Bench Power Supplies Buy or Build

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Elliott Sound Products Bench Power Supplies
Bench Power Supplies - Buy Or Build?

Copyright © November 2019, Rod Elliott
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Main Index
Articles Index
Contents
Introduction
1 Regulation
1.1 Voltage Regulation
1.2 Current Regulation
2 Approaches For Bench Supplies
2.1 'Digital' Bench Supplies
3 Current Sensing
4 Alternative Bench Supply
5 Tap Switching/ Pre-Regulation
6 Single Supply
6.1 Dual Single Supplies
7 Simple 0 to ±25V Supply
8 Thermal Sensing
9 Metering
9.1 Digital Meters
10 Construction
11 A Useful Addition
12 Precautions
Conclusions
References
Introduction
A bench supply is one of the most useful pieces of test gear you will ever own. Building one intended for
testing preamps and other low voltage, low current equipment is one thing, but making one that's
suitable for testing power amps is another matter altogether. In reality, it's so difficult to get right that
the likes of the late Bob Pease recommended to his fellow engineers and others that they don't even try.
His advice was to buy one from a reputable supplier, and not put yourself through the grief of spending
many hours building one, only for it to blow up the many expensive parts used to build it [ 1 ].
In many ways, it's hard to disagree, and doubly so if you want to get voltages of more than 20V at a
couple of amps. These days, the problem is doubled, because to be truly useful, the supply needs to be
dual tracking, with both positive and negative supplies, with an output voltage that can be varied from
zero to perhaps 25V or so. It ideally needs to be capable of at least 3A output, and with current limiting
so you don't kill the supply the first time the output leads are shorted together (and that will happen!).
In essence, there's actually not that much difference between a power supply and a power amplifier,
except that a power amp has to source and sink current, while a power supply only has to source current
to the load. However, where a power amp will be subjected to fairly high dissipation every so often, a
power supply has to be capable of providing perhaps 3-5A output into a short circuit, and not fail. This is
a great deal harder than it seems.
Consider a supply that can provide 40V at 5A, but is set for an output voltage of perhaps 1-2V and a
current of 5A. The internal voltage will be around 50V, so there's nearly 50V across the regulator
transistors, 5A of current, resulting in a dissipation of 250W. This might continue for hours at a time or
only a few minutes, but that doesn't mean that you only have to allow for a few minutes, because one Top
day you will need 1-2V at 5A for an hour or more.
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Bench Supplies https://sound-au.com/articles/bench-supply.htm
No-one ever knows exactly what they'll do with a decent power supply until they have one, and it will end
up being used to power amplifiers during testing, charging batteries, measuring very low resistances, or
any number of other possibilities. I know this because that's what I do with mine (which I built many,
many years ago, but it only provides ±25V at up to 2.5A). I've lost count of the number of times the
thermal overload circuit disconnected my load, even with a fan for forced air cooling.
It's commonly accepted that bench supplies should be regulated, and herein lies the problem. Regulation
adds complexity and can create stability issues that vary from merely vexing to intractable. No-one
wants a power supply that oscillates, nor does anyone want a power supply that kills the device being
tested (or charged, measured, etc.). In reality, regulation (or at least 'perfect' regulation) isn't essential.
Most power amplifiers don't use regulated supplies, and nor do many other high-current loads. You need
to be able to adjust the voltage, and it should be reasonably stable, but ensuring that the output voltage
only changes by a few millivolts under load is not needed for most applications. It might make you feel
better if the supply has perfect regulation, but your circuits mostly won't care.
Current limiting is another matter though. Ideally, when first powered, your latest project needs to be
protected in case there's a fault. Like voltage regulation, the current limiting function needs to be
adjustable, but it's rarely necessary for it to require extremely accurate current regulation. If we accept
that very accurate voltage or current regulation is not essential, that simplifies the design and makes it a
great deal easier to build and get working with the minimum of fuss.
Few people want to mess around for ages trying to perfect a regulator that wants to oscillate, and this
will be the case if 'perfection' is the goal. If that's what you really do need, then I must agree with Bob
Pease absolutely - buy a commercial supply from a reputable manufacturer. However, you'll likely be up
for some serious money if you need dual tracking, high voltage (over 30V) and high current (5A or
more).
A generally useful supply will have dual outputs, variable from 0 to 25V or so, with adjustable current
limiting. Ideally, it will let you use the two outputs in series, allowing a single supply variable from 0 to
50V. 5A output is useful, but not essential. If you use it for testing DIY audio equipment (preamps,
active crossovers, power amplifiers, etc.), then you can verify that the DUT (device under test) functions
as expected, has no shorts or other major faults, after which it can be confidently connected to the
intended power supply. It's uncommon for any competent design to fail with its 'real' power supply if it's
been tested at a lower voltage, using a supply with current limiting that protects against damage if there
is a problem.
An expansion of the 'basic' power supply is something called an SMU (source-measure unit). These are
usually high accuracy, microprocessor controlled supplies, and are able to source and sink current of
either polarity. Most supplies only source current to the load, but an SMU can also be used as an 'active
load', typically for power supplies or other equipment being tested. These are also known as '4-quadrant'
power supplies, meaning they are designed to source or sink current of either polarity. Fortunately, this
is not a requirement for basic testing, and is mentioned only in the interests of completeness. I do not
propose to cover these supplies in this article.
Please note that this is not a construction article. Although it does show
schematics, these are primarily for demonstration purposes, and there is no
guarantee that they will function properly as shown. While they have been
simulated, this only indicates that the underlying principles are sound, but it does
not mean that the circuit will perform as expected in 'real life'. While the circuits
described do look as though they will function well, this has not been verified by
building and testing them!
It's not an accident that there aren't that many DIY projects for bench power supplies. Most people come
to the realisation fairly quickly that it's a very expensive exercise, and that getting a fully working,
reliable supply that does exactly what you need is not a trivial undertaking. The circuits shown here are
for inspiration, and are provided mainly to give you an idea of the complexities involved - even for
apparently simple circuits.
1 Regulation
The primary function of any bench power supply is voltage regulation, but current regulation is also very
useful. Both are described below.
1.1 Voltage Regulation

