5 𝐿 𝑉2
250𝐾 400𝐾
= - Cross Multiply and divide by V2 or remaining variable

3.5 * 400 = 1400 1400 / 250 = 5.6L

3. The volume of a 500ml container is decreased to 0.24L. What is the new

temperature in Celsius if the original temperature 80C.

Given:

V1 = 500 ml V2 = 0.24 L

T1 = 80°C

Convert: 80C + 273.15 = 353.15 K

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 0.5 𝐿 0.24 𝐿
353.15 𝐾 𝑇2
= Cross Multiply and divide by T2 or remaining variable

0.24 * 353.15 K = 84.756

84.756 / 0.5 = 169.51 K

Convert back to celsius (if the question demands it)

169.512 - 273.15 = -103.64C

GAY LUSSAC’S LAW / AMONTON’S LAW

- relates the pressure and temperature of a

fixed amount of gas under constant volume
conditions
- Joseph Gay-Lussac
- Relationship between Pressure & temperature
- If the temperature goes up, then the pressure
will also go up if the volume is constant.

35
 - Temperature has to be in kelvin

Example Problems:

1. The pressure of a gas in a rigid container is 125 kpa at 300K. What will be the new
pressure if the temperature gets increased by 900K?

State the problem:

P1 = 125 kpa P2

T1 = 300 K T2 =900 K

125 𝑘𝑝𝑎 𝑃2
300 𝑘 900 𝐾

36
 ● Cross Multiply and divide by P2 or remaining variable

125 * 900 = 112500

112500 / 300 = 375 kpa

Or 300 => (3) => 900

125 => (3) => 375 kpa

2. The pressure of a gas decreases from 820 mm Hg at 80 C to a pressure of 95 kpa,

what is the new temperature in celsius?

P1 = 820 mm Hg P2 = 95 kpa

T1 = 80 C T2 =

Convert if needed:

820 / 7.478

= 109.65

Turn 80 C to kelvin

80 + 273 = 353

109.65 𝑘𝑝𝑎 95 𝑘𝑝𝑎

353 𝑘 𝑡2

● Cross Multiply and divide by T2 or remaining variable

95 * 353 = 33,535

37
33,535 / 109.65 = 305.83 K

Convert to celsius (if needed)

305.83 K - 273.15 = 32.68

AVOGADRO’S LAW

- at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional

to the number of moles of gas present.
- The relationship between volume and amount (mol). Is true when temperature
and pressure are constant
- If volume goes up, then the amount (mol) will also go up. If the volume goes down,
then the moles will also decrease.
- Amadeo Avogadro

38
Example Problems:

1. If 2.4 moles of gas occupies a volume of 60 L at a certain temperature, what

volume will 3.7 moles of gas occupy?

V1 = 60 L V2 =

n1 = 2.4 mol n2 = 3.7 mol

60 𝐿 𝑉2
2.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 3.7 𝑚𝑜𝑙

● Cross Multiply and divide by V2 or remaining variable

39
60 * 3.7 = 222

222 / 2.4 = 92.5 L

2. A 85L flexible container holds 3.4 moles of gas. How many moles of gas should be
removed to decrease the volume of the container to 40L ?

V1 = 85 L V2 = 40 L

n1 = 3.4 mol n2 =

85 𝐿 40 𝐿
3.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑛2

40 * 3.4 = 136

136/85 = 1.6 mol

How many moles of gas should be removed to decrease the volume of the container to
40L ?

Δn = nf (final) - ni (initial)

= 1.6 - 3.4

Δn= -1.8 mol

COMBINED GAS LAW

- The combined gas law was obtained by combining Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, and
Amonton’s law. This law expresses the relationship between the volume, pressure,
and absolute temperature of a fixed amount of gas.

40
Ex. Problems

1. A sample of N2 gas was placed in a flexible 9.0 L container at 300K at a pressure of

1.5 atm. The container was compressed to a volume of 3.0 L and head was added
until the temperature reached 600K. What is the new pressure inside the
container?

P1 = 1.5 atm P2 = ___

V1 = 9.0 L V2 = 3.0 L

T1 = 300 K T2 = 600 K

(1.5 𝑎𝑡𝑚) (9 𝐿) (𝑃2) (3 𝐿)

300 𝐾 600 𝐾

● Cross Multiply and divide by V2 or remaining variable

1.5 * 9 * 600k = 8100

3 * 300 = 900

8100 / 900 = 9 atm

2. A 20 L container holds 0.650 mol of He has at 37 C at a pressure of 628.3 torr. What

will be the new pressure inside the container if the volume is reduced to 12.0L, the
temperature is increased to 177C, and 1.25 mol of additional gas was added to it?

