SEMICONDUCTOR

Semiconductor

Any of a class of crystalline

solids intermediate in
electrical conductivity
between a conductor and an
insulator.
Semiconductors are employed in the
manufacture of various kinds of
electronic devices, including diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits.
A semiconductor is a physical substance
designed to manage and control the flow
of current in electronic devices and
equipment. It either doesn’t allow a freely
flowing electric current or repels the
current completely.
Semiconductor, any of a class of
crystalline solids intermediate in
electrical conductivity between a
conductor and an insulator.
Semiconductors are employed in the
manufacture of various kinds of
electronic devices, including diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits. Such
devices have found wide application
because of their compactness, reliability,
Current direction
When a voltage is applied to a conductor or
semiconductor, electric current starts flowing.

In conductors, positively charged protons are

held in a fixed position and the negatively
charged electrons move from one place to
another place by carrying the charge. Thus,
electrons conduct electric current in
conductors.
In semiconductors, both free electrons
and holes carry charge from one place to
another place. Thus, electrons and holes
conduct electric current in
semiconductors.
When voltage is applied, the electrons
(negative charges) move from negative
end of the battery to the positive end of
the battery. So the electrons (negative
charges) current direction is from
A semiconductor material in its pure
form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic
semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e.
they are free from impurities.
In case of intrinsic semiconductors, the
number of charge carriers, i.e., holes and
electrons are determined by the
properties of the semiconductor material
itself instead of the impurity.
Also, the number of free
electrons is equal to the number
of holes in the intrinsic
semiconductor. The common
examples of the intrinsic
semiconductors are germanium
(Ge) and silicon (Si).
When a small amount of chemical impurity is
added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then the
resulting semiconductor material is known as
extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic
semiconductor is also known as doped
semiconductor. The process of adding
impurity in the intrinsic semiconductor is
known as doping. The doping of
semiconductors increases their conductivity.
Based on the type of doping, the extrinsic
semiconductors are classified into two
types viz. N-type semiconductors and P-
type semiconductors. When a
pentavalent impurity is added to an
intrinsic semiconductor, then the
resulting semiconductor is termed as N-
type semiconductor.
On the other hand, when a trivalent
impurity is added to a pure
semiconductor, then the obtained
semiconductor is known as P-type
semiconductor.
Photoelectric effect, phenomenon in
which electrically charged particles are
released from or within a material when it
absorbs electromagnetic radiation. The
effect is often defined as the ejection of
electrons from a metal plate when light
falls on it. In a broader definition, the
radiant energy may be infrared, visible, or
ultraviolet light, X-rays, or gamma rays;
the material may be a solid, liquid, or gas.
The thermoelectric effect is the direct
conversion of temperature differences to
electric voltage and vice versa via a
thermocouple.[1] A thermoelectric device
creates a voltage when there is a
different temperature on each side.
Conversely, when a voltage is applied to it,
heat is transferred from one side to the
other, creating a temperature difference.
Hall effect is a process in which a
transverse electric field is developed in a
solid material when the material carrying
an electric current is placed in a magnetic
field that is perpendicular to the current.
The Hall effect was discovered by Edwin
Herbert Hall in 1879. In this article, let us
learn about the Hall effect in detail.
The pn junction in the semiconductor can
fulfil very diversified functions. It can rectify
electric current, inject minority carriers,
create a potential barrier, make use of its
capacitance properties, accumulate space
charge, create various non-linear
current—voltage characteristics, transform
light energy into electrical, react to various
kinds of irradiation, emit light radiation when
a current flows through it, and respond to the
function of a close or neighbouring pn
Hence it provides opportunities for
multiple usage in electronic
semiconductor components. Another
advantage lies in the fact that it can be
rather easily produced by various
technologies in perfect form. Unlike the
semiconductor—metal contact, where the
surface conditions of both materials have
an adverse influence, such influence can
be totally avoided in the pn junction
Care and special treatment is called for
only in places where the pn junction
contacts the surface of the crystal.
Several of the fundamental technologies
used to make pn junctions are dealt with
in the following chapters.
A rectifier is a special type of diode that
converts alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC). This is an important process,
as alternating current is able to reverse
direction periodically, while direct current
consistently flows in a single direction,
making it simple to control. There are
multiple types of rectifier, including:
Half-wave rectifiers: rectifiers that permit
only half of the AC signal to pass from
input to output.

Full-wave rectifiers: rectifiers that use the

full signal, requiring the additional use of
a transformer.
Positive half-cycle rectification: those
where a top diode with positive polarity
conducts current while a bottom one with
negative polarity blocks it

Negative half-cycle rectification: those

where the top diode is blocked and the
bottom one is opened.
 Diode chip structure
An actual chip is made with a thin p layer
and a thick n layer.
N– layer:
Since the concentration of impurities is
low, the depletion layer grows more easily
when there is a reverse voltage.
This concentration and thickness
determine the required withstanding
voltage.
N+ layer:
The concentration of impurities is high,
making it easy for current to flow.
This must be thick enough in order to
maintain the strength of the wafer.
Semiconductors works due to imbalance
of electrons that carry negative charge.
This imbalance of electrons generates
positive (where there are excess protons)
and negative charges (where there are
excess electrons) at two ends of
surfaces of the semiconductor material.
This is how semiconductor works.
A transistor acts as an amplifier by
raising the strength of a weak signal. The
DC bias voltage applied to the emitter
base junction, makes it remain in forward
biased condition. This forward bias is
maintained regardless of the polarity of
the signal. The below figure shows how a
transistor looks like when connected as
an amplifier.