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The first regulated power supplies used valves (vacuum tubes), with a gas discharge regulator as the
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reference voltage. Predictably, they weren't very good because of the limited available gain available. A
few basic examples are shown below, with the opamp version being a fairly good analogue to the modern
3-terminal regulator ICs. These all suffer from a problem that makes them (generally) unsuitable for a
bench supply - they can't get down to zero volts output.
When testing something that's just been built, it's important to be able to start with a very low
(preferably zero) voltage, and monitor the current as the voltage is increased. If you see the current
climbing rapidly with a supply voltage of only a volt or so, you know there's a problem. Including current
limiting (covered a little later) means that fault current can be kept to a value where it's unlikely to cause
damage.
Figure 1.1 - Basic Voltage Regulator Topologies
The series pass device is V1/ Q1, and the controlling element is V2, Q2 or U1 (valve, transistor and
opamp respectively). The voltage reference for the valve circuit is a gas discharge tube, and these
typically had a voltage of around 90 volts (depending on the device, voltages from 70V to 150V were
available [ 5 ]). The transistor circuit uses a zener diode, and the opamp circuit is shown with an external
reference. Feedback is used in each case, and VR1 lets you set the voltage to the desired value. These
are the basic versions of a regulator in each case, and there are many variations in practice.
The feedback is arranged so that if the output voltage falls (due to a load being connected for example),
the controlling device ensures that the series pass element can pass the extra current needed to supply
the load at the desired voltage. The ability of any of the circuits to maintain the desired voltage is called
the 'regulation', expressed in percent. For example, if the voltage falls by 1% when the load is
connected, that forms the specification for the regulator. Higher gain in the control and series pass
devices means better regulation.
There's an extra transistor and resistor in the opamp version. 'Rs' is a current sense resistor, and Q2 is
the current regulator transistor. If the current is such that the voltage across Rs is greater than 0.6V, Q2
turns on and 'steals' the base current from Q1 (provided via R1). This is the most basic form of current
regulation, and it works surprisingly well in practice. If Rs is 1Ω, the output current is limited to 650mA if
the output is shorted (or if the load tries to draw more than 600mA). While basic, this arrangement has
been used in countless discrete regulator designs over the years.
Predictably, the opamp version will have far better regulation than the other two, because it has
extremely high gain. Most modern 3-terminal regulator ICs use a similar (but optimised) topology, and
the reference voltage is generally a 'band-gap' arrangement with very high stability. Two values are
provided for regulation - 'line' and 'load'. Line regulation is a measure of how much the output changes
as the input voltage is varied, and load regulation is a measure of the change of output voltage as the
load current is changed. If you look at the data sheet for any 3-terminal regulator, this info is provided,
but not always as a percentage - sometimes it's shown as ΔV (change of voltage), usually in millivolts.
Most are better than 1% (line and load).
There are many factors that need to be considered in any voltage regulator circuit. One of the hardest to
get right is stability, to ensure that the circuit has a fast reaction time, but without oscillation. Using an
opamp driving a current amplifier (typically an emitter follower) will usually be stable, but if any
additional gain circuits are used within the feedback loop, it will almost certainly oscillate. This means Top
additional components have to be added (usually low-value capacitors), and their optimum location isn't
usually immediately apparent. Examples can be seen in Figure 6.1 (single supply, opamp with emitter
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follower output) and Figure 7.1 (dual supply), where the opamp is followed by a gain stage. Given that
most 'ordinary' opamps are limited to a supply voltage of less than 36V, this limits the available output
voltage when a gain stage is not included.
In some respects, a power supply is not unlike an audio power amplifier. The only real difference is that
amplifiers can source and sink (absorb) current, whereas a power supply only has to source current to
the load. Indeed, a perfectly capable regulator circuit can be built using the common power amplifier
building blocks. However, power amplifiers aren't expected to drive capacitive loads, where voltage
regulators must be capable of driving any load, whether capacitive, resistive or inductive. Of course, a
power supply also needs to protect itself from damage (shorted outputs or very low impedance loads),
and it must be able to deliver its rated current into any load at any voltage. Series pass transistor
dissipation can be extreme, but the supply must carry on regardless. Compared to power supplies,
power amps are simple!
1.2 Current Regulation
A supply with current regulation used to be fairly uncommon, but it's very useful for a number of
reasons. If the maximum current can be set for just above the expected current drain of your circuit
being tested, if there's anything wrong a current regulator will limit the maximum current (as its name
suggests), and hopefully prevent damage to the DUT. There are only a few techniques that are
commonly used for current regulation, almost always using a sense resistor. The voltage across the
resistor is monitored, and if exceeds a preset value, the voltage is reduced to maintain the preset
current.
One of the most common tricks is to use the base-emitter voltage of an ordinary BJT (bipolar junction
transistor) as the 'reference', being roughly 0.65V. If the voltage across the sense resistor increases
beyond that, the transistor turns on, and (by one means or another) reduces the voltage. Any attempt to
draw more than the preset current results in the voltage falling further. This isn't a precision approach,
but it's usually 'good enough'. The voltage can be amplified by an opamp (either IC or discrete) if
necessary.
Figure 1.2 - Basic Current Regulator
Q3 and Q4 perform current limiting. The voltage across RS (the current sense resistor) causes Q3 to
conduct, thus turning on Q2. This reduces the voltage by pulling down the reference voltage, reducing
the output voltage, and therefore the current. A number of different sensing methods are shown further
below, but this is one of the simplest. Because there are two transistors involved, the gain is quite high,
so the current limit is 'brick wall'.
2 Approaches For Bench Supplies
One way to make a very robust power supply is to use a high-power transformer based supply, and
control the voltage using a Variac (see Figure 4.1). This is unregulated, but it's the simplest way to
create a high power supply that can be used with almost any amplifier (or other projects, including power
supplies). There's no over-current protection (other than fuses), but I have a couple of supplies that use
this exact configuration. When I need lots of voltage and current, these supplies are invaluable.
However, one needs to be certain that the unit under test has no inherent fault(s) first. This ideally
requires current limiting. While 'safety' resistors can be used in series with the positive and negative
supplies for initial tests, this is a nuisance. Top
Most (nearly all in fact) of my initial tests are done using a zero to ±25V, 2A dual tracking supply that I
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designed and built about 35 years ago (at the time of writing, and it's still working). It has current
limiting down to about 100mA, and has a fan for the heatsink, along with an over-temperature shut-
down. These are needed because it does get used for 'strange' applications, and yes, the output(s) have
been shorted many times - usually by accident, but sometimes because there's a fault in the item being
tested. Something as simple as a small solder bridge can spell doom for a power supply that can't
protect itself.
The dissipation problem was discussed briefly above, and this is the Achilles heel (as it were) of all high
current linear supplies. The answer (of course) is to use a switchmode design, but that is so far outside
the scope of normal DIY that it doesn't warrant consideration. Every issue faced by a linear regulator is
raised to the 'nth' power for a switchmode supply. Those you can buy have undergone considerable
development, and use specialised parts that are not suited to a DIY approach. Unless you are capable of
designing and building switchmode transformers, then it's out of the question altogether.
If you have a linear supply that can provide up to (say) 50V at 5A, the best case dissipation at full current
with a shorted (or low voltage) output is 250W, but in reality it may be a great deal more. If you think
that's fairly easy (there are transistors rated for 250W dissipation after all), think again. The SOA (safe
operating area) and thermal limits come into play very quickly, and a transistor with (for example) 56V
across it may only be capable of 3A or so, based on a case temperature of 25°C. Ultimately, you will
need to provide enough transistors to be capable of handling at least twice the power dissipated, and
preferably more. My suggestion would be to use a minimum of 5 × 125W transistors, and while that
sounds like overkill, in most cases it will suffice - there's some reserve, but not very much! A lower
voltage reduces stresses, and I know from many years of experience that ±25V is usually sufficient for
most tests.
At higher voltages, if you used 5 × TIP35C (NPN, 125W at 25°C), they can each pass 1A with 50V across
the transistor (50W), but only at 25°C. At elevated temperatures, that is reduced, falling by 2W/ °C
above 25°. At a case temperature of 75°C, total dissipation is limited to only 25W for each transistor.
That rules them out of contention with a simple scheme, because the dissipation will exceed the
maximum allowable as the heatsink becomes hotter. Of course, you can use far more robust transistors,
but they will be commensurately more expensive. The TIP35C (125W) is around AU$3.00, vs. over
AU$5.00 for the MJL3281 (200W) and more than AU$6.00 for the MJL21194 (200W).
All of the available devices have the same limitations - SOA and temperature always mean that you can
get far less power from any transistor than you expect. Forced air cooling is mandatory unless you have
access to an infinite heatsink, which in my experience are hard to come by. Even using insulating
washers may become impractical, because the additional thermal resistance means that the transistors
have to be de-rated even further. In turn, that means a 'live' heatsink, sitting at the full supply voltage.
Should it come into contact with an earthed chassis, the result will be a very loud Bang ! As you should
now be aware, there are so many things that can go wrong that the advice to buy a commercial supply
starts to look very sensible indeed.
Then (of course) there's the transformer. After that there's the high current bridge rectifier, followed by
filter capacitors. All of these need to be very substantial, with a 500VA transformer, 35A bridge, and at
least 10,000µF of capacitance. Just the hardware (transformer, bridge rectifiers, filter caps, heatsinks
and power transistors) will probably cost at least AU$200 - or more. You still don't have a chassis/ case,
pots, knobs and ancillary parts, including mains and DC connectors, meters, etc. Remember that for a
dual supply (the only kind that's really useful), everything is doubled. You'll be up for at least AU$400
just for the basics, and closer to AU$600 by the time everything is included. If this hasn't convinced you
that a commercial supply is worthwhile, then nothing will.
If you were to look at a major supplier (such as RS Components, Element14, etc.) you'll find dual
supplies that can do 0 to ±30V at 5A, or 0-60V if the two outputs are wired in series. These may not be
in the same league as Tektronix, Keysight or other 'laboratory' equipment makers, but the cost is less
than for the major parts alone if you were to try to build your own. While the maximum voltage is less
than ideal, I know from years of experience that up to ±30V is quite sufficient for basic testing, and all
power amps shown in the projects section were tested with my ±25V supply before being connected to
my 'monster' Variac controlled supply (which can deliver up to ±70V at around 10A or more).
2.1 'Digital' Bench Supplies
Many of the true lab supplies use digital (via a keypad) entry for the essential parameters. For general
use, this is an absolute pain in the bum! Using ordinary knobs and pots is a far better option most of the
time, because the effect is immediate. It's common for lab supplies to use a rotary encoder to control
the current or voltage, but you have to select the function first, and it may take several full turns to cover
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the full range.
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If something starts to get hot in your test circuit, the last thing you need is to have to press a multitude
of buttons or turn a knob ten times to reduce the voltage. With a standard pot, one twist anti-clockwise
and the voltage is back to zero. You will never know just how frustrating keypad entry really is until you
need to change something quickly. Ideally, there would be a 'ZERO' button to turn off the output, but
I've not seen a digital supply that has one. Reading rapidly changing current on a digital display is simply
not possible unless it features an averaging function (which will be buried three levels down in a menu -
somewhere).
Having used bench supplies all of my working life, I can say with certainty that 'ordinary' pots are more
than satisfactory for normal test purposes. Extreme accuracy is rarely essential for most testing, and if