P1 = 628.3 torr V1 = 20 L
41
T1 = 37 C V2 = 12 L

n1 = 0.650 mol T2 = 177 C

n2 = 1.9 mol

P2 = ??

Convert to right units

T1 = 37 C => 37°C + 273 = 310 K

T2 = 177 C => 177°C + 273 = 450K

(628.3 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟) (20 𝐿) (𝑃2) (12 𝐿)

(0.65 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(310 𝐾) (1.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (450 𝐾)

formula if moles are included

● Cross Multiply and divide

Multiply: 628.3 * 20 * 1.9 * 450 = 10 743 930

Multiply: 12 * 310 * 0.65 = 2418 (P2)

Divide: 10 743 930 / 2418

= 4,443 torr

IDEAL GAS

Ideal gas -> PV = nRT

P*V=n*R*T

42
Pressure * volume = amount of substance / ideal gas constant / temperature(always in
kelvin)

R is known as the universal gas constant, which is equal to 0.0821 L⦁atm/ mol⦁K, or 8.314
J/mol⦁K

IMPORTANT NOTE: A mole of ideal gases, regardless of identity, occupies a molar

volume of 22.414 L at 273.15 K (or 0 ℃) with a pressure of 1 atm.

- In an ideal gas law, there is no change taking place.

- This model is based on the:
a. KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY - is based on the idea that matter is composed of
tiny particles that are always in motion. This theory helps explain observable
properties and behaviors of solids, liquids, and gases. As the temperature goes up,
the speed of the molecules accelerates.
b. MAXWELL-BOLTZMAN THEORY - which forms the
basis of the kinetic theory of gases, defines the
distribution of speeds for gas at a certain
temperature. distribution of speeds in a gas at a
certain temperature.

Example problems

1. 2.3 moles of helium gas are at a pressure of 1.70

atm, and a temperature of 41 C. What is the volume of the gas?

P = 1.7 atm R = 0.0821 L ⦁ atm/ mol ⦁ K

V=? T = 41 C => Convert to kelvin => 41 + 273 =

314 K
n = 2.3 mol

𝑃𝑉 𝑛𝑅𝑇
= Divide both sides by Pressure to isolate Volume
𝑃 𝑃

43
 𝑛𝑅𝑇
V= 𝑃
= Plug in R

(2.3 𝑚𝑜𝑙) (314 𝐾) 0.0821 * 𝐿 * 𝑎𝑡𝑚

V= 1.7 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐾 * 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Multiply & Divide:

2.3 * 314 * 0.0821 =59.2926

59.2926 / 1.7 = 34.8780117467

Round off to lowest sig fig in the equation (2.3) => 34.87 => 35 L

44
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ACIDS & BASES

pH SCALE

- A measure of how acidic or

alkaline a solution is.
- Measured on a scale of 0-14
- pH (power of Hydrogen)

Equation of pH:

( pH = - log [H+]) (Will always result to 7

[neutral])

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

- is a mixture of a variety of other indicators and can be used to measure the

approximate pH of a solution.

pOH

- the measure of acidity or alkalinity of a solution by determining the concetration of

OH− ions.

45
ACID (H+)

- Any substance that forms an attached to a non-metal (HCl, HF)

aqueous solution with a pH less
than 7
- Hydrogen ions mix with substances
which makes solutions acidic
- a compound that dissolves in water
to yield hydronium ions (H3O+)
- Typically a positively-charged
hydrogen ion/ atom
- Acids are often produced from
non-metal oxides. For example,
sulfur oxides make sulfuric acid.
- Proton donors
- May taste sour and irritating smell

Strong Acids - can completely

dissolve in water and form
strong electrolytes in water that
can conduct electricity. Can
lose hydrogen easily due to
having weak bonds & weak
bases

46
 - When dealing with oxy acids, the acid with more oxygen molecules are more acidic.

BASES

- Any substance with a pH greater

than 7
- Typically contain a hydroxide ion
- Proton Acceptors
- May taste bitter and soapy
appearance
- Some bases dissolve in water
and are called alkalis. But other
bases, including many metal
oxides, do not dissolve in water.

ALKALI

- A subgroup of bases that

are soluble in water
- Is a base that dissolves in
water to form a solution
with pH greater than 7
- Form OH- ions in water / Hydroxide ions

Common Acids & Bases

47
Acids and Bases mixed together will always form salt/water. This is called the
‘Neutralisation Reaction’. Ex. NaCl

When an acid is dissolved in the water we get an acidic solution. When a base dissolves
in water, it is an alkali and makes an alkaline solution. If a solution is neither acidic nor
alkaline it is neutral. Pure water is neutral, and so is paraffin.

