Course Code: MATH 1003

Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

Idea for defining Indefinite Integral

Concept of a function:
Let ≠ ⊂ and is the set all real numbers.
Suppose for any ∈ , we can find exactly one (one and only one/unique) ∈ corresponding to .
If we assign to such , this assignment is called a function on defined on . Say, the name of the assignment is .
We write : → . Also, we write ( ) =
is called the domain of .

Example 1:
Let = { ∈ : > 0}. Obviously, ≠ ⊂ .
For any ∈ , let = . This is UNIQUE.
The assignment from to is a function defined on . Say its name is .
We may write ( ) = .

Example 2:
Let = . Obviously, ≠ ⊂ .
For any ∈ , let = . This is UNDEFINED when =0
The assignment from to is NOT a function defined on as 0 ∈ is NOT properly assigned.

Example 3:
Let = [−1,1] = { ∈ : −1 ≤ ≤ 1}. Obviously, ≠ ⊂ .
For any ∈ , we can find ∈ such that + = 1.
√ √
The assignment from to is NOT a function defined on as ∈ is assigned to both and (NOT UNIQUE).

Assignment of a differentiable function to its derivative:

Let ≠ ⊂ .
Suppose : → is a function.
Suppose is differentiable. That is, we can find ( ) for any ∈ .
( ) ( )
Note: ( ) = lim
→
By the uniqueness of limit, ( ) is UNIQUE.
We can define a function : → such that ( ) = ( ) for any ∈ .
Sometimes, we write = . That is, is a function.
Let = { ℎ ℎ }
Let = { }
For any ∈ , we assign it to ∈ . This assignment is a function.
This function is called the differential operator .
We write ( )= ( ) for any ∈ .

Assignment of a function to another function so that the derivative of such function is the given function
Let = .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = 5 for any ∈ .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = for any ∈ .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = + 2021 for any ∈ .
Note: ( )= ( )= ( ) for any ∈ .
We may write = = . Obviously, ≠ .
The assignment of ∈ to ∈ such that = is NOT a function.
Definition:
Let ≠ ⊂ .
Let = { ℎ ℎ }
Let = { }
Suppose ∈ and ∈ such that = . Then, is called an anti-derivative (or a primitive function) of .

Example:
Let = .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = 5 for any ∈ .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = for any ∈ .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = + 2021 for any ∈ .
and are anti-derivatives of .
anti-derivatives of are NOT UNIQUE.

Theorem:
Let ≠ ⊂ .
Let = { ℎ ℎ }
Let = { }
Suppose ∈ and , ∈ such that = = .
Then, we can a fixed real number such that ( ) = ( ) + for any ∈ .
Sometimes, we write = + . That is, and differ by a constant .

Remark:
Let ≠ ⊂ .
Let ∈ and ∈ .
We define ( ) = ( ) + for any ∈ .

Theorem:
Let ≠ ⊂ .
Let = { ℎ ℎ }
Let = { }
Suppose ∈ and ∈ such that = .
Then, we can show that the set all anti-derivatives of is given by { : ∈ }.
is called an representative anti-derivative of the set of all anti-derivatives of .

Theorem:
Suppose both and are anti-derivatives of .
We can show that { : ∈ } = : ∈ .

Theorem:
The assignment from to the set all anti-derivatives of is a function.
This function is called the integral operator ∫ .
Sometimes, we treat as the assignment from to for any ∈ .
Sometimes, we write ( ) as ( ) + .
We write ∫ ( ) = ( ) + for any ∈
Sometimes, we write ∫ ( ) = ( ) + where is an arbitrary constant.

Indefinite Integration / Anti-differentiation is the reverse process of differentiation.

Example:
Let = .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = 5 for any ∈ .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = for any ∈ .
Let : → be defined by ( ) = + 2021 for any ∈ .
We can write ∫ 5 = + and ∫ 5 = + 2021 +
Note:
If you write ∫ = , some marks will be deducted.

Summary:
“∫ ( ) = ( )+ where is an arbitrary constant” means “ ( ) = ( ) for any ∈ ”
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

Indefinite Integrals of Common Integrands:

We can get the following results easily:
Polynomial Function:
= for ≠ −1 ∫ = + for ≠ −1
Trigonometric Function:
= = +

=− =− +

= = +

=− ∙ ∙ =− +

= ∙ ∙ = +

=− =− +
Inverse Trigonometric Function:
1 1
= = +
√1 − √1 −
Assumed 1 − > 0. That is −1 < <1

−1 1
= =− +
√1 − √1 −
Assumed 1 − > 0. That is −1 < <1

1 1
= = +
1+ 1+
The Exponential Function:
= = +

= ∙ = +
Assumed > 0 and ≠1

The Logarithmic Function:

= for > 0 ∫ = + (Assumed > 0)
| | = for ≠0 ∫ = | | + (Assumed ≠ 0)
Usually we fix the natural domain of to include as many as possible / as much as possible.
Show that =
Proof:
Let = . That is, = .
1= = = ∙ = ∙
1 1 1
= = = =
1− √1 −
(Assumed ≥ 0)

Show that =
Proof:
Let = . That is, = .
1= = = ∙ =− ∙
−1 −1 1
= = = =
1− √1 −
(Assumed ≥ 0)

Show that =
Proof:
Let = . That is, = .
1= = = ∙ = ∙
1 1 1
= = = =
1+ 1+

Show that =− + for − < <

Proof:
Let ( ) = + for −1 < < 1
( )= + = 0 for −1 < < 1

(0) = 0+ 0= 0+ =
2 2
So, ( ) = (0) for −1 < < 1
That is, =− + for −1 < <1
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

Simple Rule for Indefinite Integral:

Suppose , ∈ and , are Riemann Integrable on concerned interval.
Then,
∙ ( )+ ∙ ( ) = ( ) + ( )

Examples:
(a) (b) 4
1 + 3√ −
(c) 1 (d) 6
( −2 ) −5 2 + + 2
(e)
(2 3 +5 4 )

Solutions:
(a) (d) 6
1 2 + + 2
= + 1
=2 +6 + 2 1
(b) 4 =2 + 6 | | + ( 2) +
+ 3√ −
(e)
= +3 −4 (2 3 +5 4 )

=2 3 +5 4
= +3∙ −4∙ +
4 3 −1
2
4 3 4
= +2 + + =2∙ +5∙ +
4 3 −4
(c) 1 2 3 5 4
( −2 ) −5 = − +
3 4
= ( −5 − 2 + 10 )

= (−5 + 11 −2 )
−5 11
= + − +
4 3
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# Integration by Substitution for Indefinite Integral

Let , ∈ with < .
Let : → and : → be functions.
Suppose both and are differentiable on .
Let = ( ) and = ( ).
Then, we may regard as a function on , that is = ( ) .
By Chain Rule, we have
= ∙ OR ( ° ) ( ) = ( ) ∙ ( ).

Notes:
(i)
( ) ∙ ( ) = ( ° )( ) = ( ° )( ) + = ( ) +
(ii) ∫ ( ) = ( )+ = ( ) + (as = ( ))
(iii) We may regard ∫ ( ) ∙ ( ) =∫ ( )
as = ( ) and = ( ) .
(iv) This suggests a way to evaluate the indefinite integral by letting = ( ).

# 7.2 Integration by Substitution:

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b)
(1 + )
1+
(c) √ (d)
√ +4 √1 − 9
(e) (f)
1+ 1+
(g) (h) 1
2 2
1+4
(i) ∫√ − ( > 0 is a fixed real number) (j) ∫ ( > 0 is a fixed real number)
(k) ( > 0 is a fixed real number)
∫
Solutions:

(a) 1
(1 + )
1 Let =1+
= (1 + ) ∙
1
= =
1
= +
6
1
= (1 + ) +
6
(b)
1+
1 1 Let =
= ∙2
2 1+( )
1 1 =2
=
2 1+
1
= +
2
1
= ( )+
2
(c) √

√ +4
√
1 Let =√ +4
=2 ∙
2√ + 4
1
=2 =
2√ + 4
=2 √ +
(d)
√1 − 9
−1 Let = 1−9
= (1 − 9 ) ∙ (−18 )
18
−1 = −18
=
18
−1
= ∙ +
18 1
2
−1
= √ +
9
−1
= 1−9 +
9
(e)
1+
1 1 Let =1+
= ∙ (2 )
2 1+
1 1 =2
=
2
1
= | |+
2
1
= |1 + |+
2
1 Note: 1 + > 0 for any ∈
= (1 + )+
2
Solutions:

(f)
1+
1 Let =
= ∙
1+
1
= =
1+
= +
= +
(g)
2 2
1 Let = 2
= 2 ∙2 2
2
1 =2 2
=
2
1
= ∙ +
2 4
1
= 2 +
8
(h) 1
1+4
1 1 Let =2
= ∙2
2 1 + (2 )
1 1 =2
=
2 1+
1
= +
2
1
= (2 ) +
2
(i) ∫√ − ( > 0 is a fixed real number)
Let =
= ∙
=
=
1+ 2 − = −( ) = (1 − )=
=
2
1 1 √ − = (Assumed ≥ 0)
= + 2 +
2 4
1 1
= + 2 + =
2 4
1 √ − For a right angled triangle, opposite side is , longest side is and
= + +
2 2
adjacent side is √ −
√ −
=
√ − 2 √ −
2 =2 = 2∙ ∙ =
(j) ∫ ( > 0 is a fixed real number)
1 Let =
= ∙
=
= 1
= + √ − = (Assumed ≥ 0)
= +
 Solutions:

(k) ( > 0 is a fixed real number)

∫
− 1
=− +
√ − √ −
1
=− − +
√ −
1 √ −
=− + + +
2 2
1 √ −
= − +
2 2

Another Method
(k) ( > 0 is a fixed real number)
∫
Let =
= ∙
=
=
1− 2 √ − = (Assumed ≥ 0)
=
2
1 1
= − 2 +
2 4
1 1 2 √ −
= − 2 + 2 =
2 4
1 √ −
= − +
2 2
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.3 Integration by parts:

Suppose and are differentiable functions on on an open interval.
Chain’s Rule:
[ ( ) ∙ ( )] = ( ) ∙ ( )+ ( )∙ ( )
Sometimes, we write it as = ∙ + ∙
Theorem:
( )∙ ( ) = ( )∙ ( )− ( )∙ ( )
Sometimes, we write it as ∫ = −∫

Proof:
( )∙ ( ) + ( )∙ ( )

= ( )∙ ( )+ ( )∙ ( )

= [ ( ) ∙ ( )]
= ( )∙ ( )+
Sometimes, we write it as ∫ +∫ = + .
That is, ∫ = −∫
We may write ∫ = −∫ (ignoring as ∫ will involve arbitrary constant)

# 7.3A Integration by parts (Simple Problems):

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)
( )
(i) ∫ 4 (j) ∫ 3
(k) (l)
3
(m) (n)
3 5
(o) (p)
√
(q) (r)
1−
( + 1)
Solutions:

(a) (e)

= − ( ) = ( )
1
= − ∙ = −
= + | |+
= − 1
= − + (f)

(b)
= ∙

= − ( ) =
−1
1 −1
= − ∙ =
√1 −
1 −1 −1
= + (1 − ) ∙ (−2 ) = − ( )
2
1 −1 −1 1
= + (1 − ) (1 − ) = − ∙
2
−1
1 (1 − ) = +
= + ∙ +
2 1
2
= + 1− + −1
= + +
−1
(c) −1 1
= − +
(g)
=− ∙ (− )

=− ( ) =− ( )

=− − =− − ( )
= −( + )+
=− −2
= −( + 1) +
=− +2
(d) =− + 2[−( + 1) ]+

=− − 2( + 1) +
=
2
= −( + 2 + 2) +
= − ( )
2 2
1
= − ∙
2 2
1
= −
2 2
1
= − ∙ +
2 2 2
= − +
2 4
Solutions:

(h) (j)
( ) 3
1
= ( ) = 3 ( )
2 3
1
= ( ) − (( ) ) = 3 − ( 3 )
2 2 3
1 1
= ( ) − ∙2 ∙ = 3 −3 3
2 2 3
1
= ( ) − = 3 − 3
2 3
= ( ) − − +
2 2 4

= ( ) − + + 3
2 2 4
(i) 1 1
4 = 3 + 3 − 3 +
3 3
1
= ( 4 )
4
1
= 4 − 4 ( ) 2 3
4
1 1 1
= 4 −2 4 = 3 + 3 +
4 3 3
1 1
= 4 − 4
4 2
3
1
4 = ( 3 + 3 )+
6
−1
= ( 4 )
4
−1 (k)
= 4 − 4 3
4
−1 1 1
= 4 − 4 + = 3 ( )
4 4 2
−1 1 1
= 4 + 4 + = 3 − ( 3 )
4 16 2
1
= 3 +3 3
2
1 3
4 = 3 + 3
2 2
1 1 −1 1
= 4 − 4 + 4 +
4 2 4 16
1 1 1
= 4 + 4 − 4 + 3
4 8 32
(j) 1
3 = 3 ( )
2
1 1
= 3 ( ) = 3 − ( 3 )
3 2
1 1
= 3 − ( 3 ) = 3 −3 3
3 2
1 1 3
= 3 +3 3 = 3 − 3
3 2 2
1
= 3 + 3
3
Solutions:

(k) (o)
3 √
1 3 1 3
= 3 + 3 − 3 = √
2 2 2 2
+
1 3 9 1
= 3 + 3 − 3 + =2 √ √ ∙
2 4 4 2√
(Let = √ . Then, = )
√
13
3 =2
4
1 3
= 3 + 3 + =2
2 4 4
1
= (2 3 +3 3 )+ =2 − ( )
4 4 4
1
=2 − ∙
4 4 1+
1 1
3 = −
2 2 1+
1 (By Long Division, =( − 1)( + 1) + 1)
= (2 3 +3 3 )+
13
(l) 1 1 1
= − −1+
2 2 1+
1− 2 1 1 1
= = − − + +
2 2 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − 2 + = − + − +
2 4 2 6 2 2
Note: We don’t use Integration by Parts 1 1 1 1
= √ − + √ − √ +
2 6 2 2
(m) 1 1 1
3 5 = ( − 1) √ − + √ +
2 6 2
1 (p)
= 8 + (−2 )
2
1 2 3
= ( 8 − 2 ) = ∙
2 3 2
1 −1 1
= 8 + 2 + (Let = . Then, = )
2 8 2
−1 1 2
= 8 + 2 + =
16 4 3
Note: We don’t use Integration by Parts −2
= ( )
3
Note: ( + )+ ( − )=2 −2
= −
3
(n) −2
= ( − )+
3
1 −2
= 2 = − +
2 3
−1
= ( 2 )
4
−1
= 2 − 2
4
−1 1
= 2 − 2 +
4 2
−1 1
= 2 + 2 +
4 8
Solutions:

(q) (r)
1−
( + 1)
1 1
=− 1− ∙ (−2 ) = ∙2
2 2 ( + 1)
1 1
=− (1 − ) (1 − ) = ( + 1) ( + 1)
2 2
1 ( + 1)
1 (1 − ) =
=− 2 −1
2 3
2
1 1 −1
=− (1 − ) =
3 2 +1
1 1 −1 −1
=− (1 − ) − (1 − ) ( ) = ∙ −
3 2 +1 +1
1 − 1 1
=− (1 − ) + (1 − ) (1 − ) = +
3 2( + 1) 2 +1
1 2 Note
=− (1 − ) + (1 − ) +
3 5
1 2 = + ( )
=− (1 − ) − (1 − ) +
3 15 =( + 1) ( )

Another Method
( + 1)
1− − 1 1
= + ( + 1) ( )
2( + 1) 2 +1
1 − 1
=− 1 − ∙ (−2 ) = + ( )
2 2( + 1) 2
Let = 1 − . Then, = −2 − 1
= + +
2( + 1) 2
1 1
=− (1 − )√ = (− + + 1) +
2 2( + 1)
1 1
=− − = +
2 2( + 1)
1 2 2
=− − +
2 3 5
−1 1 Another Method
= + +
3 5
−1 1 1
= (1 − ) + (1 − ) + ( + 1) ( + 1)
3 5 2
1 ( − 1)
=
2
Note: if = +1
1 2 1 1 1
− (1 − ) − (1 − ) = −
3 15 2
−1 1 2 Note:
= (1 − ) + (1 − )(1 − ) − (1 − )
3 3 15
−1 1 2 1 1
= (1 − ) + (1 − ) − (1 − ) =−
3 3 15
−1 1 1 1
= (1 − ) + (1 − ) =− −
3 5
So, ∫ − = +
# 7.3B Integration by parts (Reduction Formulae):
Show that:
∫ = ∙ + ∫ for = , , ,⋯

Proof:
= ∙ = ( )

= ∙ − ( )

= ∙ − ( − 2) ∙ ∙

= ∙ − ( − 2) ∙

= ∙ − ( − 2) ( − 1)

= ∙ − ( − 2) + ( − 2)

So, ∫ = ∙ − ( − 2) ∫ + ( − 2) ∫
( − 1) = (1 + − 2) = ∙ + ( − 2)

Thus, ∫ = ∙ + ∫
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.4A Trigonometric Integrals:

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

Solutions:

(a) Another Method

=− + (e) Let =
(b) 2
=
1−
= + (Note: 2 = )
(c) 1
=
2 2
1 1
= = 1+ = (1 + )
2 2 2
1 2
=− ( ) =
1+
=− | |+ A right angled triangle, opposite side is 2 ,
(d) adjacent side is 1 − .