by some chance you do need a very accurate voltage or current, it's easy enough to build a separate
regulator. Mostly, you won't need it, and if the supply is accurate to within a volt or so, that's almost
always good enough. Obviously you need to be careful if you need 3.3V or 5V for logic circuits, but they
will often have their own regulator, and will work with 7-12V quite happily.
Digital displays and controls can also give a false sense of security, because we tend to believe the
meters because they display voltage and current down to a couple of decimal places. However, unless
they are properly calibrated (with a known and calibrated accurate meter), then they could easily tell you
that the voltage is 5V when it's really 5.5V or 4.5V. Because all digital systems ultimately rely on DACs
and ADCs (digital to analogue and analogue to digital converters), they require an accurate reference
voltage. If that goes awry for some reason, then all readings are meaningless.
For this reason, I do not cover digital control systems here. Control of voltage and current remain in the
analogue domain - they are analogue functions, and adding another complication is not necessary. Fairly
obviously, at least some of the ideas shown can be adapted to digital control, but I don't show any
examples.
3 Current Sensing
The simple arrangement shown in Figure 1.2 belies the likely difficulty of implementing a good current
limiter, and this is where things can get difficult. There are two choices - 'high-side' and 'low-side'
sensing. 'High-side' means monitoring the current in the positive and negative outputs, and is
complicated by the fact that this voltage is not only variable, but also at a voltage that's usually
incompatible with opamps. You can't expect an opamp to have its inputs at perhaps 30V or more, since
that's generally the maximum operating voltage. This isn't a trivial issue to get around, and it's generally
better to monitor the current before the series pass transistor(s) so the voltage doesn't vary so much.
However, this makes the voltage problem worse, because the unregulated supply will typically be around
35V or more - well over the range for any low cost opamp.
A simple 'high-side' current limiter is shown in Figure 1.1 ('Opamp' version), but it's not as simple as it
looks. It's difficult to make it variable without using an unrealistically large sensing resistor, and
accepting that you will lose significant output voltage across the resistor, which will also get hot. A
switched scheme is shown in Figure 7.1, and while this certainly works, it's not particularly accurate and
nor is it the most practical.
'Low-side' sensing gets around that problem, but it can only be used for a single supply. Sharing a low-
side sensing circuit between the positive and negative supplies won't work, because most of the supply
current flows between the +ve and -ve outputs, often with little flow in the common connection. It can
be done, but it's far from ideal, especially if a single pot is to be used for setting the voltage (a dual
tracking power supply). The Figure 6.1 circuit uses low side sensing, and it will still work on both
polarities of a dual supply because the outputs have their common point after all regulation.
There are specialised ICs available to get around the high-side current sensing problem. Three
'demonstration' high-side current sensing circuits are shown below. However, these are all shown with a
positive supply only. The first two can be used in the negative supply (assuming a complementary design
such as Figure 7.1), but the IC version cannot. There doesn't appear to be a solution for that particular
problem.
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Figure 3.1 - High-Side Current Sensing Circuit
A current mirror (Q1 and Q2) is used to sense the current across the sense resistor (R1, 100mΩ), and
the output is level-shifted by the resistor network. The output is monitored by opamp U1, which is set up
as a differential amplifier. VR1 is included so that the zero point can be set (i.e. zero output voltage with
zero current through R1). The opamp is deliberately set up with a bit more gain than it needs, and the
output is scaled with VR2. As shown, the circuit will provide an output of 1V/A, so at 2A current, the
output is 2V. The arrangement shown is fine for up to 5A, and for higher currents, the value of R2 and
R3 need to be increased.
While this circuit is capable of high accuracy, it's also very susceptible to temperature variations between
Q1 and Q2. Ideally, these would be a 'super-matched pair' in a single package, but these can be difficult
to find and while inexpensive, most are now available only in an SMD package. Naturally enough, a
similar arrangement can be used without the current mirror, but sensitivity is reduced and the maximum
allowable voltage is also lower. The current mirror can handle an input voltage of 50V easily, but the
simple differential opamp circuit is limited to about 40V. Higher voltage is possible by increasing the
value of R2 and R3, but that reduces the sensitivity even more.
If you were to use the Differential Amplifier circuit, the output voltage varies between zero and 250mV
for a current between zero and 2.5A. Sensing current below 100mA (10mV output) is difficult. Of
course, you can increase the value of the sense resistor, but at the expense of power dissipation. At
2.5A, a 100mΩ resistor dissipates 625mW, but to get the same sensitivity from the differential amplifier
you'd need to use a 1Ω resistor, which will drop 2.5V and dissipate 6.25W. This is clearly a fairly serious
compromise. There's also the ever-present issue of opamp DC offset, which may also need to be
addressed if you need to regulate to low current (anything below about 100mA is a challenge).
In case you are curious as to the use of a -1.2V supply for the opamps, this ensures they can get to zero
volts at the output. The LM358 can (allegedly) get its output to almost zero, but in reality it doesn't quite
make it. The small negative voltage allows it to get to zero easily. Most other opamps will not allow such
a small negative supply, and will require around -5V to work properly. This will take many above their
recommended operating voltage if a 30V supply is used as shown.
In all cases, it's imperative that the input voltage remains within the specified range for any opamp used
in this role. With a 30V supply, the inputs should always be at least 4V above the minimum supply
voltage, and 4V below the maximum. Whenever possible, the input voltage should be close to 15V
(assuming a 30V supply).
A simple solution that can be applied to the simple (one opamp) high-side sensor is to use switched
resistors instead of a single fixed value. For example, 100mΩ is fine for higher currents, and you can
switch to a 1Ω resistor to allow accurate setting for lower currents (less than 1A for example). This adds
another switch, but it also simplifies the design, and opamp DC offset is much less of a problem when you
need a low current limit.
There are several special purpose ICs available for high-side current sensing, with one shown in Figure
3.1. These include the LT6100, INA282 and several others, but they are only available in SMD packages,
making them rather unfriendly for DIY applications where a PCB is not available. These are very Top
accurate, and allow the voltage of the current monitored supply line to be much higher than the IC's
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supply voltage. In common with most SMD ICs, they are often only available in packs of five or more,
and they aren't exactly inexpensive. If you wanted a dual supply (±25V for example), there is no
negative version of these current shunt amplifiers, and this creates additional complexity. The INA282
can (apparently) sense a negative voltage, but it can't exceed -14V. The gain is 50V/V, so a much
smaller shunt resistor can be used (0.02Ω shown). That means the output changes by 1V/A, so for 2.5A
output, the output voltage will be 2.5V. Because it's an active circuit, it will introduce phase shift, which
might make the current regulator unstable. This has not been tested.
The current sense IC datasheets also contain useful information about the proper connection to a current
sense resistor. You must ensure that there is effectively zero PCB, Veroboard or hard wiring included in
the sensing circuit. The sensing leads must come directly from the current shunt, avoiding any other
wiring. This is known as a 'Kelvin' connection, which ensures that track or wiring resistance is not
included in series with the current sense resistor.
Figure 3.2 - Low-Side Current Sensing Circuit
Low-side sensing is a far simpler option, but there are circumstances where it can't be used. For
example, you can't use low-side sensing in the Figure 7.1 circuit, because the common is literally
common to both the positive and negative supply. In a balanced circuit or if you only draw current from
between the two outputs, nothing will register regardless of the current drawn. This method is used in
the Figure 6.1 circuit, and there it's not a problem because each supply is a separate entity until the two
are connected by the series/ parallel switching.
I haven't shown any of the options that can be used. For example, if you use a very low value sensing
resistor, the small voltage across it can be amplified with an opamp to get more voltage. 100mV/ A as
shown is fine for loads up to around 5A or so, but with more current the losses become too high. For
example, even at 5A, a 0.1Ω resistor will dissipate 2.5W and you lose 0.5V across the resistor. With
higher currents this quickly gets out of hand. At 7A, the resistor dissipates almost 5W, and it will get
extremely hot. These caveats also apply to high-side sensing of course, as the physics are identical.
The current sense resistor (whether high or low side) must be inside the voltage regulator's feedback
loop, or it can't compensate for the voltage drop across the sense resistor. In reality, it usually doesn't
matter, because very few circuits that you will test will care if the voltage 'sags' a little under load. For an
amplifier that uses a conventional power supply (unregulated), the actual voltage will change far more
than it will with a bench supply, even if the current sense resistor is outside the feedback loop.
4 Alternative Bench Supply
If you have the bits and pieces needed to build a robust power amplifier supply, then with the addition of
a Variac (see Transformers - The Variac if you don't know what that is) you can build a 'monster' supply
that will suit high power testing with almost any load. You don't get regulation, nor is there any current
limiting (not even short circuit protection), but with the right parts it's a formidable piece of test gear.
I have a couple, one of which really does qualify as a monster. The circuit is shown below, and it's
literally what I use for high power tests. Any piece of equipment that's connected to it has already been
verified to be functional, and that's essential because it can destroy almost anything given the
opportunity. It's an extremely useful piece of kit, and all project amplifiers published on the ESP site
have had their final test with this very supply.
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Figure 4.1 - Variac Based Power Supply
The supply is just a 1kVA transformer, two bridge rectifiers (35A each), and a bank of capacitors salvaged
from a very ancient hard disk drive many years ago (the drives that were as big as a washing machine!)
It's set to the desired voltage with the Variac that I have on my workbench as a matter of course. The
supply isn't regulated, but can supply enough current for any amplifier that I have ever tested with it.
Long ago, a Variac was a very expensive piece of kit, but Chinese variable auto-transformers are now
surprisingly affordable.
This also means that the applied DC is very similar to that normally provided by a linear supply, but with
better regulation due to the oversized transformer and filter capacitors. This is obviously not a cheap
option, but it cost me almost nothing because I had everything I needed in my 'junk box'. The 10,000µF
caps shown should be considered a minimum - mine uses around 20,000µF on each supply. If you have
them available or can afford them, use as much capacitance as you can! Note the inclusion of 'bleeder'
resistors - without them, the voltage can remain at a dangerous level for many hours. I normally don't
use them because the connected amplifier )or other circuitry) discharges the caps, but that's not
necessarily true with test equipment.
The continuous output current is around 7A, but with an amplifier load it can handle 25A peaks (and
more) with ease. Do you need something similar? Only you can answer that, but it doesn't need to be
as big as the one I use. Of course, there's no current limiting, so you need to be sure that the circuit
works before using the 'monster' supply! The output fuses protect against shorted outputs, but will not
save your project from damage if it's faulty. A supply such as this is applicable for final tests, not for
initial testing or fault finding. There is no current limiting, so a fault can cause significant damage (the
fuses only protect the supply, not the load!). Shorted outputs are obviously a cause for some concern, so
care is required.
5 Tap Switching/ Pre-Regulation
One approach that has been used in many supplies is a simple transformer 'tap switching' scheme. If you
only need (say) 15V or less, the transformer's output is switched with a relay so the AC output is only
15V AC, rather than the full 30V AC needed to get a clean 30V DC output. If the output is run at a low
voltage but high current, the dissipation is reduced because there's less voltage across the regulator.
When a voltage of 16V DC or more is selected, the relay switches to the full output (30V AC). This can
be extended with more taps of course, but that would require a custom transformer, dramatically
increasing the cost.
Tap switching supplies have been around for almost as long as I can remember. The most impressive I've
seen used a motorised Variac to maintain the AC input at just enough to prevent any ripple breakthrough
