###LIFT GENERATION###

I. TURBULENT FLOW

-Object placed in steady constant flow of air – air flows around the object – DOWNSTREAM OF OBJECT the
airflow becomes TURBULENT.

For spheres:

a. Transition from smooth to turbulent begins at MAXIMUM DIAMETER of the sphere relative to airflow &
turbulence extends downstream of the sphere.
b. Transition in large sphere = LOW AIRSPEED, transition in small speed = HIGHER AIRSPEED.
c. Drag is directly proportional to the size of the frontal area.
d. STAGNATION POINT = airstream velocity is zero, air pressure is greatest, point furthest into the airflow
e. MAX DIAMETER OF THE SPHERE = airstream velocity is greatest, air pressure is least, where streamlines
converge.

II. STREAMLINE FLOW

 Cone with a hemispherical leading edge.
-to eliminate or reduce amount of turbulence downstream of a sphere it is filled with volume as solid
object.
-cross-section of this shape produces STREAMLINE FLOW.
-symmetrical airfoil having a rounded leading edge and smooth trailing upper and lower surfaces
that gradually taper to meet at a point at the trailing edge.
 Classical linear flow
-airflow is smoothed downstream of the airflow to become a smooth steady flow again.
 Max speed of airflow
-indicated by closeness of the streamlines.

III. BOUNDARY LAYER

-Thin layer of sluggish air that clings to the surface of the object and in which the speed
change of the airflow takes place.
-Part of the airflow in which the airspeed is less than 99% of the speed of the freestream airflow
-May be LAMINAR (LAYERED) or TURBULENT (DISORDERED).
-Coefficient of lift = effect on of BL on lift, coefficient of drag = effect on BL on drag.
 Thickness/chord Ratio
-ratio of max thickness of airfoil and chord length, EXPRESSED AS A PERCENTAGE.
 Fineness Ratio
-ratio of chord length to maximum thickness, EXPRESSED AS NONDIMENSIONAL NUMBER.

 VISCOSITY
-Layer of air that clings to the surface of an object and resists movement.
-static and therefore causes the laminar streamline flow adjacent to this layer to slow down, which
in turn produces turbulence.

 Reynold’s number accounts for the following factors:

Speed, density, viscosity, compressibility of air

 Additional factors considered aside from boundary layer:

-Cleanliness of airfoil surface
-Condition of airfoil surface
 A. LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
- LOW REYNOLD’S NUMBER, no velocity component to airfoil surface, airspeed changes gradually w/
increasing distance from the surface of airfoil.
 LAMINAR/STREAMLINED FLOW
- As wing moves forward boundary layer air at first moves SLOWLY in the same direction as
streamlined flow.

 THE TRANSITION POINT

-Point at which change from laminar flow to turbulent flow is COMPLETE.
-At low AOA: close to trailing edge, gradually moves forward.
-At approx. 14 degrees, almost at L.E of the airfoil

B. TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

- HIGHER REYNOLD’S NUMBERS, more kinetic energy than laminar flow.
- Occurs AFT of the transition point.
- Better able to withstand positive pressure gradient (less tendency to separate from airfoil surface)

IV. BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL

A. Leading Edge Separation
- CONTROLLED SEPARATED FLOW, halfway between laminar steady streamline and turbulent
unsteady airflow.
- Caused by SHARP L.E.
- Beneath the separated layer is STATIONARY VORTEX (small at the wing root, increases in size
towards wing tip) A.K.A BUBBLE!!!
- Enhances AC performance bc Parasite (Profile) Drag, caused by surface friction and airfoil shape is
GREATLY REDUCED

1. BLOWING
- Confined to jet-propelled fighter AC that has high load factor on small overall wing surface area.
- Popular in 1960s, lost appeal cuz of difficulties in MANUFACTURING and MAINTENANCE.
- Small amount of compressed air is BLED OFF from the compressor of engine, fed thru pipes to
channels, exhausted through slots in flaps. Air is forced out of channel, follows flap profile, re-
energizing boundary layer, preventing stagnating.
- OVERALL EFFECT: amount of lift produced is increased.
2. SUCTION
- Vacuum sucks air thru porous surface area/series of small slots – at ~50% of the chordline, air is
EXHAUSTED REARWARD thru DUCTS or CHANNELS. Thickness of the boundary layer is decreased
and permits the air to travel faster.
- OVERALL EFFECT: Prevents separation by STABILIZING and STRENGTHENING BOUNDARY LAYER
3. VORTEX GENERATORS
- Create small vortices that cause the faster moving air above the boundary layer to be deflected
from the top of the boundary layer to the slower moving air near the airfoil surface.
- Can either be SMALL JETS OF AIR (can be turned off when not needed) / SMALL METAL PLATES ~25
mm DEEP, SPANWISE ROW
- Weaken shockwaves and shock drags of subsonic flights.
- OVERALL EFFECT: TRANSFERS MOMENTUM and RE-ENERGIZES lower layer of boundary air,
DELAYING SEPARATION POINT to FURTHER AFT.

V. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
-Considers two-dimensions in CROSS-SECTION of an airfoil
-HIGH AIRSPEED = Streamlines close together, LOW AIRSPEED = Streamlines further apart.
  EQUATION OF CONTINUITY
-Mass can neither be created, nor destroyed. Air mass flow is CONSTANT.

 BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
-Increase of airspeed around airfoil results in DECREASE IN AIR PRESSURE & vice versa.

 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
-Resultant of the angle of airfoil chord line to the oncoming airflow
-THE ANGLE OF ATTACK

VI. THE STAGNATION POINT

- point on an airfoil at which the approaching airflow becomes stationary.
-LOCATED on the L.E of airfoil just BELOW MAXIMUM POINT OF CURVATURE
-STAGNATION PRESSURE / TOTAL PRESSURE = DYNAMIC PRESSURE + STATIC PRESSURE
-Used to stop airflow at stagnation point

A. Airfoil Upper-Surface Airflow

-Upwash
-Air P decreases until it reaches MAX NEGAT. VALUE
-Changes direction of streamlines downward, induces DECREASED AOA over the TAILPLANE.

B. Airfoil Lower-Surface Airflow

-Air P increases until it reaches MAX POSI. VALUE

VII. LIFT PRODUCTION

A. SYMMETRICAL AIRFOILS
-Same curvature at upper and lower surfaces, consequently at zero AOA
-Negat pressure above = negat pressure blow = centers of negat-pressure areas is the
aerodynamic center
-Has AERODYNAMIC CENTER
-TOTAL PRESSURE IS EQUAL and RESULTANT FORCE IS ZERO
-NO LIFT GENERATED, PITCHING MOMENT IS ZERO, NO INDUCED DRAG.

B. CAMBERED AIRFOILS
-Curvature/Camber of upper surface > lower surface.

VIII. ANGLES OF ATTACK

A. NEGATIVE ANGLES OF ATTACK
-To produce NO LIFT AT ALL, cambered airfoils must have negat. AOA

B. SMALL POSITIVE ANGLES OF ATTACK

-Resultant force: right angles to chord line.

C. LARGE POSITIVE ANGLES OF ATTACK

-Beyond the stalling angle, ~15 degrees AOA
-Stalling angle: lift and drag are both max.

IX. CENTER OF PRESSURE

-Where resultant lifting force acts as a SINGLE AERODYNAMIC FORCE
-Moves forward chord line as AOA increases, at stalling angle, moves aft
-Normal operating range: 30 and 40 percent of chord length, measured from the leading edge
X. PITCHING MOMENTS
-The force that causes an aircraft to MOVE ABOUT ITS LATERAL AXIS.
-Force in this case is LIFT and applied THRU THE CP
-No lift = no pitching moment

 Pitching Moment Coefficient (CM)

CM = Pitching Moment
Dynamic Pressure × Planform Area × Chord Length

XI. THE AERODYNAMIC CENTER

-Point along the chord line at which PITCHING MOMENT (CM) remains the same NO MATTER WHAT
ANGLE OF ATTACK. CM is constant at ZERO LIFT VALUE.
-Subsonic flight location: at ~25% of the chord line, measured from the leading edge. Rarely
FORWARD OF 23% / AFT OF 27%
-Supersonic flight location: at ~50% of the chord line, measured from the leading edge.

 CMO VALUE:
a. Cambered airfoil = negative / nose-down
b. Symmetrical Airfoil = zero
c. Reflex Curved Airfoil = positive / nose-up

 Longitudinally Stable Aircraft

-When AERODYNAMIC CENTER is AFT of the CENTER OF GRAVITY

XII. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

 SPANWISE FLOW
-Movement of air laterally as it moves to the aft edge of the airfoil.

XIII. WING-TIP VORTICES

-Vortices strength at wing root = zero, increases in strength as it moves away from wing root.
-WHERE THE STRONGEST VORTICES ARE
-Strength and size depends on LIFT PRODUCED.
-Port/Left Side Wing-Tip Vortices = Rotates CLOCKWISE; Starboard/Right Side Wing-Tip Vortices =
Rotates COUNTER CLOCKWISE
-Increased AR/Decreased AOA = Decreased size and strength in wing-tip vortices
-CREATE INDUCED DRAG and adds to total drag of the airplane.

 Blended Winglets
-Improves wing efficiency, reduce fuel consumption, and induced drag by up to 19%

XIV. WAKE TURBULENCE

-Strong vortices by large aircrafts left behind along its path.
-Can extend for a considerable distance and last for SEVERAL MINUTES.
-Affected by HEIGHT OF AIRCRAFT and PREVAILING WIND CONDITIONS.