= Longest side is (2 ) + (1 − )
1 = 4 +1−2 + = 1+2 +
= ( )
= | |+ = (1 + ) =1+
(e) Thus, =
( + )
=
+
+ 1+ 2
= = ∙
+ 1− 1+
1 2
= ( + ) =−
+ −1
= | + |+ 1 1
=− −
−1 +1
(f) = − | − 1| + | + 1| +

( + ) | + 1|
= = +
+ | − 1|
− − 1+ 1+
=− = ∙ +
+ 1− 1+
1 1+ 2
=− ( + ) = + +
+ 1− 1−
=− | + |+ = | + |+
# 7.4B Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Case 1: At least one of and is ODD

(a) (b)
∙ ∙
(c) (d)
∙
(e)

Solutions:

(a) (d)
∙

=− ∙ ∙ (− ) =− ∙ (− )

= − (1 − )∙ ∙ (− ) = − (1 − ) ∙ (− )
Let = . Then, =− . Let = . Then, =− .
= − (1 − ) = − (1 − )
1
= (− + ) =− + +
3
1 1 1
=− + + =− + +
3 5 3
1 1 (e)
=− + +
3 5
(b)
∙ = ∙

= ∙ ∙ = (1 − )∙
Let = . Then, = .
= ∙ (1 − )∙
Let = . Then, = .
= (1 − )
1
= (1 − ) = − +
3
1
= ( − ) = − +
3
1 1
= − +
3 5
1 1
= − +
3 5
(c)
∙

= ∙ ∙

= ∙ (1 − )∙
Let = . Then, = .
= (1 − )

= ( − )
1 1
= − +
4 6
1 1
= − +
4 6
# 7.4B Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Case 2: Both and are EVEN

(a) (b)
∙
(c)

Solutions:

(a) (c)
∙
1− 2 1+ 2 1+ 2
= ∙ =
2 2 2
1 1
= (1 − 2 ) = (1 + 2 2 + 2 )
4 4
1 1+ 4 1 1+ 4
= 1− = 1+2 2 +
4 2 4 2
1 1 1 1 3 1
= − 4 = +2 2 + 4
4 2 2 4 2 2
1 1 1 1 3 1
= − 4 + = + 2 + 4 +
4 2 8 4 2 8
1 1 3 1 1
= − 4 + = + 2 + 4 +
8 32 8 4 32
(b)

1− 2
=
2
1
= (1 − 2 2 + 2 )
4
1 1+ 4
= 1−2 2 +
4 2
1 3 1
= −2 2 + 4
4 2 2
1 3 1
= − 2 + 4 +
4 2 8
3 1 1
= − 2 + 4 +
8 4 32

# 7.4B Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Miscellaneous Problems
(a) (b)
( ) ∙ ∙

Solutions:

(a) (b)
( ) ∙ ∙

= ( ) ∙ (1 − ) =
1+ 2
= ( ) −( ) ( ) =
2
2 2 1 1
= ( ) − ( ) + = + 2 +
5 9 2 4
# 7.4C Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Case 1: is ODD and >0

(a) (b)
∙ ∙

Solutions:

(a) (b)
∙ ∙

= ∙ = ( − 1) ∙ ∙

= ( ) = ( − ) ( )
1 1 1
= + = − +
4 5 3

# 7.4C Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Case 2: is EVEN and >0

(a) (b)
∙
(c)
∙

Solutions:

(a) (c)
∙ ∙

= ∙ (1 + )∙ = ( )
1
= ( + ) ( ) = +
2
1 1
= + +
2 4
Note:
1 1 1
= (1 + ) = (1 + 2 + )
4 4 4
1 1 1
= + +
4 2 4
(b)

= (1 + )∙

= (1 + ) ( )
1
= + +
3
# 7.4C Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Case 3: is EVEN
(a) (b)

Solutions:

(a) Another Method

(b)
= ( − 1)
= − +
= ( )
(b)
= − ( )

= ( − 1) = −

= ( − ) = − (1 + )

= − = − −
1 1 So, 2 ∫ = −∫
= − | + |+
2 2
Note

1 −2 1 1
= + = − | + |+
−1 −1 2 2
for = 3,4,5, ⋯.

# 7.4C Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

Case 4: is ODD and =0

(a) (b)

Solutions:

(a) (b)

= ( − 1) = ( − 1)

= − = ( −2 + 1)
1
= + | |+ = −2 +
2
1 1 1
= + −2∙ − | |+
2 4 2
−1 1
= + − | |+
2 4

# 7.4D Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ where , ∈ {0,1,2,3, ⋯ }

Examples and Exercises (refers to Homework Assignment)
# 7.4E Trigonometric Integrals for ∫ ∙ ,∫ ∙ and ∫ ∙
where , ∈ {1,2,3, ⋯ }
Use the following identities:
2 ∙ = ( + )+ ( − )
2 ∙ = ( + )+ ( − )
−2 ∙ = ( + )− ( − )

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) (b)
5 ∙ 3 2 ∙ 6
(c)
∙ 3

Solutions:

(a) (c)
5 ∙ 3 ∙ 3
1
= ( 8 + 2 ) = 3 ∙
2
1 −1 1 1
= 8 − 2 + = ( 4 − 2 )
2 8 2 2
−1 1 1 1 1
= 8 − 2 + = 4 − 2 +
16 4 2 4 2
(b) 1 1
2 ∙ 6 = 4 − 2 +
8 4
= 6 ∙ 2
−1
= ( 8 − 4 )
2
−1 1 1
= 8 − 4 +
2 8 4
−1 1
= 8 + 4 +
16 8
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.5 Rational Function and Partial Fractions

Definitions:
Suppose ( ) and ( ) are polynomials in .
Suppose ( ) is not the zero polynomial.
( )
Then, is called a rational function.
( )
That is, a rational function is a division of two polynomials (note: the denominator must be non-zero polynomial).

Suppose , , , ∈ with ≠ 0.
is a non-zero constant polynomial. Its degree is defined as 0.
+ is a linear polynomial. Its degree is defined as 1.
+ + is a quadratic polynomial. Its degree is defined as 2.
+ + + is a cubic polynomial. Its degree is defined as 3.

Suppose , ,⋯, , ∈ with ≠ 0.

+ + ⋯+ + is a polynomial with degree .

Suppose ( ) and ( ) are polynomials in .

Suppose ( ) is not the zero polynomial.
( )
is called a proper rational function if degree of ( ) < degree of ( ).
( )
( )
is called an improper rational function if degree of ( ) ≥ degree of ( ).
( )

Suppose ( ) and ( ) are polynomials in .

Suppose degree of ( ) ≥ 1.
( )
Suppose is an improper rational function.
( )
By Long Division, we can find polynomials ( ) and ( ) such that ( ) ≡ ( ) ∙ ( ) + ( )
and degree of ( ) < degree of ( ) OR ( ) is the zero polynomial.
( ) is called the quotient and ( ) is called the remainder
( ) ( ) ( )
In this case, = ( )+ . Note:
( )
is proper.
( )
( )
That is, we can always possible to rewrite an improper rational function as a sum of a polynomial and a proper rational function.

Suppose , , ∈ with ≠ 0
+ is called an irreducible factor.
+ + is called an irreducible factor if −4 < 0.
Note: We can find , ∈ such that + + ≡ ( − )( − ) ⇔ −4 ≥ 0. In this case, we say it is reducible.
Reason: + + = 0 has real root(s) ⇔ −4 ≥ 0.

Type 1 Simple Proper Rational Function

Let , ∈ with ≠ 0 and , , ⋯ , ∈ .
,( )
,⋯,( )
are called simple proper fractions.
Type 2 Simple Proper Rational Function
Let , , ∈ with ≠ 0 and , , ⋯ , , , , ⋯ , ∈ .
Suppose − 4 < 0. That is, + + is irreducible.
,( )
,⋯,( )
are called simple proper fractions.

Remarks:
Other types of simple proper rational function will NOT be considered in this course.
Simple proper fractions are called partial fractions.