on the DC side. These were very large, extremely high current, and would have cost a fortune when they
were made (sometime in the mid 1970s). This isn't something I'd suggest anyone try to build, as the
cost and difficulty of setting it up would be well beyond the budget of even a well-heeled DIY fanatic.
Simple tap switching supplies use two AC voltages, so for a dual supply you need two tapped windings,
plus an auxiliary winding to provide the normal ±12V or so for the control circuits. Finding a suitable
transformer will be next to impossible, so you'd need to have a transformer custom made. This isn't a
problem for manufacturers because they will build many supplies and the cost can be amortised over a
complete production run. Hobbyists don't have that luxury. Top
The use of tap switching reduces the demands on the series pass transistor(s). For a dual supply, you'd
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need at least two power transformers (and realistically you'd also need a third transformer to provide the
control circuit supply voltages). This would increase the already significant cost of building a dual power
supply. There's also additional components needed to sense the output voltage, and switch from the low
to high voltage tap automatically (and vice versa) using relays. While building any power supply is a
challenge, adding tap switching just adds another layer of complexity. I don't propose to go any further
with this, as it makes an already complex and difficult job that much harder and more expensive.
There are some savings too of course, particularly in the number of series pass transistors needed and
the amount of heatsinking. However, these are not sufficient to offset the cost of the transformers, and
the power transistor(s) can still be subjected to short-term conditions that push them outside of their
safe operating area. Such excursions may be brief, but a transistor can fail in a millisecond if the SOA is
exceeded - especially if its already at an elevated temperature. I recall a friend who built a fairly basic
tap-switching power supply from a kit many years ago, and he had nothing but trouble from it. This was
a semi-commercial product, complete with case and everything needed to put it together. It failed so
many times that he eventually gave up in disgust. No-one wants to go through that!
There's another method that's worth a bit more than a passing mention, even though it does have some
serious challenges. Using 'phase cut' circuitry (similar to that used in lamp dimmers), it's possible to vary
the input voltage prior to regulation, simply by adopting fairly simple low frequency switching. However,
it also imposes far greater than normal stresses on the transformer and the filter cap, but these are not
insurmountable problems.
The switching element can be a MOSFET, IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) or an SCR (silicon
controlled rectifier), with the switching synchronised to the mains with a simple zero-crossing detector.
The idea is to impose a delay, starting from the zero crossing (time zero). It's usually easier (and adds
fewer additional challenges) to wait until the input voltage has fallen to the desired voltage, so a 'leading
edge' configuration is used. When the input voltage has fallen to just below the threshold voltage, the
switch is turned on, charging the main filter capacitor. A simplified block diagram is shown below.
Figure 5.1 - Phase-Cut Pre-Regulator Block Diagram
The challenges mentioned earlier include extremely high peak currents, especially with a low output
voltage at a high current. These can be mitigated by adding an inductor and flyback diode (shown as
'Optional'), with the greatest issue being that the inductor has to carry a large DC component without
saturation. This means a low-permeability core has to be used, so more turns are necessary for a given
inductance. This adds resistance and increases losses (meaning more heat is generated). However,
including the inductor will give better results than you'll get otherwise, and it reduces the high current
stresses otherwise imposed on the transformer, bridge rectifier and filter capacitor. The diode (D1) must
be a high-speed type, rated for the maximum output current.
This technique has been used in several commercial products, and while it does do exactly what's
intended, it makes poor use of the transformer's VA rating if the inductor and diode aren't used. Without
these, you can expect the transformer's output current to be up to four times the DC current. That
means that for 3A DC output (and using a 25V transformer), the transformer needs to be 300VA, where
normally a 150VA transformer would be sufficient. To make matters worse, the inductor has to be fairly
large - around 10mH is needed, a large and expensive component.
The circuit works by comparing the input control voltage to the ramp, created by the ramp generator and
synchronised to the mains frequency with a zero-crossing detector. When the AC voltage reaches the Top
required amplitude, the switch turns off, preventing the capacitor from charging any further. The
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'idealised' waveform is shown (assuming no inductor or storage/ filter capacitor), and it's apparent that
the voltage and current supplied to the output is reduced depending on the phase angle. This process
and waveforms can be seen in more detail in the Project 157 - 3-Wire Trailing-Edge Dimmer project
article. It's a different application, but the process itself is pretty much identical.
I actually have a power supply that uses this arrangement, but its 120V AC input makes it pretty much
useless unless I power it from a Variac. At no load, the voltage jumps up then slowly falls until it's below
the threshold, when it jumps up again and the process repeats (in a somewhat random pattern). Under
load it's not too bad, but this is not a technique I'd recommend. Apart from the fact that the one I have
is rated for 150V at 5A, it also weighs in at around 40kg, and has one very large main transformer, a
smaller auxiliary transformer to power the electronics, and a large filter choke (inductor). It is very 'old
school' in terms of layout and construction, and it never gets any use. I don't even recall how I came to
own it! If I need that sort of voltage and current, I use my Variac controlled 'monster' supply.
Yet another approach is to use a switchmode step-down (buck) converter as a tracking pre-regulator. You
can think of this as a 'high tech' version of the phase-cut pre-regulator described above, which provides
the advantages, but fewer disadvantages (in terms of transformer utilisation at least). Some fairly high
powered modules are available surprisingly cheaply, and the idea is to ensure that the voltage provided to
the series-pass transistors is only a couple of volts greater than the output voltage. This can improve
efficiency so you can get away with much smaller heatsinks, and thermal management isn't such a
challenge. A suitable feedback mechanism has to be provided that controls the output of the switchmode
converter, such that it is always just great enough to ensure regulation.
The pre-regulator reduces the series-pass dissipation to only a few watts, even at full current. It should
go without saying that this approach requires some serious development, and while it's probably the best
all-round solution, it's far harder to get right than any of the other options examined so far. This is the
electronic equivalent of using a motorised Variac (as mentioned above), but is cheaper to make and
easier to control. The design challenges can be extreme if you try to build your own, and keeping
switching noise out of the final output can also be difficult. If you need very low noise (for performing
noise or distortion measurements for example), the switching noise will almost always intrude on the
measurements. This is an option that won't be covered further here.
6 Single Supply
A single supply might be attractive for some people, and it's certainly simpler than a dual tracking
version. Of course, if you only have one polarity that limits your options as to what you can test, but
they are commonly available from any number of suppliers. The circuit shown below is adapted from one
that's shown on a number of different websites [2, 3, 4]. As such, it's difficult to know which one was 'first',
and there have been many improvements (or at least changes, which aren't always the same thing!)
made to it over the years. The basics haven't changed much, and the one shown below dispenses with
one voltage regulator in favour of a simple diode regulated negative supply. Because I used LM358
opamps, the negative supply only needs to be around -1.2V at fairly low current.
When the supply is in current limit mode, the LED will come on, indicating 'constant current' operation.
It's normally off, so you can tell at a glance if the load is drawing the preset current with a reduced
output voltage. Constant current operation is particularly useful for testing high power LEDs or LED
arrays, as that's the way they are meant to be driven. You also need an 'on/ off' switch, which reduces
the output voltage to zero when in the 'off' position. This is an essential feature (IMO) as it lets you
make changes without having to disconnect the supply. The best arrangement is to provide the switching
at the output of the supply, as that lets you set the voltage while the DC is turned off. Consider using a
relay (or two) for the switching, otherwise you need a heavy duty switch. Wile the voltage can be
reduced to (near) zero by pulling the non-inverting input of U1B to ground, there may be 'disturbances'
when AC power is first applied. This is avoided by switching the output.
The supply shown below is fairly basic, and you'd need to add meters for voltage and current, and
thermal management (a fan and over-temperature cutoff) at the very least. There are countless
improvements that can be made, but they would make the circuit more complex, more expensive, and
provide more 'exciting' ways to make a seemingly minor error and cause the supply to blow up the first
time it's switched on.
Top
11 of 23 7/29/2022, 12:11 PM
Figure 6.1 - Single Supply Schematic
U1 is a 7815 regulator, but with a 15V zener from the 'ground' pin to raise the voltage to 30V. D10
ensures that there can never be more than 15V input/ output differential across the regulator. Additional
reference zener current is provided by R3 to ensure a stable output. U2A is the current regulator. When
the voltage at the inverting input (U2A, Pin 2) is greater than that on the non-inverting input (Pin 3), the
output goes low, pulling down the reference voltage provided to U2B (the voltage regulator). The voltage
is reduced by just the amount required to ensure that the preset current is provided to the load.
The current limit is variable from (theoretically) zero to 2.5A. VR4 allows adjustment to ensure the
reference voltage for U2A (TP2) is as close as possible to 825mV (825mV across R18 (0.33Ω) is 2.5A
output current). It may be possible to increase the output current to 3A (990mV reference voltage), but
you would need to add another series pass transistor to keep the transistors within their SOA at minimum
voltage and maximum current. Some ripple breakthrough at maximum output (voltage and current) is
likely unless you add more capacitance (C1).
When in voltage mode, U2B compares the reference voltage from VR2 with the voltage at the output,
reduced by R16, R11 and VR3 (voltage preset). If the output falls due to loading, U2B increases the
drive to the output series-pass combination (Q3, Q4 and Q5) to maintain the desired voltage. The upper
output voltage limit is imposed by the opamp (U2), which can't force its output to much above 25V with
the typical output current of around 2mA (this depends on the gain of the output section, Q3, Q4 & Q5).
Note that the reference voltage is itself referred to the negative output terminal - this ensures that the
regulator will correct for any voltage drop across R18. If it were otherwise, regulation would be badly
affected, especially at maximum current.
Note that the heavy tracks are critical, and any significant resistance in these sections will upset the
current sensing. Also, be aware that the points indicated with a 'ground' symbol are marked 'Com'
(Common). They are not connected to chassis or any other ground. The 'Com' designation means only
that all points so marked are joined together. Also note the diodes with an asterisk (*), which must be
1N5404 (3A continuous) or better. All other diodes are 1N4004 or equivalent (other than the 25A bridge
rectifier of course). Bench power supplies often get connected to 'hostile' loads, and the high current
diodes (D8 and D9) are to protect the supply.
The supply uses 'low side' current sensing, so it needs some tricks to use it as a dual tracking supply with
both positive and negative outputs. The current sense resistor (R18) is a compromise between voltage
drop and dissipation. At maximum current (2.5A), R18 will dissipate a little over 2 watts, which is easily
manageable using a 5W wirewound resistor. Both voltage and current regulation are very good (at least
according to the simulator), and there's no sign of instability. In theory (always a wonderful thing), the
current can be regulated down to a couple of milliamps, but in reality it will not get that low. Expect Top
around 50mA or so, but it might be a bit lower than that (depending on the opamp's own DC offset).
Another trimpot can be added to correct for opamp DC offset, but it shouldn't be necessary (and adds
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something else that needs adjustment).
All of the alternative versions specify a single 2N3055 for the output, but with a shorted output and
maximum current, the dissipation will be about 80W, and maintaining the series pass transistor(s) at
25°C will be impossible. The TIP35 devices have a higher power rating (125W) and a good SOA (safe
operating area), but there is still a case to be made for using three, rather than the two shown. The
BD139 also needs a heatsink, but a simple 'flag' type will normally suffice. In common with any
transistor that dissipates significant power, excellent thermal bonding to the heatsink is essential, and you