INDICATORS OF ACIDS & BASES

LITMUS

- Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic solutions, blue in alkaline solutions, and
purple in neutral solutions.

LITMUS PAPER comes as red litmus paper and blue litmus paper. The table shows the
colour changes it can make:

Red Litmus Blue Litmus

Acidic Solution Stays red Turns red

Neutral Solution Stays red Stays blue

Alkaline Solution Turns blue Stays blue

METHYL ORANGE AND PHENOLPHTHALEIN

Indicator Acidic Neutral Alkaline

Methyl Orange Red Yellow Yellow

Phenolphthalein Colorless Colorless Pink

48
pH PROBE / METER

- are devices used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. This is called
the pH level.
- More accurate

SOLUTIONS

- A homogenous mixture of two or more substances

- All areas of the solution are evenly distributed

Parts of a Solution:

1. Solute 2. Solvent
- Substance that is dissolving - Substance solute dissolves in

● Solute dissolves in solvent

● Solutions may have more than one solute, but can only have one solvent
● Usually, the solvent is present in the greatest amount

Aqueous Solutions - solution with water as the solvent

● Air: Solution of Gases

- Gases in air don’t separate out over time
- Uniform and even composition

78% - Nitrogen 1% - CO2, Argon, Water, and others

21% - Oxygen

49
Alloy: Solutions of Solids

Different Solutions

● Isotonic solution: Two solutions having the same osmotic pressure at a given
temperature are known as isotonic solutions. When such solutions are separated by
a semi-permeable membrane then there is no osmosis.
● Hypotonic solution: A hypotonic solution has a lower osmotic pressure than that of
the surrounding i.e, the concentration of solute particles is less than that of the
surrounding. If the hypotonic solution is separated by a semipermeable membrane,
water moves out of the hypotonic solution.
● Hypertonic solution: A hypertonic solution has a higher osmotic pressure than that
of the surrounding i.e, the concentration of solute particles is more than that of the
surrounding. If the hypertonic solution is separated by a semipermeable
membrane then water moves inside the hypertonic solution.

50
Copper & Tin - Bronze

Iron, Carbon, & other metals - Steel

UNITS OF
CONCENTRATION

MOLARITY - the number of

moles per solute per liter
of solution

MOLALITY - the number of

moles of solute per
kilogram of solvent

MOLE FRACTION - the

number of moles of a component divided by the total number of moles of all
components

WEIGHT PERCENT - the mass o one component divided by the total mass of the mixture
multiplied by 100

51
 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS

- properties that depend upon the concentration/number of solute molecules or

ions, but not upon the identity of the solute. Colligative properties include vapor
pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic
pressure.
- Properties of the solution that are different from the pure solvent itself
- When expressing solute concentration, Molality is often used. Molality is not
temperature-dependent.

1. FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION

- Colligative property that describes how the freezing point of a solution is lowered
compared to the freezing point of a pure solvent.

Ex. When salt is put on an icy road, the salt mixes with a small amount of liquid water to
prevent melting ice from re-freezing.

● If you mix salt and ice in a bowl or bag, the same process makes the ice colder,
which means it can be used for making ice cream.
● Freezing point depression also explains why vodka doesn't freeze in a freezer.
● Organisms also produce relatively inert molecules, such as glycerol and other
polyhydric alcohols, such as sorbitol and ribitol, which helps in decreasing the
freezing point of the water in their bodies.

2. BOILING POINT ELEVATION

- When the boiling point of a solution is higher than the boiling point of the pure
solvent alone.
- As the concentration of solute goes up, the boiling point also goes up

52
Ex. the boiling point of pure water at 1.0atm is 100oC while the boiling point of a 2%
salt-water solution is about 102oC. Therefore, the boiling point elevation would be 2oC.
When salt(solute) is added to water(solvent), the boiling point of water increases.

● adding antifreeze to the water in a car radiator prevents the water from boiling.
● Salting roads: Salt is placed on roads to decrease the freezing point of water
preventing the formation of ice in cold weather.

3. VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING

- the vapor pressure of a pure solvent is greater than the vapor pressure of a solution
containing a non-volatile liquid. This lowered vapor pressure leads to boiling point
elevation.
- the vapor pressure of a liquid is
determined by how easily its molecules
are able to escape the surface of the
liquid and enter the gaseous phase.
When a liquid evaporates easily, it will
have a relatively large number of its
molecules in the gas phase and thus will
have a high vapor pressure.
- Nonvolatile means that the solute itself has little tendency to evaporate.
- Addition of a nonvolatile solute to a solution lowers the vapor pressure of the
solution

Ex. An LPG cylinder can't feed fuel to a burner if it doesn't have enough vapor pressure.
The valve will open when the burner knob is cranked and the vapor pressure rises. This
permits the fuel's vapors to stream in the burner's direction.