# 7.5A Proper Rational Function and Denominator is a product of distinct linear factors
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) 5 (b) 4 −3 −4
(2 + 1)( − 2) + −2
(c) 7 −6
+ −6

Solutions:

(a) Let ( = + (c) Let = +

)( )
for and are fixed real numbers (constants). for and are fixed real numbers (constants).
5≡ ( − 2) + (2 + 1) 7 − 6 ≡ ( − 2) + ( + 3)
Put = , we have 5 = , so = −2 Put = −3, we have −27 = −5 , so =
Put = 2, we have 5 = 5 , so = 1 Put = 2, we have 8 = 5 , so =
Thus, ( )( )
= + Thus, = +
5 7 −6
(2 + 1)( − 2) + −6
1 1 27 1 8 1
= −2 + = +
2 +1 −2 5 +3 5 −2
1 1 27 8
=− (2 + 1) + ( − 2) = | + 3| + | − 2| +
2 +1 −2 5 5
= − |2 + 1| + | − 2| +
−2
= +
2 +1
(b) Let = + +
for , and are fixed real numbers (constants).
4 −3 −4
≡ ( + 2)( − 1) + ( − 1) + ( + 2)
Put = 0, we have −4 = −2 , so = 2
Put = −2, we have 18 = 6 , so = 3
Put = 1, we have −3 = 3 , so = −1
4 −3 −4 2 3 −1
= + +
+ −2 +2 −1
4 −3 −4
+ −2
2 3 −1
= + +
+2 −1
1 1 1
=2 +3 −
+2 −1
= 2 | | + 3 | + 2| − | − 1| +
( − 2)
= +
−1
# 7.5B Proper Rational Function and Denominator is a product of factors
(it involves a power of a linear factor)
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) −4 −1 (b) −32 − 48

( − 1) ( + 2)

Solutions:

(a) Let = + +( +( (b) Let = +(

( ) ) ) ( ) )
for , , and are fixed real numbers (constants). for and are fixed real numbers (constants).
−4 −1 −32 − 48 ≡ ( + 2) +
≡ ( − 1) + ( ( − 1) + ( − 1) + ) Put = −2, we have 16 =
Put = 0, we have −1 = − , so = 1 ( + 2) = −32 − 48 − 16
− 4 − 1 − ( − 1) = −32 − 64 = −32( + 2)
= − 4 − 1 − ( − 3 + 3 − 1) So, = −32
=3 −7 −32 − 48 −32 16
= +
( + 2) + 2 ( + 2)
= (3( − 1) − 4) −32 − 48
( + 2)
= 0, = 3 and = −4 −32 16
= +
+ 2 ( + 2)
−4 −1 1 3 −4 1
= + + = −32 + 16 ( + 2)
( − 1) ( − 1) ( − 1) +2
−4 −1 ( + 2)
= −32 | + 2| + 16 ∙ +
( − 1) −1
1 3 −4 16
= + + = −32 | + 2| − +
( − 1) ( − 1) +2
1
= + 3 ( − 1) − 4 ( − 1)
( − 1) ( − 1)
= | |+3∙ −4∙ +
−1 −2
3 2
= | |− + +
− 1 ( − 1)
# 7.5C Proper Rational Function and Denominator is a product of factors
(it involves a quadratic factor)
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) +1 (b) 5 −3 +2 −1
( + 1) +

Solutions:

(a) Let = + (b) Let = + +

( )
for , and are fixed real numbers (constants). for , , and are fixed real numbers (constants).
+ 1 ≡ ( + 1) + ( + ) 5 −3 +2 −1
Put = 0, we have 1 = ≡ ( + )( + 1) + ( + )
+ 1 − ( + 1) Put = 0, we have −1 =
= − = (− + 1) ( + 1) + ( + )
So, = −1 and = 1 ≡ 5 − 3 + 2 − 1 + ( + 1)
+1 1 − +1 ≡5 −2 +2
= +
( + 1) +1
+1 So, ( + 1) + ( + ) ≡5 −2 +2
( + 1)
1 − +1 Put = 0, we have =2
= +
+1
1 1 ( + ) ≡5 − 2 + 2 − 2( + 1)
= − +
+1 +1
1 1 1 1 ≡3 − 2 ≡ (3 − 2)
= − ( + 1) +
2 +1 +1
1 So, = 3 and = −2
= | |− ⌈ + 1⌉ + +
2
1 5 −3 + 2 − 1 2 −1 3 − 2
= | |− ( + 1) + + = + +
2 + +1
Note: + 1 > 0 for any ∈ 5 −3 +2 −1
+
2 −1 3 − 2
= + +
+1
1 3 1
=2 − + ( + 1)
2 +1
1
−2
+1
1 3
=2 | |+ + | + 1| − 2 +
2
1 3
=2 | |+ + ( + 1) − 2 +
2
Note: + 1 > 0 for any ∈
# 7.5D Improper Rational Function
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) −1 (b) + + −1
+ +2 +2
(c) (d)
+ −6 +4 +4

Solutions:

(a) By Long Division, −1=( + ) ∙ 1 + (− − 1) (c) By Long Division,

−1 − −1 = ( + − 6)( − 1) + (7 − 6)
=1+
+ ( + 1)
= + 7 −6
( ) = −1+
+ −6 + −6
for , and are fixed real numbers (constants).
+ −6
− −1 ≡ ( + 1) + ( + ) 7 −6
= −1+
+ −6
Put = 0, we have −1 = 1 27 8
= − + | + 3| + | − 2| +
2 5 5
( + ) from (c) of #7.5A
≡ − − 1 + ( + 1) (d) By Long Division,
≡− + ≡ ( − 1) = ( + 4 + 4)( − 4 + 12) + (−32 − 48)
So, = 1 and = −1 −32 − 48
= − 4 + 12 +
+4 +4 ( + 2)
− −1 −1 −1
= +
( + 1) +1 +4 +4
−1 1 −1 −32 − 48
=1− + = − 4 + 12 +
+ +1 ( + 2)
−1 1 16
= − 2 + 12 − 32 | + 2| − +
+ 3 +2
1 −1 from (b) of #7.5B
= 1− +
+1
1 1 1
= 1 − + ( + 1)
2 +1
1
−
+1
1
= − | |+ | + 1| − +
2
1
= − | |+ ( + 1) − +
2
Note: + 1 > 0 for any ∈
(b) By Long Division,
+ + − 1 = ( + 2 + 2)( − 1) + ( + 1)
+ + −1 +1
= −1+
+2 +2 +2 +2
+ + −1
+2 +2
+1
= −1+
+2 +2
1 1
= ( − 1) + ( + 2 + 2)
2 +2 +2
1 1
= − + | + 2 + 2| +
2 2
1 1
= − + ( + 2 + 2) +
2 2
Note: + 2 + 2 = ( + 1) + 1 > 0 for any ∈
# 7.5E Rational Function (Miscellaneous Problems)
Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) + (b) +2
− −2 +4
(c)
− −6

Solutions:

(a) + = ( + 1) (c)
− −6
− −2 = ( − − 2) = ( + 1)( − 2)
=
− −6
+ ( + 1) 1 Let = . Then, = .
= =
− −2 ( + 1)( − 2) −2
+ 1
=
− −2 − −6
1 1
= =
−2 ( − 3)( + 2)
= | − 2| + 1 1 1
= −
5 −3 +2
(b) +2 ( + 2) 1
= = ( | − 3| − | + 2|) +
+4 ( + 4) 5
+4 +4 +4 4 1 −3
= = + = +
( + 4) ( + 4) ( + 4) 5 +2
1 4 1 −3
= + = +
+ 4 ( + 4) 5 +2
+2
+4
1 4
= +
+ 4 ( + 4)
1
= + 2 ( + 4) ( + 4)
+4
1 ( + 4)
= +2∙ +
2 2 −1
1 2
= − +
2 2 +4
# 7.5F Rational Function (Harder Problem)
Find the condition on the values of the coefficients , and (not all zeros) such that the integral
∫ ( ) involves no logarithms
(that is, the integral is a rational function).

Solutions:

Let ( )
= + + + +( )
for , , , and are fixed real numbers (constants).
Note: ∫ = | | + and ∫ = | − 1| + where and are arbitrary constants.
Thus, = = 0.
+ + ≡ ( + )( − 1) +
≡ ( + )( − 2 + 1) +
≡( + ) +( −2 ) +( −2 ) +
Coefficient of is 0 = +
Coefficient of is = − 2 ------------(1)
Coefficient of is = − 2 ------------(2)
Constant Term is = ----------- -(3)
(1) + 2 ∗ (2) + 3 ∗ (3) gives + 2 + 3 = 0 (Required Condition)
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.6A Trigonometric Substitution involving the form − where > is a constant

Let = .

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) (b)
√1 − √9 − 4

Solutions:

(a)
√1 −
Let = . Then, = .
= ∙
1− =1− =
=

= − (1 − ) ∙ (− ) √1 − = (Assumed ≥ 0)

= − (1 − ) ( )
1
=− + +
3
1
=− 1− + (1 − ) +
3
(b)
√9 − 4
9 Let 2 = 3 . Then, = .
3
= 4 ∙
3 2
9 9−4 = 3 − (2 ) = 3 − (3 ) = 3 (1 − )=3
=
8
9 1− 2 √9 − 4 =3 (Assumed ≥ 0)
=
8 2
9 1 1
= − 2 +
8 2 4
9 9 2
= − + =
16 16 3
9 2 √9 − 4 A right angled triangle, opposite side is 2 and longest side is 3.
= − +
16 3 8
Then, adjacent side is √9 − 4 .
√9 − 4
=
3
2 √9 − 4
=
9
# 7.6B Trigonometric Substitution involving the form + where > is a constant
Let = .