will need to use a fan. This can be thermostatically controlled, and can use PWM (pulse width
modulation) for speed control, or it can just turn on and off. Figure 8.1 shows a suitable circuit for both
operating the fan and shutting down the supply if it gets too hot (which in this context is no more than
50°C heatsink temperature).
6.1 Dual Single Supplies
If you did want to use the Figure 6.1 circuit for a dual supply, the transformer needs two separate
windings. The second supply (#2) is identical to that shown above, and the positive output is connected
to the GND (or to be more accurate, 'Common') connection of supply #1. Most of the time, power
supplies are used with the outputs floating, with no connection to the mains protective earth. This lets
you use the supply as a normal positive and negative supply, or the outputs can be used in series, which
will give an output of 50V at up to 2.5A. This way, you can ground any terminal you wish to get the
supply configuration you need.
To build it as a dual supply, the 'Voltage Set' and 'Current Set' pots will be dual-gang linear pots, with one
section of each for the separate supplies. Tracking will not be perfect, but dual-gang linear pots are
usually fairly good in this respect. Using two supplies also lets you connect them in series or parallel.
The latter is handy if you have a single supply load that draws more current than one supply can
provide. Many commercial dual supplies use this scheme, and it can be very useful. While 'proper' dual
tracking would only use a single gang pot with electronic coupling to ensure the voltages are identical,
this makes the circuit more complex.
Figure 6.2 - 'Dual Single' Supply Connections
When the switch or relay (double-pole, double-throw or DPDT) is in the series position, the negative of
the upper supply is connected to the positive of the lower supply, and both connect to the common
terminal. You can have 0 to 50V output, and the common is the centre tap for ±25V. In the parallel
configuration, the two positives are joined, along with the two negatives (the common terminal is
disconnected). This allows for 0-25V at up to 5A output. Note that the negative terminal is the negative
output of the lower regulator. Because the outputs are floating, either the positive or negative terminal
can become the system earth/ ground if this is required.
One advantage of using 'dual single' supplies is that they can be used independently (with different
voltage and current limit settings), connected in series (usually with tracking) or in parallel for more
output current. Unfortunately, if you wanted to use the two supplies independently, you can't use dual-
gang pots, and each supply must be set individually. This is a serious nuisance, and fortunately it's not a
common requirement.
The arrangement shown let you connect the supplies in series (0 to ±25V or 50V at 2.5A) or in parallel (0Top
to 25V at 5A). The 'common' terminal should normally not be earthed, so the supplies are floating. This
lets you operate the supply without creating ground loops. When in parallel, one supply will usually be at
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a slightly different voltage from the other, but the current limiter ensures that the current from each
supply can't be above the limit (2.5A). There may be a small change in voltage as the current is varied,
but this shouldn't create any problems in normal use.
This design means that there is no common circuitry - both regulators are completely independent, and
no parts are shared - other than the dual-gang pots used to set voltage and current. This increases the
overall cost, but allows greater flexibility. The circuit above doesn't allow for independent supplies, but
that is unlikely to be a limitation. A well equipped workshop will have at least two supplies (for example,
I also have a separate independent ±12V supply, plus an independent 5V supply). None of these supplies
share a common ground - all are fully floating.
The 'on/off' switching is at the final output (just before the output terminals). This lets you set the
voltage with no output (meters will be connected before the output switch). A relay (or a pair of relays)
lets you use a mini-toggle switch rather than a heavy-duty toggle switch, and is recommended for
maximum performance. The relay(s) can be mounted on the front panel, right next to the outputs.
7 Simple 0 to ±25V Supply
Now we can look at another 'sensible' option. Again, that means an output of around ±25V DC, at a
maximum current of no more than 3A or so. Believe it or not, it's still cheaper to buy one! I know that
this isn't the 'DIY way', but it's more practical than building it yourself. I've looked at countless different
designs over the years, but few are worth the parts it would take to make them. There remain issues
with stability (i.e. not oscillating at any output voltage or current, or with 'odd' loads). This might not
sound like a problem, but the interactions between voltage and current regulators can make an otherwise
well behaved supply suddenly think it's an oscillator. It goes without saying that this is undesirable (to
put it mildly).
Project 44 has been around for quite some time (since 2000), and although the maximum output is only
±25V, it a fairly good option for running initial tests. It doesn't have adjustable current limiting, so
output current is set by the LM317/ 337 regulators, at around 1.5A. It's usefulness has never diminished
since publication, but you must use 'safety' resistors in series with the outputs so that nothing is
damaged if there's an error in the wiring of the DUT. The value for any given ESP project is generally
specified in the project article or construction notes (available when you buy one or more PCBs).
One of the things that's expected is that a bench supply needs very good regulation. In reality, this isn't
actually the case. Power amplifiers usually don't have regulated supplies, and preamps (and similar low
current projects) draw a fairly consistent current, so regulation within the allowable range is easy. If a
power supply's voltage falls by (say) 0.5V when heavily loaded, it really doesn't matter, because that's a
great deal less than it will have to cope with when connected to a 'normal' power supply. The thing that
is critical is current limiting, and while this might appear to be simple enough, it's actually difficult to get
it to operate reliably. The current limiting circuitry introduces additional gain into the circuit, and
maintaining stability can be irksome at best, and next to impossible at worst.
Often, the critical aspect of any current limited supply is at the transition between voltage and current
regulation, where the two different forms of regulation interact. At the onset of current limiting, you have
the voltage regulator trying to maintain the preset voltage, and at the same time, the current regulator is
trying to reduce the voltage to maintain the preset current. For those who really want to build a power
supply, John Linsley-Hood presented a design way back in 1975. An updated version is shown below, but
modern transistors have been substituted for the originals, and two series pass transistors are included.
Adding a third series-pass transistor on each supply makes cooling easier and imposes less stress on the
transistors. In the original circuit, the opamps were µA741s, but if you have them to hand the 1458
(essentially a dual 741) is a better choice. You can also use an LM358 in this circuit.
Top
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Figure 7.1 - Bench Power Supply (After JLH, 1975) [6]
The above is adapted from the original, which used a single 2N3055 and MJ2955 TO-3 power transistor
(one for each rail). Not only were they subject to excessive dissipation in the original (up to 93W at
maximum current into a shorted output), but TO-3 devices are rather expensive today. They are also a
pain to mount, where flat-pack devices are far simpler in this respect. The TIP35/36 devices specified
have a higher power rating (125W vs. 115W each) and a higher collector current, but I've modified the
circuit so that it provides a maximum of ±25V and uses a lower voltage transformer. This keeps the
series pass transistors to a manageable power level, at no more than 40W each. Feel free to add another
series pass transistor for each polarity, reducing the thermal load even further. Q3 (a and b) must have a
reasonably good heatsink, as the power dissipation is much higher than it may appear at full output
current (and at any output voltage).
The current limit switch is less than ideal, since the switch contacts need to be able to handle the
maximum output current (about 2.4A), and it's less convenient than a pot that allows continuously
variable current limiting. The 0.27Ω resistors need to be rated for at least 3W, with 1W for the 1.5Ω
resistors. The remaining current limiting resistors are 0.5W. While the switch is not as versatile as a pot,
the limiting thresholds are designed to protect your circuitry. When first testing, you'd normally use a low
current to ensure that nothing is drawing more than it should. The 5mA setting is too low for most
circuits, but it can be useful. It can be omitted if you don't think you'll need it.
The output needs either a heavy duty toggle switch or a relay to turn the DC on and off, and this
disconnects the supply completely when you don't need any output (such as re-soldering a missed joint
etc.). Metering isn't shown - see below for details of adding a voltmeter and optionally an ammeter as
well. The two 20k trimpots let you set the maximum voltage (nominally ±25V). They should be roughly
centred to obtain the correct voltages. Although not shown on the circuit, you may need to add resistors
in series with C4a/b if the supply oscillates when in current limit mode. They weren't included in the Top
original, but the simulated circuit oscillates if they aren't there. A value of around 100 ohms should be
15 of 23 7/29/2022, 12:11 PM
sufficient.
The circuit is far from 'perfect' (and nor was the original), but it should work well in practice. The voltage
set pots will ideally be a dual-gang pot, so both supplies are varied at the same time. Likewise, the
switch (Sw1a/b) will be a 2-pole, 5-position switch. Note that I have not built and tested this circuit, but
it has been simulated and it performs as expected. The benefit of a simple arrangement as shown is that
it can most likely be built for less than a commercial supply.
The series pass transistors (Q1a/b and Q2a/b) need a very good heatsink, and optimal thermal coupling.
If used at low output voltages and high current, you will need a fan to keep the transistors cool enough to
ensure they don't fail due to over temperature. The driver transistors (Q3a/b) will also need small
heatsinks. The circuit is symmetrical, so while it may appear complex, it's largely repetition. I cannot
guarantee that it will be completely stable when in current-limit mode - the simulator tells me it is, but
that may just be the simulator itself - reality is often very different from a simulation.
While there is an expectation that a power supply shouldn't ever oscillate, in reality it takes serious
engineering to maintain stability along with good transient response. Mostly, a small amount of
oscillation usually won't do any harm, and the current limiting is there to ensure that your latest creation
doesn't self-destruct if there's a wiring fault. It can also be handy for battery charging (amongst other
things), and the limiter's primary purpose is to protect your circuit and the power supply against
'mishaps'. Many supplies will show signs of high frequency instability, rarely when in 'constant voltage'
mode, and most often when in constant current mode.
In case you have started thinking that building your own supply doesn't look too daunting, there are
some other things needed as well. The transistor temperature is critical, so it's important to include a
thermal shutdown mechanism. This can be a simple thermal switch that disconnects the mains if the
heatsink gets too hot - simple but not very sophisticated. It's usually better to include an 'over
temperature' indicator, and a thermal fan that turns on if the heatsink goes above a predetermined
temperature. 'Store bought' supplies may have a variable speed fan, with a final shutdown if the
heatsink doesn't cool down. This can happen if there's a sustained high current into a short, a blocked
fan filter, or placement on your workbench restricts airflow.
8 Thermal Sensing
This is a critical part of any power supply. Ideally, if the thermal limit is reached, the supply should turn
off, but this is easier with some circuits than it is with others. For example, the Figure 6.1 circuit is easy,
as it's simply a matter of pulling the voltage reference to zero (essentially in parallel with the 'on/off'
switch). This can be done with a transistor, relay contacts or it can even be made 'proportional' so the
maximum output current is reduced as the heatsinks become hot. Thermal limiting is a bit more difficult
with the Figure 7.1 circuit, as the 'set voltage' pots are not referenced to ground, but to the output supply
rails. Due to the need for complete isolation, a relay is the best choice, and it simply shorts the set
voltage pots. You need a double-pole relay because the two pots are separate from each other
(electrically).
The next thing is to decide how best to sense the heatsink temperature. The obvious choice is an NTC
(negative temperature coefficient) thermistor, and these are readily available in a range of different
values (the value is usually specified at 25°C). Unfortunately, thermistors are a nuisance to mount to the
heatsink, unless you can get one with an integral mounting assembly. You can make your own, using a
miniature bead thermistor and using epoxy to attach it to a wire lug. Naturally, you need to be careful to
ensure that there is no electrical connection from the thermistor to its mounting. You can also use diodes
or transistors for thermal sensing, but they are less sensitive than thermistors (only -2mV/°C) and more
irksome to set up. A transistor can be configured to provide greater sensitivity (because it has gain), and