● Adding salt to whatever one is cooking in the pressure cooker will lower the vapor
pressure
● Adding salt to water
● Diethyl has lower vapor pressure

53
 4. OSMOTIC PRESSURE
- osmotic pressure of a solution is the difference in pressure between the solution
and the pure liquid solvent when the two are in equilibrium across a
semipermeable membrane, which
allows the passage of solvent
molecules but not of solute
particles

Ex.

● A long stay in bath tub causes

fingers to bloat , its called pruning.
Reason behind it is osmosis.
● Plant roots generate “pressure” to withdraw water and nutrients from the soil, it’s
through osmosis.
● Sprinkling salt of earthworm causes its cells to dehydrate just to main equilibrium
between the high concentration of salt outside the cells.

OSMOTIC PRESSURE & BOILING POINT ELEVATION - a direct relationship

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION & VAPOR PRESSURE LOWERING - an inverse relationship

LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

1st law Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, it can only
be transferred from one form to another. The energy of the
universe stays constant

2nd law The entropy of any isolated system always increases. Explains
why heat will always flow spontaneously from higher
temperatures to lower temperatures.

3rd law The entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the

temperature approaches absolute zero. As a system
approaches absolute zero of temperature(Kelvin), all

54
 processes cease and the entropy of the system approaches a
minimum value.

Zeroth Law If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium

with a third system separately, then they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. One glass will have hot water and
the other will contain cold water. Now if we leave them on the
table for a few hours they will attain thermal equilibrium with
the temperature of the room.

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

CARBON COMPOUNDS

- Are chemical substances that contain carbon atoms bonded to any other element.
Carbon is very reactive.
- Compounds containing carbon outnumber the compounds of all the other
elements

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- It describes chemical compounds that contain carbon and other elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or phosphorus.
● carbohydrates, fats (lipids), proteins, and nucleic acids, petroleum and natural
gas,

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS

- Simple molecules that usually consist of one or two different elements. Does not
contain carbon
● CO2, NaCl, H2O

55
HYDROCARBONS

- Are organic compounds that are entirely made up of only two kinds of atoms –
carbon and hydrogen.
- Colourless gases that have very weak odors

a. SATURATED
- Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are connected by single bonds only
1. Alkanes
- General formula is CnH2n+2 (where n = number of carbon atoms in 1 molecule of
alkane)
● Methane, ethane, propane, butane

b. UNSATURATED
- Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are connected by double or triple bonds

2. ALKENES - in which the carbon are connected by at least one double bond

3. ALKYNES - in which the carbon are connected by at least one triple bond

56
57
 International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry

CHEMICAL REACTIONS

PARTS OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS / REACTIONS

58
Symbol Meaning

+ used to separate one reactant or product from another

used to separate the reactants from the products - it is

pronounced "yields" or "produces" when the equation is
read

used when the reaction can proceed in both directions -

this is called an equilibrium arrow and will be used later in
the course

(g) indicates that the substance is in a gaseous state

an alternative way of representing a substance in a

gaseous state

(s) indicates that the substance is in a solid state

an alternative way of representing a substance in a solid

59
 state

(aq) indicates that the substance is dissolved in water - the aq

comes from aqueous

indicates that heat is applied to make the reaction

proceed

LIMITING & EXCESS REACTANT / REAGENT

LIMITING REACTANT/REAGENT

- Is the first reactant that is used up in a reaction. When the limiting reactant is used
up in an equation, no more product can form, and the reaction stops.

EXCESS REACTANT/REAGENT

- Is what is left over after the reaction stops because the limiting reactant is all used
up.

Note: limiting reactant often isn’t the reactant you have least of. Instead, it is the first
reactant to run out during the reaction

Types of chemical reactions

1. SYNTHESIS
- A compound is made from similar materials
60
 - Are unbalanced equations

A + B → AB

Ex.

C + O2 = CO2

Na + Cl = NaCl

2. DECOMPOSITION REACTION
- A compound is broken down into simpler compounds, or all the way down to the
elements that make it up
- Opposite of synthesis

AB → A + B

61
3. COMBUSTION REACTIONS
- A compound containing carbon and hydrogen (and sometimes oxygen) combines
with oxygen gas to produce carbon dioxide and water
- a chemical reaction between substances, usually including oxygen and usually
accompanied by the generation of heat and light in the form of flame.
- Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O.