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) (b) 1
1+4
(4 + 9)

Solutions:

(a)
1+4
1 Let 2 = . Then, = .
= ∙
2
1 1+4 = 1 + (2 ) = 1 + =
=
2
1 1 1 √1 + 4 = (Assumed ≥ 0)
= + | + | +
2 2 2
1 1 Note
= + | + |+
4 4
1 1 1 −2
= 1+4 + 2 + 1+4 + = +
2 4 −1 −1
for = 3,4,5, ⋯.
1 1
= +
2 2
1 1
= + | + |+
2 2
(b) 1
(4 + 9)
1 3 Let 2 = 3 . Then, = .
= ∙
3 2
1 1 4 + 9 = (2 ) + 3 = 3 (1 + )=3
=
54
1
=
54
1 1+ 2
=
54 2
1 1 1 2
= + 2 + =
54 2 4 3
1 1 A right angled triangle, opposite side is 2 and adjacent side is 3.
= + +
108 108
1 2 Then, longest side is √9 + 4 .
= + +
108 3 18(9 + 4 )
2
=
√9 + 4
3
=
√9 + 4
6
=
9+4
# 7.6C Trigonometric Substitution involving the form − where > is a constant
Let = .

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) √ − 25 (b) 1
√ − 25

Solutions:

(a) √ − 25

5 Let =5 . Then, =5 .
= ∙5
5
− 25 = (5 ) −5 =5 ( − 1) = 5
=5

=5 ( − 1) √ − 25 = 5 (Assumed ≥ 0)

= 5( − )+
5
= − 25 − 5 + =
5
Then, =
A right angled triangle, adjacent side is 5 and longest side is .
Opposite side is √ − 25
√ − 25
=
5
(b) 1
√ − 25
1 Let =5 . Then, =5 .
= ∙5
5 ∙5
1 1 − 25 = (5 ) −5 =5 ( − 1) = 5
=
25
1 √ − 25 = 5 (Assumed ≥ 0)
=
25
1
= +
25
√ − 25 =
= + 5
25
Then, =
A right angled triangle, adjacent side is 5 and longest side is .
Opposite side is √ − 25
√ − 25
=
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.7A Trigonometric Substitution involving the form − where > is a constant

Let = .

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b)
( − )
√9 + 16 − 4
(c) 2+6
(3 + 2 − )

Solutions:

(a) 1
√9 + 16 − 4
1 5 9 + 16 − 4 = 25 − 4(4 − 4 + ) = 5 − 2 (2 − )
= ∙
5 2
1 = 5 − (4 − 2 )
= 1
2
1 Let 2 − 4 = 5 . Then, = .
= +
2
1 2 −4 9 + 16 − 4 = 5 − (4 − 2 ) = 5 − (5 )
= +
2 5 = 5 (1 − )=5
√9 + 16 − 4 = 5 (Assumed ≥ 0)
(b)
( − )
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ∙ − = − − + = − −
8 2 2 4 2 2
1 Let − = . Then, = .
=
16
1 1+ 2 1 1 1 1
= − = − = (1 − )=
16 2 2 2 4 4
1 √ − = (Assumed ≥ 0)
= (1 + 2 2 + 2 )
64
1 1+ 4 1
= 1+2 2 + ( − ) =
64 2 8
1 3 1
= +2 2 + 4 +
64 2 2
3 1 1
= + 2 + 4 +
128 64 512
3 1 =2 −1
= (2 − 1) + (2 − 1) −
128 16
1
+ (2 − 1)(8 − 8 − 1) − +
64
3 A right angled triangle, opposite side is 2 − 1 and longest side is 1.
= (2 − 1)
128
1
+ (2 − 1)(8 − 8 + 3) − +
64
Adjacent side is 1 − (2 − 1) = 2√ −
=2 −
2 = 4(2 − 1) −
2 =2 − 1 = 8( − ) − 1 = 8 − 8 −1
4 = 8(2 − 1)(8 − 8 − 1) −
Solutions:

(c) 2+6
(3 + 2 − )
2−2 1 Note: (3 + 2 − ) = 2−2
= −3 +8
(3 + 2 − ) (3 + 2 − )

2−2
(3 + 2 − )
= (3 + 2 − ) (3 + 2 − )
(3 + 2 − )
= +
−1
−1
= +
3+2 −
1
(3 + 2 − )
1 3+2 − = 4 − (1 − 2 + ) = 2 − (1 − )
= ∙2
2
1 Let −1=2 . Then, =2
=
8
1 1 1 3+2 − = 2 − (2 ) = 2 (1 − )=2
= + | + | +
8 2 2
1 1
= + | + |+
16 16
−1 1 +1 −1
= + + =
8(3 + 2 − ) 16 √3 + 2 − 2
A right angled triangle, opposite side is − 1 and longest side is 2
2+6 Adjacent side is 2 − (1 − ) = √3 + 2 −
(3 + 2 − )
−1 −1 √3 + 2 −
= −3 ∙ +8∙ =
3+2 − 8(3 + 2 − ) 2
1 +1
+8 ∙ +
16 √3 + 2 −
+2 1 +1 2
= + + =
3+2 − 2 √3 + 2 − √3 + 2 −
−1
=
√3 + 2 −
2( − 1)
=
3+2 −
+1
+ =
√3 + 2 −
# 7.7B Trigonometric Substitution involving the form + where > is a constant
Let = .

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) 2 +3 (b) +1
9 +6 +5 ( + 4 + 5)

Solutions:

(a) 2 +3
9 +6 +5
1 18 + 6 7 1 Note: (9 + 6 + 5) = 18 + 6
= +
9 9 +6 +5 3 9 +6 +5

18 + 6
9 +6 +5
1
= (9 + 6 + 5)
9 +6 +5
= |9 + 6 + 5| +
= (9 + 6 + 5) + Note: 9 + 6 + 5 = (3 + 1) + 2 > 0 for any ∈

1
9 +6 +5
1 2 Let 3 + 1 = 2 . Then, = .
= ∙
2 3
1 9 + 6 + 5 = (3 + 1) + 2 = 2 (1 + )=2
= 1
6
1
= +
6
1 3 +1
= +
6 2
2 +3
9 +6 +5
1 7 1 3 +1
= (9 + 6 + 5) + ∙ +
9 3 6 2
1 7 3 +1
= (9 + 6 + 5) + +
9 18 2
Solutions:

(b) +1
( + 4 + 5)
1 2 +4 1 Note: ( + 4 + 5) = 2 + 4
= −
2 ( + 4 + 5) ( + 4 + 5)

2 +4
( + 4 + 5)
= ( + 4 + 5) ( + 4 + 5)
( + 4 + 5)
= +
−1
−1
= +
+4 +5
1 + 4 + 5 = ( + 2) + 1
( + 4 + 5)
1 Let +2= . Then, =
= ∙
+ 4 + 5 = ( + 2) + 1 = 1 + =
=
1+ 2
=
2
1 1
= + 2 +
2 4
1 1 = +2
= + +
2 2
1 +2 A right angled triangle, opposite side is + 2 and adjacent side is 1
= ( + 2) + +
2 2( + 4 + 5)
Then, longest side is √ + 4 + 5
+1 +2
=
( + 4 + 5) √ +4 +5
1 −1 1
= ∙ =
2 +4 +5 √ +4 +5
1 +2
− ( + 2) + +
2 2( + 4 + 5)

−1 +3 +2
= ( + 2) − + =
2 2( + 4 + 5) +4 +5
# 7.7C Trigonometric Substitution involving the form − where > is a constant
Let = .

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

1
4 +4 −3

Solutions:

1
4 +4 −3
1 1 1
= ∙ 4 +4 −3=4 + + −4=2 + −2
2 4 2
1 = (2 + 1) − 2
=
4
−1 Let 2 + 1 = 2 . Then, = .
= | + |+
4
−1 2 +3 4 + 4 − 3 = (2 + 1) − 2 = (2 ) −2 =2 ( − 1)
= +
4 √4 +4 −3
=2
2 +1
=
2
2
=
2 +1
A right angled triangle, adjacent side is 2 and longest side is 2 + 1
Then, opposite side is √4 + 4 − 3
2 +1
=
√4 + 4 − 3
2
=
√4 + 4 − 3
2 +3
+ =
√4 + 4 − 3
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.1 – #7.7 Harder Problems

Evaluate the indefinite integrals:

(a) 5+2 (b) √

(1 + ) 1+ √
(c) (d)
√1 +
+4
(e) (f)
1− (1 + + )
∙
1+
(g) 1 (h)
1+ +1

Solutions:

(a) 5+2
(1 + )
5+2 1 Let =1+ . Then, = .
= ∙
(1 + )
2 +3 5+2 = 5 + 2( − 1) = 2 + 3
=
1
=2 +3