you can get up to -100mV/°C easily. However, the transistor needs a trimpot (preferably as close as
possible to minimise noise pickup), and the sensor requires three wires instead of two. They are also
fiddly to set properly. A more-or-less typical 10k (at 25°C) NTC thermistor will show a change of roughly
-250 ohms/°C.
Because thermistors vary widely in terms of their value change with temperature, it's essential that a
method of adjustment is provided. Ideally, you need an accurate thermocouple thermometer to measure
the heatsink temperature, as close as possible to one of the series-pass output transistors. You'll need to
use thermal 'grease' to get an accurate reading. Typically, the resistance of a thermistor will have fallen
to around 30-40% of the 25°C value at 50°C, but this depends on the material used. The datasheet for
the thermistor you buy will usually provide the exact details. Make sure that the thermistor(s) are not
installed too close to the fan. If they are, the fan will cool the thermistors easily, but may be unable to
keep the heatsink to a safe temperature. This can cause failure. Top
A cheap opamp is the easiest way to get reliable detection of an over-temperature 'event', and several
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thermistors can be used, with the hottest one triggering the cooling fan(s) or shutting down the supply.
You can use a two stage system as shown below, where a mild over-temperature starts the fans, but if
the temperature continues to increase then the supply is disconnected from the load altogether. The two
trimpots are used to ensure that the initial voltage across each thermistor is around 5.8V at 25°C, which
means approximately 65% of the total resistance or VR1 and VR2. Should the voltage across either
thermistor fall to about 5.4V, the fan will turn on. The fan turns off again when the voltage has returned
to the 5.4V threshold. If the supply cuts out because the temperature keeps rising, the fan will keep
running.
Figure 8.1 - Thermal Sensing, Fan and Relay Cutout
U1A is a buffer, included to ensure that the hysteresis resistor on U2B doesn't disturb the first
comparator. At low temperatures, the comparator U1B has its output low, and U2A is high, so the fan
doesn't run and the relay contacts are closed (provided the DC switch is closed). As the temperature
rises, one or both thermistors will drop to a lower resistance. When the thermistor voltage falls to ~5.2V,
the fan will start, and if the temperature continues to rise, the supply output relay will be turned off when
the thermistor voltage falls further. This arrangement ensures that the temperature should never reach a
dangerous level. It will be necessary to adjust the trimpots to preset the initial thermistor voltage to an
appropriate level to ensure that the fan comes on when the heatsink temperature reaches about 35°C.
The LED is there to let you know why everything has suddenly stopped working (the output transistors
are too hot !). The last trimpot (VR3) should be set for a cutout temperature of around 45°C. Both
comparators have hysteresis, so the fan won't turn on and off rapidly, and nor will the cutout relay. (Note
that U2B is not used.)
Thermistors are not precision devices, so you will need to run your own tests with those you can get. It
may be necessary to experiment with resistor values to obtain sensible (and safe) temperature
thresholds. You may be wondering why I suggest such a low heatsink temperature (45°C). Bear in mind
that the thermal resistance from transistor case to heatsink may be around 0.5°C/W, so if the transistors
are operating at 35W, the case temperature will be 17.5°C hotter than the heatsink. That means a case
temperature of over 60°C. If your mounting techniques aren't good enough, the difference may be
greater, leading to a risk of failure. If you can't place a finger on the transistor and keep it there, then it's
probably too hot.
Maintaining a safe operating temperature and shutting down the supply (or disconnecting the load) if the
power transistors get too hot is a critical part of any power supply. It's the nature of any variable supply
that you never know what you'll eventually use it for when it's first built, and every eventuality needs to
be catered for. It's far better for the supply to shut down prematurely than to allow the transistors to get
so hot that they fail. Transistors fail short circuit (at least initially), which will put the full unregulated
supply voltage across the DUT. The damage that can cause may be catastrophic.
9 Metering
All power supplies need meters. These are normally included for voltage and current, and the most
common now is digital. However, 'traditional' analogue moving coil meters are not only cost effective
(you can get them surprisingly cheaply), but are also easy to read at a glance. Many digital meters don't
provide sensible supply and metering connections (for example, some require a floating supply). This
makes the circuitry more complex, and the accuracy that's implied by digital meters is often an illusion. Top
With analogue meters, 'FSD' means full scale deflection.
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My preference has always been for analogue meters. If you can get a meter with a dial that's calibrated
from 0-30V (for example), one can be used for voltage, and the other for current (0-3.0A). The required
shunts and multipliers can be determined easily enough - see the article Meters, Multipliers & Shunts for
all the details. It might be possible to use the current-sense resistor as the meter shunt, depending on
the sense resistor value and the sensitivity and internal resistance of the meter. In most cases, a 1mA
meter movement is a good compromise, and that will let you use the current sense resistor shown in
Figure 6.1. Yes, connecting the meter and external resistor will affect the shunt ever so slightly, but the
error will be very small (to the point of being infinitesimal).
Figure 9.1 - Current And Voltage Metering
Basic stand-alone metering circuits are shown above. The current meter is a pain, because the polarity
has to be reversed depending on whether it's monitoring the positive or negative shunt. It looks
convoluted, but it will work exactly as intended if wired as shown. The total meter resistance assumes
the use of a 1mA meter movement, calibrated for 30V (voltmeter) or 3A (ammeter), and assuming an
internal coil resistance of 200Ω. If the meter used is more sensitive (or its resistance is different), the
resistances will need to be calculated. It almost always easier to use trimpots to set the range than fixed
resistors, and suitable values are shown. For a voltmeter (calibrated for 30V FSD) ...
Rm = ( V / FSD ) - Rinternal
Rm = ( 30 / 1m ) - 200 = 28.8k
If the shunt resistors for an ammeter are different from the values shown the calibration will be different.
The 'total resistance' shown includes the meter's internal resistance (typically around 200Ω for a 1mA
movement). Note that if you use a 1mA movement, the shunt resistor will need to be no less than 0.1Ω.
A 67mΩ shunt is called for, but this assumes that the meter's resistance is exactly 200 ohms, and there is
no provision for adjustment if the reading is off. Whether the same shunt can be used for both current
sensing and the ammeter depends on the final topology of the design. It's not always practical, but does
reduce voltage losses slightly.
Note that if you use the Figure 6.1 circuit, the two shunts have the same voltage polarity so the reversal
shown above isn't necessary. To look at positive or negative output current, the meter is simply switched
from one shunt to the other, and the polarity is unchanged. That takes away the crossed wiring shown to
the negative shunt in the above drawing.
While a switched ammeter is shown (and that's what my old supply uses), it's better to use a separate
ammeter for each output. Provided you have enough front panel space, this removes the tedium of
switching the meter, and means that if you forget (and that will happen), you may be monitoring the
negative supply, but using the positive supply. Needless to say, that means that you can't see the current
and the DUT may be damaged before you realise your mistake. The use of current limiting can mitigate
that of course, provided it's set for a non-destructive (low) current when you start testing.
The voltmeter can be switched to measure either positive or negative voltage, or it can simply be wired
across the dual supplies (50V for the circuits shown here), and calibrated to show 30V FSD ('Voltage
Meter (Alt.)). The implication is that the voltage will be ±25V, or other lower voltage as selected. There
may be some small error if the supplies don't track perfectly, but this is usually not a major issue unless
you are expecting a precise voltage for some reason. If that's the case, it's better to use an external Top
meter - those on the supply are 'utility' meters - they show the value of voltage and current, but
18 of 23 7/29/2022, 12:11 PM
expecting better than around 5% accuracy is unrealistic.
9.1 Digital Meters
Digital meters are either the best thing since sliced bread, or a blight on the landscape, depending on
your viewpoint. Personally, I prefer analogue (mechanical) meters, but they are usually fairly large and
unwieldy, taking up more panel space than digital readouts. The greatest benefit of analogue meters is
that you can watch the pointer moving, so an increasing (possibly runaway) current is seen quickly, and
varying currents can be averaged by eye quite easily. Digital meters are particularly useless if the
current varies quickly, because the display just becomes a blur of digits, and you cannot average a digital
readout by eye.
However, digital meters are usually cheaper than analogue movements now, and most are fairly
accurate. Because they take up less panel space, they are a good option, provided a few simple
precautions are taken. In particular, and especially for the current meter, you need to include averaging
circuitry that stops the display from showing a bunch of seemingly random digits when the supply current
varies rapidly. This can be as simple as a resistor (1k is always a good starting point) and a capacitor to
average the reading. With a 1k resistor, a 100µF capacitor means that you have a 1.59Hz low frequency
-3dB point, so most rapid variations will be smoothed out so you can read the current. Failure to include
this will provide readings that you can't decipher. It's fast enough to ensure that a trend is easily visible.
No details for digital meters are shown here because they depend on the meter itself. Some are auto-
ranging, others use switchable ranges, and the simpler ones just give a reading from '000' to '199', with
the option to select a decimal point at the desired position (often via a jumper or link on the meter's
PCB). For current measurements, it will often be necessary to use an opamp to boost the small voltage
across the current shunt. For example, if you have a 0.33Ω shunt, you'll need to amplify or attenuate the
voltage across that to suit the range. For 2.5A full scale, that means you only get 825mV with a current
of 2.5A, and that needs to be amplified so the meter shows '2.50' (2.5V into the meter). The amount of
amplification or attenuation depends on the meter's sensitivity. For example, a 200mV meter will need to
have the shunt voltage reduced by a factor of 33 with a voltage divider. It will read 2.5 (25mV) with the
decimal point selected by whatever means are provided. Resolution is only 100mV (±2%, ± the meter's
final digit 'uncertainty factor', which can be up to two 'counts'). This (IMO) is not good enough.
Ideally, if you decide to use digital metering, use a meter that offers three full digits (up to '999' rather
than '199'), and if possible with auto-ranging. There are many choices, so it's up to you to decide how
much you want to spend and what accuracy you need. Again, Meters, Multipliers & Shunts gives some
worked examples that you may find helpful.
10 Construction
This is where things can get ugly. The front panel is the most important part of the supply, because it
has voltage and current controls, on/ off switches (mains and DC), maybe a series-parallel switch,
meters, and of course the output connectors (typically combination banana sockets/ binding posts). Of
course, you'll also add LEDs for power on, current limit and thermal overload. Everything on the front
panel has to be accessible for construction or maintenance, and that invariably means a maze of wiring.
The front panel has leads for AC mains, DC outputs, all LEDs and pots, and this all adds up (surprisingly
quickly). Maintaining a common supply for all LEDs (e.g. anode to the positive auxiliary supply) means
that many of the LEDs can share the same anode voltage, which can save wiring. However, this does not
apply to the current limit LEDs in a dual version of the Figure 6.1 circuit, because the two supplies must
be kept fully independent until the series-parallel switching.
The internals must contain your power transformer(s), rectifier(s) and filter caps, along with the main
heatsink(s) for the output transistors. The latter will have input, output and control wiring, as well as
connections for the thermistors and fan(s). At the very least, each output module (assuming a dual
supply) will have at least six wires. Then there's the regulator control board(s). You'll have one for each
supply (assuming the Figure 7.1 dual supply arrangement), plus a thermal controller board to monitor the
heatsink temperature.
It's all too easy to get wiring wrong, and you need a very disciplined approach to ensure that you don't
make any wiring errors. Avoid the temptation to try to fit all the control boards to the front panel. It
may reduce the wiring needed, but makes servicing a nightmare if the various parts of the supply can't
be accessed and tested without having to disconnect wires from boards. Whatever sized enclosure you
were thinking of using, if it doesn't have lots of free space then it's too small.
Make sure that all connections can be accessed without having to remove boards to get to the underside.Top
Use pins, wire loops, or any other suitable technique so that all wires can be disconnected from the top
19 of 23 7/29/2022, 12:11 PM