4. SINGLE REPLACEMENT REACTION

- One element that starts out by itself replaces another element in a compound,
kicking it out

62
5. DOUBLE REPLACEMENT REACTION
- Two positive and negative ions in two compounds switch places

63
OXIDATION REDUCTION REACTION (REDOX REACTIONS)

- Electrons move between atoms

REDUCTION

- Gain of electrons

OXIDATION

- Loss of electrons

OIL RIG

Oxidation is Loss

Reduction is Gain

64
 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

- Has the same number of each type of atom on both sides of the arrow
- This is important because a chemical equation must obey the law of conservation
of mass and the law of constant proportions, i.e. the same number of atoms of
each element must exist on the reactant side and the product side of the equation.

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

N2 + H2 → NH3 (Ammonia)

65
N: 2 N: 1

H: 2 H: 3

- To get two nitrogen atoms, add 2 in front of the Ammonia, → 2NH3

N: 2 N: 2

H: 2 H: (3 * 2) = 6

- Hydrogen is not balanced. Therefore, add 3 more hydrogen molecules

N: 2 N: 2

H: (2*3) = 6 H: 6

= N2+3H→2NH3

Do more practice probs!!

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS

Formula
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
x 100
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

1. What is the percent composition by mass of Hydrogen in H2O?

Molar mass of H2O

H2 = 2.02 O = 16.00

66
H2O = 18.02

2.02
18.02
𝑥 100 = 0.112 x 100 = 11.2 %

2. The battery of a watch supplies the current to a small grain of quartz crystal (SiO2)
making it vibrate. What is the percent composition of silicon in quartz?

Molar mass of SiO2

Si = 28 H2O = 60 g/mol

O2 = 32

28
60
𝑥 100 = 0.467 x 100 = 46.7 %

CALCULATING MOLAR MASS

1. Get the atomic mass of the elements given

2. Multiply the atomic mass by the amount of element
3. Add all of the results

Other names for Molar mass

- Molecular Mass
- Molecular Weight
- Formula Mass
- Formula weight

Ex. 1. SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide) ● (32.07) + 2 (16.00)

● (32.07) + (32.00)
1 Sulfur atom | 2 Oxygen atoms
67
 64.07 𝑔 3 carbon atoms | 8 hydrogen atoms | 1
= = this means that 1 mole of
𝑚𝑜𝑙 oxygen atom
SO2 weights 64.07 g
● 3 (12.01) + 8 (1.01) + (16.00)
● 36.03 + 8.08 + 16.00

2. C3H8O (Propanol) 60.11 𝑔

= = 1 mole of C3H8O weights
𝑚𝑜𝑙
60.11 g

3. Ca(NO3)2

1 calcium | each NO3 has 1 nitrogen, 3 ● 40.08 + 2 (14.01) + 6 (16.00)

oxygen (multiply by 2) ● 40.08 + 28.02 + 96.00

1 calcium | 2 nitrogen | 6 oxygen 164.1 𝑔

= = 1 Ca(NO3)2
𝑚𝑜𝑙

STOICHIOMETRY

- Measuring chemicals that go into, and come out of, any given reaction
- Allows us to count atoms and molecules by weighing them
- The quantitative relationships of reactants and products in a chemical reaction

MOLES

- a standard scientific unit for measuring large quantities of very small entities such
as atoms, molecules

A mole of any element contains 6.022 * 1023 (Avogadro’s Number)

68
CONVERTING BETWEEN GRAMS (MASS) AND MOLES

Moles → Grams

Multiply moles by molar mass

Ex 1. What is the mass in grams of 4.30 2. What is the mass in grams of 0.850
moles of Aluminum? moles of Sulfure Dioxide? (SO2)

The molar mass of Al = 26.98 g/mol The molar mass of S = 32.07 g/mol

● (4.30) 26.98 g = 116 g (rounded to 3 The molar mass of O2 = 32 g/mol

sig figs)
The molar mass of SO2 = 64.07 g

● 0.850 mol * 64.07 g = 54.5 g

Grams→ Moles

Divide grams by molar mass

69
Ex. 1. How many moles in 127.5 g of 2. How many moles are in 32.7 grams to
Sodium Chloride? (NaCl) Ethanol? (C2H6O)

The molar mass of Na = 22.99 g/mol The molar mass of C2 = 24

The molar mass of Cl = 35.45 g/mol The molar mass of H6 = 6

The molar mass of NaCl = 58.44 g/mol The molar mass of O = 16

● 127.5 / 58.44 = 2.182 moles The molar mass of C2H6O = 46 g/mol

(rounded to 4 sig figs)
46 g/mol / 32.7 = 0.710 moles (3 sig figs

AVOGADRO’S NUMBER

70