CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

DEFINITION OF TERMS
GENETICS – coined by William Bateson (1906), from the word “gen” which means to become or grow into something.
Genetics can be defined as the:
1. Science of heredity and variation.
2. Branch of biology that deals with the principles of heredity and variations among living things;
3. Study of mechanism of heredity by which traits or characteristics are passed from generation to generation
(Burns, 1972).

 It involves the study of cells, individuals, their offspring, and the population in which organism live.
 It seeks to understand:
o Molecular and physical bases of biological diversity (every individual is unique except for identical
twins);
o Mechanism resulting from this diversities; and
o Principles that govern their heredity from one generation to another (rice looks rice from generation
to generation)
The science of genetics begins with the work of Gregor Mendel, an Agustinian monk who in 1866, discovered that
hereditary characteristics are determined by elementary units and transmitted between generations in uniform predictable
fashion.
FOREST GENETICS – is the study of heredity and variations in forest trees (Costales, 1990).

 Traits carried by trees are controlled by both internal (genetic constitution) and external (environmental) factors
 The basic genetic principles are accordingly the same for trees, man and fruit flies but inheritance pattern and
method of experimentation vary considerably in these group.

TREE IMPROVEMENT – refers to the application of genetic knowledge and theories to develop genetically superior
trees. This can be achieved through breeding and cultural practices.

IMPORTANCE AND APPLICATIONS OF GENETICS

1. Improvement of plants, animals and microorganisms through manipulation of genetic composition
e.g. increase in rice yields/ha/year

 Application of genetics can bring improvement on the quality of forest trees (in terms ofresistance to pest
and diseases, improved growth rate, size, form, etc.; increased production and quality of fruits or seed,
development of better varieties on species, etc.)
 Development of organisms that can be used to effectively control forest pests and diseases can be
facilitated by the application of genetic knowledge.

2. Medical applications
 Genetics has many application in the medical field.
 Disease and abnormalities that have genetic bases have been identified and appropriate measures
prescribed.
 Many disease and abnormalities are heritable such as diabetes, hemoglobin abnormalities, mental
deficiencies, blindness, deafness, etc.
 If the nature of defect is known, it is easier to take the necessary preventive measures.

3. Genetic counseling
 General abnormalities in the family are counseled not to produce children.
 Mental retardation – gene carried by the mother (normal) produce normal daughter and son mentally
retarded.
 Knowledge of the inheritance of certain desirable or undesirable characteristics as well as the ancestors of
the prospective parents, is used in genetic counseling.

4. Legal applications
 Genetics has helped solve problems of disputed parentage
 Blood type analyses will establish parentage of children and clarify questions of illegitimate children,
estate claims or even baby mix-ups in hospitals.
 Establish paternity using blood type as one of the basis, crime solving through DNA finger printing,
establishing DNA profile.

5. Genetic engineering
  Scientific discipline of altering or combining the gene of a living organism
 A controversial application of genetics
 Has equal potential for good or evil
 Production of organisms that would be destructive to almost all living organisms
IMPORTANCE OF GENETICS IN FORESTRY
Application of genetics can bring improvement on the quality of forest trees (in terms of resistance to pest and diseases,
improved growth rate rate, size, form, etc., increased production and quality of fruits or seed, development of better
varieties or species, etc.)
Development of new organisms that can be used to effectively control forest pests and diseases can be facilitated by the
application of the genetic knowledge.
CONTRAINTS AND PROBLEMS PECULIAR IN THE STUDY OF FORESTS GENETICS
1. Forests genetics uses indirect evidence
 Genes are only hypothetically/theoretically discerned only by deductions. The actual quality of a given
tree may only be ascertained by several crosses or progeny tests
2. Uncertainty and the need for continuous experimentations.
 Using evidences exhibit by the seedlings, for example, may not be enough to ascertain if the seedling
carries the good traits observed from its parent tree
3. Necessity of forest production
 Progeny testing and further study to ascertain genotype or to develop hybrids requires the use or
production of fruit/seeds from the experimental plants
 Permanency in plantation
4. Time element involved is relatively long (life cycle)
5. Limited study in the field (size)
6. No proper record keeping
7. Scarcity of genetic information on trees and the unavailability of modern technologies to the country

BASIC CONCEPTS OFGENETICS

What does “genetics” mean?
Genetics is the branch of biology concerned with heredity and variation. This discipline involves the study of
cells, individuals, their offspring, and the populations within which organisms live.

What is the center of heredity in a cell?

In eukaryotic organism, the nucleus contains the genetic material. In prokaryotes, such as bacteria, the genetic
material exists in an unenclosed but recognizable area of the cell called the nucleoid region. In viruses, which are not true
cells, the genetic material is unsheathed in the protein coat, together constituting the viral head or capsid.

What is genetic material?

In eukaryotes and prokaryotes, DNA serves as the molecule storing genetic information. In viruses, either DNA or
RNA serves this function.

What do DNA and RNA stand for?

DNA and RNA are abbreviations for deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid respectively. These are the two
types of nucleic acids found in organisms. Nucleic acids, along with carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins, compose the four
major classes of organic biomolecules found in living things.

How is DNA organized to serve as the genetic material?

DNA, although single stranded in a few viruses, is usually a double-stranded molecule organized as a double
helix. Contained within each DNA molecule are heredity units called genes, which are part of larger elements, the
chromosomes.

What is a gene?
In simplest terms, the gene is the functional unit of heredity. In chemical terms, it is a linear array of nucleotides –
the chemical building blocks of DNA and RNA. A more conceptual approach is to consider it as an informational
storage unit capable of undergoing replication, mutation, and expression. As investigations have progressed, the gene
has been found to be a very complex element.

What is a chromosome?
In viruses and bacteria, which have only a single chromosome, a chromosome is simply thought as a long, usually
circular DNA molecule organized into genes. Most eukaryotes have many chromosomes that are composed of linear DNA
molecules intimately associated with proteins. In addition, eukaryotic chromosomes contain many nongenic regions. It is
not yet clear what role, if any, is played by many of these regions. Our knowledge of the chromosome, like that of the
gene, is continually expanding.
When and how can chromosome be visualized?
If the chromosomes are related from the viral head or the bacterial cell, they can be visualized under the electron
microscope. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are most easily visualize under the light microscope when they are