(or visible) side of the boards. Avoid plugs and sockets - all connections (especially the really important
ones) should be soldered, with the wiring arranged so that if you ever need to remove a board to replace
something, the wiring is bound with cable ties so that each wire lines up with the appropriate connection
point. Along similar lines, if at all possible, when building the boards (most commonly on Veroboard),
keep connections along one edge of the board. This will mean adding jumpers on the Veroboard, but
that's far better than having wires all over the board itself. Not only does it mean that wiring is simpler,
but it also makes mistakes less likely.
Trimpots are a fact of life for any power supply. Voltages and currents need to be set, and meters
calibrated. Thermal sensing also has to be calibrated, so nearly all power supplies will have numerous
trimpots - you simply cannot rely on fixed value resistors to provide the proper conditions for anything.
If you were to build the Figure 6.1 circuit as a dual supply, with the thermal protection and metering,
you'll have at least nine trimpots to set everything up correctly. This is pretty much normal for power
supplies, but some may have more!
Make sure that important parts of the supply are easily separated from the rest (and the chassis). For
example, the heatsink assembly should be made so it can be removed, and all transistors can be
accessed without having to dismantle the entire module. One design I've seen has the main filter caps
directly in front of the output transistors, so they cannot be removed without removing the filter caps (or
the transistors) from the circuit board. The location of the caps is such that you simply cannot access the
transistor mounting screws once the assembly is completed. I strongly recommend that you avoid any
similar errors. Having to remove (and/ or desolder) components or boards to gain access to any part of
the supply makes it a nightmare to work on later. Consider that it may be in operation for 20 years or
more before it needs servicing, and by then you will probably have forgotten many of the 'finer points' of
the circuit. After that long, you may not even have the schematic any more, so make sure that you
include one inside the case!
While the basics of a power supply aren't overly complicated, there will always be far more wiring than
with any typical audio project. This is unavoidable unless you increase the overall cost even further by
making your own PCBs. While doing so means a more professional product, there's no guarantee that
you'll get the design right first time, and having to make modifications can be very time consuming. If an
error has been made on a PCB layout, it can be difficult to diagnose and locate the error so it can be
fixed. In general, it's likely to be much easier to hard-wire the final output section. Because of the high
currents involved (which may be present for hours at a time), a normal PCB doesn't offer low enough
resistance or high enough current capacity unless you use very wide tracks (I'd suggest a minimum of
5mm tracks for 5A, but even that is marginal for continuous duty).
While it may seem like a minor quibble, I strongly recommend that you use an IEC socket for the mains.
In my long experience with test equipment and other gear, there's not much that's quite as annoying as a
fixed mains lead. Rather than just unplugging the IEC plug from the back if it needs to be moved, you
may have to trace a fixed lead back to its mains outlet, then disentangle it from other leads for the rest
of your test bench gear. Depending on just how much gear you have, that can actually be a bigger
challenge (and pain in the backside) that you think when it's first installed and plugged in. A minor point,
but one worth remembering. Very few test fixtures that I've built have fixed mains leads, and I maintain
a good collection of IEC mains leads!
There's one remaining challenge. To test the various parts of your supply before it's fully wired, you
need ... a power supply. The chances of getting everything right first time aren't good, so if you don't
have a power supply, you will have to devise a way to check that the various sections work properly
without the risk of smoke if something isn't right. You may be able to use 'safety' resistors in series with
the main supply to limit the damage if there's a wiring error, or (if you have one) use a Variac and a
current monitor (see Project 139 or Project 139A so you can test for excessive current as the voltage is
increased. Many parts of the supply won't work properly at reduced voltage, so there is always a risk.
Testing and calibrating power supplies is not a trivial task, so you'll have a lot to do to get it completed.
11 A Useful Addition
While I've only described the basic supply here, many commercial supplies include a 5V output (usually
rated for around 3A), and a few include a ±12V supply as well. Because you never know just how the
supply will be configured in future use, these will both be fully isolated. Once you tie the ground (or
common) connections together internally, that limits what you can do with the supplies. As already
noted, you can never anticipate what you'll use a supply for when it's first built, and it would be unwise to
assume anything in advance.
This means at least one, but possibly two additional transformers, plus the rectifiers, filters and Top
regulators. You also need more space on the front panel for the connections. Most commercial supplies
20 of 23 7/29/2022, 12:11 PM
do not provide metering for any auxiliary supplies, and the circuitry doesn't need to be anything
especially fancy. A couple of P05-Mini boards can be used, one for a single +5V output, and the other for
±12V.
Compared to the cost of the rest of the supply, these can be added for (almost) peanuts, with the
possible exception of the transformers. Alternatively, they can be built as a separate unit, which does
have some distinct advantages. Predictably, I have one of these as well as those on my workbench, and
while it doesn't get used a lot, it's invaluable when I do need an extra supply that's isolated from all the
others. It's also small enough that I can take it from the workshop to my office, where I also perform
some testing and development work. Indeed, that's where it is at the moment.
12 Precautions
There are precautions that should be followed with any variable power supply. Unless there is a switch
that disconnects the DC (or reduces the output to zero), the supply should never be powered on with
your load connected. Most circuits have to go through 'startup' phases (capacitors charging, zener
voltages stabilising, etc.) before the output will be stable. If your load is connected, it may be subjected
to a dangerous voltage, and current limiting may not be enough to prevent damage. Indeed, until all
internal circuitry has the required operating voltages, there may not even be any current limiting!
With the Figure 7.1 circuit, once the supply is powered on and working, reducing the voltage to zero with
the switch will work. However, during 'startup' (after mains power is applied), this may not be the case!
Nothing should be connected to the output when the mains switch is turned on, because the output can
be unpredictable. This has been confirmed by simulation - even with the switch turned off, the output
rises to over 4V momentarily when power is applied. The Figure 6.1 circuit should be better in this
respect, but it's still best not to have your load connected when the mains is turned on.
The power should be turned on, voltage reduced to zero while you make connections, and then the
voltage can be set for the desired level. If testing something for the first time, use a low current limiting
threshold to minimise damage if there's a fault in the DUT. If you need a current-limited supply, the
voltage should be set such that the current limit is reached, but not beyond. For example, it you wanted
to ensure a current of 1A through a 10 ohm load, the voltage only needs to be set for an open circuit
voltage of around 12V. A higher voltage setting only increases the risk to your load if something goes
wrong.
Setting a low voltage (just sufficient for the task) does not reduce the dissipation in the series pass
transistors. The only reason is to ensure that the output capacitor(s) can't charge to 25V, then be
discharged through the load. This would almost certainly guarantee that the instantaneous current will
be much higher than the threshold set. This isn't only advice for the circuits shown here - it applies to all
power supplies unless the operating instructions indicate otherwise. Most will advise against connecting
anything until the voltage and maximum current are set before you connect the load.
There are several power supply designs that use a microcontroller to manage the functions, but be very
wary of anything (DIY or commercial) that requires you to 'program' the voltage or current using a
keypad. The use of low-tech conventional pots means that you can increase the voltage (or current) with
the twist of a knob, and quickly reduce the voltage if any anomalies are seen. Trying to do this using
push buttons is usually impossible, and much damage may be caused simply because you couldn't reduce
the voltage quickly enough at the first sign or trouble. The 'high-tech' look and feel of a programmable
power supply may be appealing, but it's impractical for anything other than laboratory tests, where the
equipment being powered is a known quantity from the outset.
Conclusions
If all of the above hasn't frightened you away from the idea of building your own supply, I strongly
suggest that you start with something fairly simple (such as Project 44). I know that DIY is about doing
it yourself, but that should hold true only when it makes sense. As discussed earlier, I did build a ±0 to
25V, 2A supply with fully variable current limiting, thermal cutout and a dual speed fan. It's been in fairly
consistent use for around 30 years (at the time of writing), and has never let me down. However, it's a
complex circuit, and isn't really suitable for amateur construction. Rather annoyingly, the circuit diagram
cannot be found, and it's not an easy circuit to 'reverse engineer'. With seventeen transistors, five
opamps, two 12V regulator ICs, five trimpots as well as the expected bunch of resistors, diodes, filter
caps, switches, meters and voltage/ current setting pots, it's not something I would recommend - even if
I did have a complete circuit for it. The cost would be considered unacceptable to most constructors who
may not need it all that often anyway.
Top
The simple circuit shown above (Figure 7.1) is not bad. It's not as good as the one I built, but it's
21 of 23 7/29/2022, 12:11 PM
certainly acceptable for normal test-bench work. It does have the advantage that it can limit at a lower
current than mine (~50mA is my minimum), and that's useful for sensitive circuitry. More importantly,
it's simple enough to build even on Veroboard, with the current limiting circuits wired directly to the
switch and voltage setting pots. This leaves only the basic circuit on Veroboard, which should be fairly
straightforward. Overall, the Figure 6.1 circuit is better, but the switching for series parallel operation
needs to be done with great care.
Perhaps surprisingly (or perhaps not), current sensing is generally far more difficult that it seems at first.
It's pretty easy if you use a simple switched resistor scheme, but making it adjustable is not so
straightforward. There are specialised ICs that are designed for this exact application, but most are SMD
only, and they're not inexpensive - especially if they are only available in a pack of five. This is very
common with SMD parts. Of course, this is just the sensing part - it's still necessary to get current
regulation. As already noted, at the transition point (from voltage to current regulation), there are two
separate regulators, both trying to impose their will on the output. Without a great deal of design time,
the result is often oscillation (either transient or continuous).
The main idea of this article is to show you some of the options available. Ideally, most DIY constructors
want something that does the job, is reliable, and doesn't cost a small fortune to build. If it can use parts
you already have available, then that's even better. If you do have to buy the parts, you want to be
reasonably sure that the circuit you choose is up to the task. As already noted, the circuits I've shown
had to be adapted to ensure reliability (especially with low output voltage and high current). Failure to
provide protective measures (current limiting, fan and over-temperature cutoff) will result in a circuit that
not only lets you down, but may blow up the circuit you're testing as well.
When you look at the cost of the components needed, you'll discover very quickly that they add up to a
fairly scary figure. Just the transformer(s) will be expensive, and while many of the parts are cheap
enough, that doesn't apply to the filter capacitors or the heatsinks. You also have to provide a case and
other hardware, and that will require significant machining to accommodate meters, fans, connectors,
etc. It's very doubtful that you'll spend less than the equivalent of AU$400 in your currency of choice,
even if you have many of the smaller parts in stock. I've seen a 0-30V, 3A dual supply for as little as
AU$325 on-line, and it's highly doubtful that you can build one for less unless you have almost everything
needed in your 'junk box'.
This should not under any circumstances be seen as a construction article! It is intended only to
demonstrate that building even a modest bench supply is not a trivial exercise, and that there are
considerations that you may not have thought much about. Some of the designs you'll find elsewhere on
the Net are not well designed, and fail to provide adequate safety margins for the series-pass transistor
(in particular) and most have no warnings about transistor SOA, thermal failure or any of the things that
can go awry. As this article has shown, there are many things that can go wrong, especially if any part of
the supply is underrated for the abuse it will get in normal use.
References
1. What's All This Power-Supply Design Stuff, Anyway (Electronic Design)

