2.

1 Thermal Physics
2.1.1 Kinetic particle Model of matter

Arrangement & Motion of Particles

● In a solid:
○ The molecules are very close together and arranged in a regular pattern
○ The molecules vibrate about fixed positions
● In a liquid:
○ The molecules are still close together (no gaps) but are no longer arranged in a
regular pattern
○ The molecules are able to slide past each other
● In a gas:
○ The molecules are widely separated - about 10 times further apart in each
direction
○ The molecules move about randomly at high speeds

The Forces & Distances between Molecules

● The forces between particles affect the state of matter

● This is because the magnitude of the forces affects the relative distances and motion
of the particles

● This affects the ability of the substance to

○ Change shape
○ Change volume
○ Flow
Intermolecular Forces and Motion of Particles
Solids
The molecules in a solid are held in place by strong intermolecular forces
They only vibrate in position
The distance between them is fixed
This gives the solid its rigid shape and fixed volume
Liquids
The molecules in a liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces between them
They are still held close together
The volume of the liquid is fixed
Molecules can move around (by sliding past each other)

This allows the liquid to change shape and flow

Gases
The molecules in a gas have more energy and move randomly at high speeds
The molecules have overcome the forces holding them close together
Because of the large spaces between the molecules
The gas can easily be compressed and is also able to expand
Gases flow freely

Absolute Temperature
● The amount of pressure that a gas exerts on its container is dependent on the
temperature of the gas
○ This is because particles gain kinetic energy as their temperature
increases
● As the temperature of the gas decreases, the pressure on the container also
decreases
● In 1848, Mathematician and Physicist, Lord Kelvin, recognised that there must
be a temperature at which the particles in a gas exert no pressure
○ At this temperature they must no longer be moving, and hence not
colliding with their container
● This temperature is called absolute zero and is equal to -273 °C
What happens at Absolute Zero?
● Near absolute zero strange things occur.
Liquid helium becomes a superfluid. It cannot be kept in
an open vessel because it flows up the inside of the
vessel, over the edge and down the outside.
● Some metals and compounds become superconductors
of electricity and a current, once started in them,
flows forever, without a battery.
● Some materials are superconductors at very much
higher temperatures such as −23°C.

Experiment to show there is atmospheric pressure

To show - Air exerts pressure

Procedure - Take a tin-can having an air tight cap (screw cap). Remove the cap
and boil some water in it, so that steam comes out and in this way air from inside
goes out. While boiling replace the cap and allow it to cool. Vapours inside
condense and form water creating vacuum above them.

Observation - The can crumbles due to air pressure from outside. This proves
that air exerts pressure.
Motion of Particles in a Gas
● Molecules in a gas are in constant random motion at high speeds
● Random motion means that the molecules are travelling in no specific path
and undergo sudden changes in their motion if they collide:
○ With the walls of its container
○ With other molecules
● Pressure in a gas is caused by the collisions with the surface (walls) of the
container
●

● A feature of gases is that they fill their container

● The pressure is defined as the force per unit area
● As the gas particles move about randomly they collide with the walls of their
containers
● These collisions produce a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas
container (or any surface)
● Therefore, a gas at high pressure has more frequent collisions with the
container walls and a greater force
○ Hence the higher the pressure, the higher the force exerted per unit area

Gas molecules bouncing off the walls of a container

● It is possible to experience this force by closing the mouth and forcing air into
the cheeks
● The strain on the cheeks is due to the force of the gas particles pushing at
right angles to the cheeks
The Gas Laws
There are three gas laws
1. Pressure v/s Volume (Temperature is constant)
2. Pressure v/s Temperature (Volume is constant)
3. Volume v/s Temperature (Pressure is constant)

1. Pressure v/s Volume (Constant Temperature)

● Pressure is inversely proportional to volume if temperature of a gas

remains constant.
● If the temperature of a gas remains constant, the pressure of the gas
changes when it is:
○ Compressed – decreases the volume which increases the
pressure
○ Expanded – increases the volume which decreases the
pressure

Pressure increases when a gas is compressed

● Similarly, a change in pressure can cause a change in volume

● When a gas is compressed, the molecules will hit the walls of the
container more frequently
○ This creates a larger overall net force on the walls which
increases the pressure

Boyle’s Law

● If the temperature T of an ideal gas is constant, then Boyle’s Law is

given by:
PV=constant
○ This means the pressure is inversely proportional to the volume
of a gas

● The relationship between the pressure and volume for a fixed mass of
gas at constant temperature can also be written as:
P1V1=P2V2
● Where:
○ P1 = initial pressure (Pa)
○ P2 = final pressure (Pa)
○ V1 = initial volume (m3)
 ○ V2 = final volume (m3)
● Notice that volume and pressure are measured in m3 and Pa
respectively
○ In calculations if units are given in cm3 or MPa this is a rare
case where calculations can be done using the original units as
long as answers are reported in the same, original units

Boyle's Law graph: Pressure is inversely proportional to volume

2. Pressure v/s Temperature (Constant Volume)

● The average speed of motion of molecules increases when
the temperature increases (and vice versa)
● Since the average kinetic energy depends on their speed,
the kinetic energy of the molecules also increases if its
volume remains constant
○ The hotter the gas, the higher the average kinetic
energy
○ The cooler the gas, the lower the average kinetic
energy
● As the gas heats up, the molecules will travel at a higher
speed
○ They collide with the walls more often, increasing the
pressure
● Therefore, at a constant volume, an increase in temperature
increases the pressure of a gas and vice versa
○ Diagram A shows molecules in the same volume collide
with the walls of the container more as the temperature
increases
○ Diagram B shows that since the temperature is
proportional to the pressure, the graph is a straight line
At constant volume, an increase in the temperature of the
gas increases the pressure due to more collisions on the
container walls
P=constant T
Or
P/T =constant
Or
P1/T1=P2/T2
3. Volume v/s Temperature
Volume is directly proportional to temperature if pressure
remains constant.
V=constant T
Or V/T= constant
V1/T1=V2/T2
 Absolute Scale v/s Celsius Scale

Conversion formula
Kelvin = Celsius Temperature + 273