=2 | |+3∙ +
−1
3
=2 | |− +
3
= 2 |1 + |− +
1+
(b) √
1+ √
= ∙6 Let = (That is, = √ )Then, = . So, 6 = .
1+
By Long Division, = (1 + )( − + − 1) + 1
=6
1+
1
=6 − + −1+
1+
1 1 1
=6 − + − + +
7 5 3
6 6
= − +2 −6 +6 +
7 5
(c)
√1 +
2 Let =1+ . Then, 2 =
= ∙
−1
2 = −1
=
−1
2( − 1) 2 2
= + =
−1 −1 −1
1 1
=2 1 + −
−1 +1
Solutions:

(c) =2 + | − 1| − | + 1| +
−1
=2 + +
+1
√1 + − 1
= 2√1 + + +
√1 + + 1
(d)
+4
8 Let 2 = . Then, 2 =
= ∙
2
2
=2 = =
2
= (2 ) =8
=2 ( − 1)
= 2( − )+ + 4 = 2 (1 + )=2
= −2 +
2
(e)
1−
∙
1+

1− Let = . Then, (1 + ) = 1− .
= ∙
1+
−2 (1 + )=1−
= ∙
(1 + )
1+ 1 = . Then, 2 =
( )
= −2 +2 ( )
(1 + ) (1 + )
1 1 2 =( . So, =(
= −2 +2 ) )
1+ (1 + )

1
(1 + )
1 Let = . Then, = .
= ∙
1+ =1+ =
=
1+ 2
=
2
1 1 A right angled triangle, opposite side is and adjacent side is 1
= + 2 +
2 4
1 1 Longest side is √1 +
= + +
2 2
1 1
= (1 + )+ + =
2 2(1 + ) √1 +

1− =
∙ √1 +
1+
= −2 + (1 + )+ + =
1+ 1+
1− 2
1− 2 √1 − 1+ =1+ =
= −2 + + + 1+ 1+
1+ 1+ 2

1+ 1− √1 −
= ∙ =
1+ 2 1+ 2
Solutions:

(f)
(1 + + )

= (1 + + )− (1 + + )
1+2
= (1 + + )− ∙
1+ +
2 +
= (1 + + )−
+ +1
2( + + 1) 1 2 +1 3 1
= (1 + + )− + +
+ +1 2 + +1 2 + +1
1 1 3 1
= (1 + + )−2 1 + ( + + 1) +
2 + +1 2 + +1
= (1 + + )−2 + | + + 1| + ∙ + (see Note)
√ √
1 2 +1
= (1 + + )−2 + ( + + 1) + √3 +
2 √3
1 2 +1
= + (1 + + ) − 2 + √3 +
2 √3
Note:
1
+ +1
1 √3 1 √3
= ∙ + +1= + +
3 2 2 2
4
2 √ √
= 1 Let + = . Then, = .
√3
2 1 3
= + √3 √3
√3 + +1= + + = (1 + )=
2 2 2 4
2 2 +1
= +
√3 √3
(g) 1 Another Method
1+
1 1− 1 Let =
= ∙
1+ 1− 1+
1− 1+ 2 2
= = ∙ =
1− 1+2 + 1+ 1−
1− 1 (Note: 2 = )
= =2
1+2 +
1
= ( − ) = 2 (1 + ) =
2 2
= − + (1 + ) 1 1
=2∙ + = 1+ = (1 + )
−1 2 2 2
Note: −2 2
= + =
1+ 1+
− = − + A right angled triangle, opposite side is 2 ,
2 1+ adjacent side is 1 − .
= −
1− 1−
−2 +1 Longest side is (2 ) + (1 − )
=−
1−
( − 1) = (1 + ) =1+
=
( − 1)( + 1)
−1 +1−2 2 2
= = = 1− =
+1 +1 1+ 1+
2 1+2 +
1+ = 1+ =
1+ 1+
Solutions:

(h) Another Method

+1
= Let =
1+ +1
1 2 2
=− ∙ (− ) 1− ∙ 2 =
1+ = 1−
2 1+
1−
1 2 (Note: 2 = )
=− (1 + ) =
1+ 1+
= − |1 + |+ 1 1
= (1 + ) =
1+ 2 2
= |1 + | + 1 1
= 1+ = (1 + )
2 2 2
1 = − |1 + |+ 2
=
1+ 1+
1 A right angled triangle, opposite side is 2 ,
=
1−
1+
1+
1+ adjacent side is 1 − .
=
1+ +1−
1+ Longest side is (2 ) + (1 − )
=
2
= (1 + ) = 1 +
− |1 + | 1−
=
1+
1 1+
= =
1+ 1−
1+ 1+ 2
= +1 = +1=
2 1− 1−
= |1 + | − 2
 Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

Relationship between Indefinite and Definite Integrals:

Let , ∈ with < .
Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
Let , ,⋯, be a partition of [ , ]. That is, < < ⋯ < , = and = . We use to denote this partition.
Suppose that we can find the global maximum and the global minimum values of on , for = , , , ⋯ , .
(This is possible, for example, if is continuous on [ , ].)
Let = ( ): ∈ , and = ( ): ∈ , for = 1,2,3, ⋯ , .
Let ( , ) = ∑ − and ( , ) = ∑ − .
( , ) is called the Lower Riemann Sum of for .
( , ) is called the Upper Riemann Sum of for .
Suppose we choose { , ⋯ , } so that ∈ , for = 1,2,3, ⋯ , .
We denote with this choice of { , ⋯ , } as ̇ .
Let , ̇ =∑ − .
Observation: ( , ) ≤ , ̇ ≤ ( , ).
Let ‖ ‖ = − : = 1,2,3, ⋯ . This is called the norm of the partition .
Suppose we can find a real number such that ( , ) → and ( , ) → whenever ‖ ‖ → 0.
In this case, lim , ̇ = .
‖ ‖→
We say is Riemann Integrable on [ , ] and we define the definite integral of on [ , ] as such number .
We denote it as ∫ ( ) .
From above arguments,
∫ ( ) = lim ∑ − where < <⋯< , = , = ,
‖ ‖→
∈ , for = 1,2,3, ⋯ , and ‖ ‖ = − : = 1,2,3, ⋯ .

Theorem:
Let , ∈ with < .
Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
If is continuous on [ , ], then is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]

Theorem:
Let , ∈ with < .
Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
Suppose is Riemann Integrable on [ , ].
Suppose ( ) ≥ for any ∈ [ , ].
Then, the area of the region bounded by the curve = ( ), the lines = 0, = and = is ∫ ( ) .
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
Let , ∈ with < .
Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ].
Suppose is a primitive function of on [ , ].
Then, ∫ ( ) = ( ) − ( ).
Sometimes, we write ∫ ( ) = ( )| = ( ) − ( ).
Note: ( ) = ( ) for any ∈ ( , ).

Remark 1:
Suppose both and are primitive functions of on [ , ].
We can easily show that ( ) − ( ) = ( ) − ( ).
Thus, the choice of an representative function of the set of all primitive functions of on [ , ] will get the same value ∫ ( )
by the equation
∫ ( ) = ( ) − ( ).

Remark 2:
∫ ( ) is called the definite integral of with respect to from = to = .
∫ ( ) is called the indefinite integral of with respect to .

Remark 3:
As is a primitive function of on [ , ], we have ∫ ( ) = ( )+ where
is an arbitrary constant.

Proof

As is continuous on [ , ], is Riemann Integrable on [ , ].

Suppose we can find a real number such that ∫ ( ) = .
Let us consider a partition = , ,⋯, of [ , ], that is, < <⋯< ,
= , = and ‖ ‖ = − : = 1,2,3, ⋯ .

By Mean Value Theorem, we can find ∈ , such that − = − for = 1,2,3, ⋯ , .

That is, − = − for = 1,2,3, ⋯ , .

Then, we have:
( )− ( )= ( )− ( )
= −

= −

So, ( , )≤ ( )− ( ) ≤ ( , ) as ( , )≤∑ − ≤ ( , ).
As ( , )→∫ ( ) and ( , )→∫ ( ) as ‖ ‖ → 0.
Thus, ∫ ( ) ≤ ( )− ( )≤∫ ( ) .
Hence, ∫ ( ) = ( ) − ( ).
Theorems (Rules for Definite Integration):
Let , ∈ with < . Let and be real-valued functions on and are defined on [ , ]. Suppose both and are Riemann
Integrable on [ , ]. Let be a fixed real number (constant).
Then,
(i) + is Riemann Integrable on [ , ] and
( )+ ( ) = ( ) + ( )

(ii) − is Riemann Integrable on [ , ] and

( )− ( ) = ( ) − ( )

(iii) is Riemann Integrable on [ , ] and

( ) = ( )

Proof: Omitted (As Exercises)

Definition
Let , ∈ with < . Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
Suppose is Riemann Integrable on [ , ].
We define ∫ ( ) = −∫ ( ) .

Theorem:
Let , ∈ with < . Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
Suppose is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]. For any , , ∈ [ , ], we have
∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) .
Proof: Omitted (As Exercises)

Remark: ∫ ( ) = 0.