2. Adjustable Lab Power Supply - Take Two
3. 0-30 VDC Stabilized Power Supply With Current Control
4. Zdroj G400 (In Czech language)
5. Voltage Regulator Tube (Wikipedia)
6. Twin Voltage Stabilised Power Supply, John Linsley-Hood (Wireless World, January 1975)
7. NTC Thermistors (www.resistorguide.com)
Main Index
Articles Index
Copyright Notice. This article, including but not limited to all text and diagrams, is the intellectual property of Rod Elliott,
and is © 2019. Reproduction or re-publication by any means whatsoever, whether electronic, mechanical or electro-
mechanical, is strictly prohibited under International Copyright laws. The author (Rod Elliott) grants the reader the right to
use this information for personal use only, and further allows that one (1) copy may be made for reference. Commercial use
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is prohibited without express written authorisation from Rod Elliott.
Page published and © November 2019
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Elliott Sound Products Bench Power Supplies

Bench Power Supplies - Buy Or Build?

1.1 Voltage Regulation

Figure 1.1 - Basic Voltage Regulator Topologies

1.2 Current Regulation

Figure 1.2 - Basic Current Regulator

2 Approaches For Bench Supplies

2.1 'Digital' Bench Supplies

Figure 3.1 - High-Side Current Sensing Circuit

Figure 3.2 - Low-Side Current Sensing Circuit

4 Alternative Bench Supply

Figure 4.1 - Variac Based Power Supply

5 Tap Switching/ Pre-Regulation

Figure 5.1 - Phase-Cut Pre-Regulator Block Diagram

Figure 6.1 - Single Supply Schematic

something else that needs adjustment).

6.1 Dual Single Supplies

Figure 6.2 - 'Dual Single' Supply Connections

7 Simple 0 to ±25V Supply

Figure 7.1 - Bench Power Supply (After JLH, 1975) [6]

Figure 8.1 - Thermal Sensing, Fan and Relay Cutout

Figure 9.1 - Current And Voltage Metering

expecting better than around 5% accuracy is unrealistic.

9.1 Digital Meters

1. What's All This Power-Supply Design Stuff, Anyway (Electronic Design)

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