Theorem 1 (Comparison Principle):

Let , ∈ with < .
Let and be real-valued functions on and are defined on [ , ].
Suppose both and are Riemann Integrable on [ , ].
Suppose ( ) ≤ ( ) for any ∈ [ , ].
Then, ∫ ( ) ≤∫ ( ) .
Proof: Omitted (As Exercise)

Theorem 2 (Comparison Principle):

Let , , , ∈ with < .
Let be a real-valued function on and is defined on [ , ].
Suppose is Riemann Integrable on [ , ].
Suppose ≤ ( ) ≤ for any ∈ [ , ].
Then, ( − ) ≤ ∫ ( ) ≤ ( − ).
Proof: Omitted (As Exercise)
# Integration by Substitution for Indefinite Integral
Let , ∈ with < .
Let : → and : → be functions.
Suppose both and are differentiable on .
Let = ( ) and = ( ).
Then, we may regard as a function on , that is = ( ) .
By Chain Rule, we have
= ∙ OR ( ° ) ( ) = ( ) ∙ ( ).

Notes:
(i)
( ) ∙ ( ) = ( ° )( ) = ( ° )( ) + = ( ) +
(ii) ∫ ( ) = ( )+ = ( ) + (as = ( ))
(iii) We may regard ∫ ( ) ∙ ( ) =∫ ( )
as = ( ) and = ( ) .
(iv) This suggests a way to evaluate the indefinite integral by letting = ( ).

Remark:
( )
∫ ( ( )) ( ) =∫( )
( ) = ( ) − ( ( )) if ( ) = ( ).
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

Definition:
Let is a fixed real number and for any > .
Suppose is a real valued function defined on [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ] (hence is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]).
∫ ( ) is called an Improper Integral of on [ , ∞).
If lim ∫ ( ) exists as a real number , then
→
i. we say ∫ ( ) converges
ii. we say ∫ ( ) converges to
iii. we write ∫ ( ) =
If lim ∫ ( ) doesn’t exist as a real number, then we say ∫ ( ) diverges
→
Note: diverges = doesn’t converge

# 7.8A Improper Integral of the form ∫ ( ) where is a fixed real number

Investigate the convergence / divergence of the following the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b)

(c) ( )
(d) 1
1+
(e) (f)
| |
( + 4)
Solutions:

(a) For > 1, (e) For > 0,

1 −1 −1
= = = | | = =
−1 2
= − = 1− → 1 as → +∞ = −1 = − → as → +∞
∫ converges to 1 and we write ∫ =1 ∫ | | converges to and we write
(b) For > 0, 1
| | =
2
1 1 1 (f) For > 0,
= = ( − 0) = → +∞
2 2 2
as → +∞ 1
= ( + 4) ( + 4)
( 2
+ 4)
∫ diverges
1 (+ 4) −1
= ∙ =
2 −1 √ +4
2
(c) For > 0, −1 −1 1 1
= − = −
√ + 4 √4 2 √ +4
( ) ( ) ( ) → as → +∞
=− =− +

= − → as → +∞ ∫ converges to and we write

( )

∫ ( )
converges to and we write 1
=
( 2
+ 4)
( )
1
=
(d) For > 0,
1
= | = − 0
1+
= −0= → as → +∞
∫ converges to and we write
1
=
1+ 2
Definition:
Let is a fixed real number and for any < .
Suppose is a real valued function defined on [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ] (hence is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]).
∫ ( ) is called an Improper Integral of on (−∞, ].
If lim ∫ ( ) exists as a real number , then
→
i. we say ∫ ( ) converges
ii. we say ∫ ( ) converges to
iii. we write ∫ ( ) =
If lim ∫ ( ) doesn’t exist as a real number, then we say ∫ ( ) diverges
→
Note: diverges = doesn’t converge

# 7.8B Improper Integral of the form ∫ ( ) where is a fixed real number

Investigate the convergence / divergence of the following the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b)

(c) 1 (d) 1
√1 − 1+
(e) (f)
| |
( + 4)
Solutions:

(a) For < −1, (e) For < 0,

1 −1 1
= | | = − =
2
= − = 1+ → 1 as → −∞ = 1− = − → as → −∞
∫ converges to 1 and we write ∫ =1 ∫ | | converges to and we write
(b) For < 0, 1
| | =
2
1 1 −1 (f) For < 0,
= = (0 − )= → −∞
2 2 2
as → −∞ −1
=
( + 4) √ +4
∫ diverges −1 −1 −1 1
= − = +
√4 √ + 4 2 √ +4
(c) For > 0, → as → −∞
1 ∫ converges to and we write
=− (1 − ) (1 − ) ( )
√1 −
1
(1 − ) =
=− = −2√1 − ( 2
1 + 4)
2
= −2 1 − √1 − = 2√1 − − 2
→ +∞ as → −∞
∫ diverges
√
(d) For < 0,
1
= | = 0−
1+
= 0− =− → as → −∞
∫ converges to and we write
1
=
1+ 2
Definition:
Let is a fixed real number and for any < < .
Suppose is a real valued function defined on [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ] (hence is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]).
∫ ( ) is called an Improper Integral of on .
If BOTH ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) converge, then we say ∫ ( ) converges.
In this case, we write ∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) .
If either ∫ ( ) or ∫ ( ) diverges (inclusive or), then we say ∫ ( ) diverges.
Note: diverges = doesn’t converge

Note 1:
The definition is independent of the choice of .
Let ∈ with ≠ .
We can show that:
∫ ( ) converges ⇔ ∫ ( ) converges
∫ ( ) converges ⇔ ∫ ( ) converges
Reason:
Case 1: < , for > and < , we have:
( ) = ( ) + ( )

( ) = ( ) − ( )
Case 2: < , for > and < , we have:
( ) = ( ) − ( )

( ) = ( ) + ( )

Note 2:
In general, ∫ ( ) ≠ lim ∫ ( )
→

# 7.8C Improper Integral of the form ∫ ( )

Investigate the convergence / divergence of the following the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b)
| |
1+
(c) (d)
( + 4)
Solutions:

(a) As ∫ and ∫ converge, (d) For > 0,

∫ converges.
|
= = − 1 → +∞
1 1 1 as → +∞
= +
1+ 1+ 1+
= + = So, ∫ diverges
2 2
(b) As ∫ | | and ∫ | | converge, Hence, ∫ diverges
∫ | | converges.

| | = | | + | |
1 1
= + =1
2 2
(c) As ∫ and ∫ converge,
( ) ( )
∫ converges.
( )

= +
( + 4) ( + 4) ( + 4)
1 1
= + =1
2 2
Definition:
Let , be fixed real numbers and for any < < .
Suppose is a real valued function defined on [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ] (hence is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]).
Suppose | ( )| → +∞ as → .
∫ ( ) is called an Improper Integral of on [ , ].
If lim ∫ ( ) exists as a real number , then we say ∫ ( ) converges.
→
In this case, we write ∫ ( ) = .
If lim ∫ ( ) doesn’t exist as a real number, then we say ∫ ( ) diverges.
→
Note: diverges = doesn’t converge

# 7.8D Improper Integral of the form ∫ ( ) where | ( )| → +∞ as →

Investigate the convergence / divergence of the following the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b) 1
( − 2)
(c) 1
√4 −

Solutions:

(a) For −1 < < 0,

1 −1 −1 −1 1
= = − = −1 −
−1
→ +∞ as → 0
So, ∫ diverges
(b) For 1 < < 2,
1 −1 −1 −1 1
= = − = −1 −
( − 2) −2 − 2 −1 −2
→ +∞ as → 2
So, ∫ ( ) diverges
(c) For 0 < < 4,
1
= −2√4 − = −2 √4 − − √4
√4 −
= 4 − 2√4 − → 4 as → 4
So, ∫ converges and we write
√
1
=4
√4 −
Definition:
Let , be fixed real numbers and for any < < .
Suppose is a real valued function defined on [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ] (hence is Riemann Integrable on [ , ]).
Suppose | ( )| → +∞ as → .
∫ ( ) is called an Improper Integral of on [ , ].
If lim ∫ ( ) exists as a real number , then we say ∫ ( ) converges.
→
In this case, we write ∫ ( ) = .
If lim ∫ ( ) doesn’t exist as a real number, then we say ∫ ( ) diverges.
→
Note: diverges = doesn’t converge

# 7.8E Improper Integral of the form ∫ ( ) where | ( )| → +∞ as →

Investigate the convergence / divergence of the following the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b) 1
√
(c) 1

Solutions:

(a) For 0 < < 1,

1 −1 −1 −1 1
= = − = −1 +
1
→ +∞ as → 0
So, ∫ diverges
(b) For 0 < < 1,
∫ = 2√ =2 1−√ → 2 as →0
√
So, ∫ converges and we write
√
1
=2
√
(c) For 0 < < 8,
∫ =3 =3 2− √ → 6 as →0

So, ∫ converges and we write

1
=6
Definition:
Let , , be fixed real numbers and for any < < < < .
Suppose is a real valued function defined on [ , ] and [ , ].
Suppose is continuous on [ , ] and [ , ] (hence is Riemann Integrable on [ , ] and [ , ]).
Suppose | ( )| → +∞ as → or as → .
∫ ( ) is called an Improper Integral of on [ , ].
If BOTH ∫ ( ) and ∫ ( ) converge, then we say ∫ ( ) converges.
In this case, we write ∫ ( ) =∫ ( ) +∫ ( ) .
If either ∫ ( ) or ∫ ( ) diverges (inclusive or), then we say ∫ ( ) diverges.
Note: diverges = doesn’t converge

# 7.8F Improper Integral of the form ∫ ( ) where | ( )| → +∞ as → or as → and < <

Investigate the convergence / divergence of the following the indefinite integrals:

(a) 1 (b) 1
(2 − 1)

Solutions:

(a) As ∫ diverges, ∫ diverges (b)

As ∫ and ∫ converge,
( ) ( )
(b)(i) For 0 < < , So ∫ converges
( )
1 3 3 1
= √2 − 1 = √2 − 1 + 1
2 2
(2 − 1) (2 − 1)
→ as → 1 1
= +
(2 − 1) (2 − 1)
3 3 3
So, ∫ converges and we write = + √3 = 1 + √3
( ) 2 2 2
1 3
=
2
(2 − 1)
(b)(ii) For < < 2,
1 3
= √3 − √2 − 1
2
(2 − 1)
→ √3 as →
So, ∫ converges and we write
( )
1 3
= √3
2
(2 − 1)
Course Code: MATH 1003
Course Name: Intermediate Calculus

Lecture Notes for Chapter 7: Techniques of Integration

# 7.9A Gamma Function ( ) = ∫ ∙ for > converges

Theorem 1 (Comparison Test for Improper Integral):

Let be a fixed real number.
Suppose , are real-valued functions defined on [ , ∞).
Suppose , are continuous on [ , ∞).
Suppose 0 ≤ ( ) ≤ ( ) for any ≥ .
Then,
i.
∫ ( ) converges ⇒ ∫ ( ) converges
ii.
∫ ( ) diverges ⇒ ∫ ( ) diverges

Theorem 2 (Limit Comparison Test for Improper Integral):

Let be a fixed real number.
Suppose , are real-valued functions defined on [ , ∞).
Suppose , are continuous on [ , ∞).
Suppose ( ) > 0 and ( ) > 0 for any ≥ .
( )
Suppose lim ( )
= with > 0.
→
Then,
i.
∫ ( ) converges ⇔ ∫ ( ) converges
ii.
∫ ( ) diverges ⇔ ∫ ( ) diverges

Lemma 1
The improper integral ∫ converges for any > 0

Proof:
For any > 0,
for any > 0, ∫ = = ( − 1) = 1− → as → +∞
So, the improper integral ∫ converges

Lemma 2
lim = 0 for = 1,2,3, ⋯.
→

Proof:
( )
By L’ Hospital Rule, lim = lim .
→ →

As is a polynomial in of degree − 1, we know = 0.

So, by Induction, we have lim = lim =0
→ →
Theorem 3:
( )=∫ ∙ converges for = , , ,⋯

Proof:
By Lemma 2, for = 1, we can find > 0 such that > ⇒ < =1

So, for > , we have 0 < <1

For > , we have 0 < <
By Lemma 1, the improper integral ∫ converges
By Theorem 1, the improper integral ∫ ∙ converges
That is, Γ( ) = ∫ ∙ converges for = 1,2,3, ⋯

Theorem 4:
( )=∫ ∙ converges for ≥

Proof:
For ≥ 1, we can find a positive integer such that ≤ < +1
For > 0, 0 < ∙ ≤ ∙
Γ( ) = ∫ ∙ converges for = 1,2,3, ⋯
So, ∫ ∙ converges
By Comparison Test for Improper Integral, ∫ ∙ converges
That is, Γ( ) = ∫ ∙ converges for ≥ 1

Theorem 5:
∫ ∙ converges for < <

Proof:
For 0 < < 1,
for > 1, ≤ ≤

lim =0
→

Also, lim =0
→

By Squeeze Rule, lim =0

→

Hence, lim =0
→

For = 1, we can find > 0 such that > ⇒ < =1

So, for > , we have 0 < <1

For > , we have 0 < <
By Lemma 1, the improper integral ∫ converges
By Theorem 1, the improper integral ∫ ∙ converges
That is, ∫ ∙ converges for 0 < < 1
Theorem 6:
∫ ∙ converges for < <

Proof:
For 0 < < 1 and 0 < < 1,
=
We have 0 < ≤
1 1 1 1 Note: lim =0
= = (1 − )→ →

as → 0
Hence, ∫ converges
By Comparison Test for Improper Integral,
∫ ∙ =∫ converges

Theorem 7:
( )=∫ ∙ converges for < <

Proof:
By Theorems 5 and 6

Theorem 8:
( )=∫ ∙ converges for >

Proof:
By Theorems 7 and 4
# 7.9B Some properties of Gamma Function ( ) = ∫ ∙ for >

Theorem 1:
For > 1, Γ( ) = ( − 1) ∙ Γ( − 1)

Proof:
For > 1, > 1 and > 0,
∙ =− ( )=− ∙ | − ( )

=− ∙ + ∙ + ( − 1) ∙

[ ]
0< ∙ = <

Note: [ ] is the integer such that [ ] ≤ < [ ] + 1

[ ]
By Lemma 2 of #7.9A, lim =0
→

By Squeeze Rule, lim ∙ = lim =0

→ →
Let → +∞ and → 0 , we have ∫ ∙ = ( − 1) ∫ ∙
That is, Γ( ) = ( − 1) ∙ Γ( − 1)

Theorem 2:
For = 1,2,3, ⋯, Γ( ) = ( − 1)!

Proof:
For > 0,
∫ =− | =− − (−1) = 1 − → 1 as → +∞
So, Γ(1) = ∫ = 1 = 0!
Γ(2) = 1 ∙ Γ(1) = 1 = 1!
Γ(3) = 2 ∙ Γ(2) = 2!
Γ(4) = 3 ∙ Γ(3) = 3!
By Induction, Γ( ) = ( − 1)!

Example:
Given that Γ = √ . Show that ∫ = 1.
√

Note: ( ) = is the probability density function of the standard normal random variable . That is, ~ (0,1).
√

Proof:
For > 0,
∫ ∙ = 2∫ ∙
√
Let = . Then, = .
=2
√ 1 Let = . Then, =
=2 ∙ √ √
√2
√
= √2

Let → +∞, we have Γ =∫ ∙ = √2 ∫

By symmetry, ∫ =∫ = ∫
1
1 2
1 2 Γ
2 √
= ∙ = ∙ 2 = ∙ =1
√2 √2 2 √2 √2 √2 √2
# 7.9C Beta Function ( , ) = ∫ ∙( − ) for > and >

Observation:
( , ) = ( , ) for > and >

Proof:
B( , ) = ∙ (1 − )
Let = 1 − . Then, =−
=− (1 − ) ∙

= (1 − ) ∙
is dummy
= (1 − ) ∙

= ∙ (1 − )
= B( , )

Theorem 1:
For > 0 and > 0, ( + ) ∙ ( , ) = ( ) ∙ ( )

Proof:
For > and >
( )∙ ( )= ∙ ∙

( )
= ∙ ∙
Let = and = (1 − )
( , ) ( , )
= ( ) ∙ [ (1 − )] ∙ ∙ Then, = = − . So, =
( , ) 1− − ( , )

Note: + =
= ∙ ∙ (1 − )
= ( + )∙ ( , )

Remark:
( )∙ ( )
For > 0 and > 0, ( , ) = ( )

Theorem 2:
For > 0 and > 0, ( , ) = ∫ ( ) ∙( )

Proof:
For > 0 and > 0, ( , ) = ( , ) = ∫ ∙( − )
Let = . Then, =2
= ( ) ∙ (1 − ) 2

=2 ( ) ∙( ) ∙

=2 ( ) ∙( )

=2 ( ) ∙( )
Theorem 3:
, =

Proof:

, = =

Theorem 4:
=√

Proof:
1 1 Note: Γ(1) = 1
1 1 Γ ∙Γ
=B , = 2 2 = Γ 1
2 2 Γ(1) 2
So, Γ =√

# 7.9D Escape Velocity

The work required to lift a body of mass from the surface of a planet of mass with radius to a distance >
(from the centre of the planet) is:
=∫ as the force is .

The work required to move the body away from the planet (let → +∞)
=∫ = = − = − → as → +∞

Let be the escape velocity.

1
=
2
2
=

That is, =

Example (Earth):
≈ 6.67428 × 10
≈ 5.98 × 10
≈ 6.38 × 10
≈ 11186 = 11186 × /ℎ ≈ 40,000 /ℎ
(Note: Usual speed of car in busy road is 40 /ℎ )