XV. SPANWISE LIFT DISTRIBUTION

-To minimize amount of induced drag (DRAG CAUSED BY CREATION OF LIFT), design wing such that
size and strength of wing-tip vortices ARE SMALL.
-Determined by TAPER RATIO (RATIO OF TIP CHORD TO THE ROOT CHORD)
-Length of WING CHORD MUST BE SHORTEST at WING TIP, becomes LONGEST AT WING ROOT.
-ELLIPTICAL wing = most efficient, RECTANGULAR wing = MOST LIFT AT WING ROOT, least at wing
tip, TAPERED wing = generates most lift at ~60% from wing root, TRIANGULAR wing = generates
most lift at ~70% from wing root
-Tapered wings are used as alternatives for elliptical wings (easier to manufacture)
###LIFT ANALYSIS###
I. THE FOUR FORCES
-In flight, aircraft is subjected to FOUR TYPES OF STRESS & FOUR FORCES.
-Stresses: Compression, tension, shearing, torsional
-Forces: mass, drag, thrust, lift.

A. MASS
-Downward force exerted on a body BY GRAVITY referred to as its WEIGHT

 Gross Mass
-Total of masses inside aircraft and that of the empty aircraft.

 Gravity
-Assumed to act as a SINGLE, DOWNWARD, VERTICAL FORCE thru a point on the longitudinal axis
referred to as the CENTER OF GRAVITY (NOT A FIXED POINT).

 CG
-Must ALWAYS be FORWARD of the AERODYNAMIC CENTER to maintain LONGITUDINAL STABILITY.

 Cruise Climb
-Aircraft slowly climbing as it uses fuel and loses weight.

 Indicated Airspeed in Level Flight

-Varies in DIRECT PROPORTION to SQUARE ROOT OF AIRCRAFT MASS

 High Indicated Airspeed

-Needed for aircrafts with HIGH GROSS MASS, needs more THRUST and causes FUEL FLOW TO
increase. Max range and max endurance decrease.

B. LIFT
-Component of the total aerodynamic force PERPENDICULAR (90 degrees) to the UNDISTURBED FLOW.

-Generated by forward movement of the aircraft through the air

 Stalling Angle
-Where GREATEST AMOUNT OF LIFT IS GENERATED, @ IDLE THRUST, FORWARD CG

 Total Lift = ( ½ x ρ x v2 ) ( Wing Area ) ( Coefficient of Lift)

- Total lift is DIRECTLY proportional to wing area (e.g. wing area doubles = total lift doubles)
A. Maximum Total Lift = (CLmax) (½ ρ) (Vs)2 (Wing Area)
B. Maximum Total Lift Angle = (CLmax) (Vs)2
Example

If the revised speed of an aeroplane is 1.4 times its original speed, determine the revised coefficient
of lift if the total lift remains constant.
Solution = Revised V2 = 1.4 × 1.4 = 1.96
Revised CL = 100 ÷ 1.96 = 51% of its original value.
C. CL as percentage of CLmax = [1/multiplicand2] x 100

Example
When an aeroplane is flying at 1.3Vs express the Cl as a percentage of Clmax.
Solution = 1/1.32 x 100 = 59.17%
II. FACTORS AFFECTING CL
A. AOA,
B. Wing shape of cross-section and planform,
C. Airfoil surface condition,
D. Reynolds no.,
E. Speed of sound

A. Effect of AOA on Lift

-Affects PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION surrounding an airfoil.
-Higher AOA, separation point moves nearer the leading edge, causing early separation (instead of
air separating at trailing edge) = loss of lift

B. Effect of Wing Shape

1. Leading-edge Radius:
-zero-lift condition for all raddi symmetrical wings = 0-degree AOA
-bigger L.E radius: SLOW transition to stall condition = CLmax +1.75 @ 18 degrees
-smaller L.E radius: ABRUPT transition to stall condition = CLmax +1.73 @ 16 degrees
2. Camber
-zero-lift condition for HIGHLY-CAMBERED WING = -9 degrees, CL +0.88 @ 14.5 degrees
-NORMALLY-CAMBERED WING = bet. -3 degrees and -4 degrees, CL +0.77 @17 degrees
-NONCAMBERED SYMMETRICAL WING = 0 degrees, CL +0.65 @19 degrees
3. Aspect Ratio
-Low AR = large & strong wing-tip vortices; High AR = smaller & weaker wing-tip vortices
-High AR wing = CL +1.43 at 13.0 degrees
-Med. AR wing = CL +1.18 at 16.8 degrees
-Low AR wing = CL + 0.90 at 23.6 degrees
4. Wing Planform
-ELLIPTICAL wing = most efficient,
-RECTANGULAR wing = MOST LIFT AT WING ROOT, least at wing tip,
-TAPERED wing = generates most lift at ~60% from wing root,
-TRIANGULAR wing = generates most lift at ~70% from wing root
5. Sweepback
-The greater the angle of sweepback, the less lift is produced by the wings.
-Enables an aircraft to fly up to a higher maximum speed before the speed becomes critical.
-Straight wing = CLmax +1.42 at 14.4 degrees
-Swept wing = CLmax +0.73 at 24 degrees

C. Effect of Airfoil Surface Condition

-Surface condition STARTING FROM L.E. up to 20% of chord AFT of L.E. = ONLY SIGNIFICANT
-Affects DEPTH OF BOUNDARY LAYER = ROUGHER SURFACE = DEEPER BOUNDARY LAYER
-Rough Surface = CLmax @ 12.1 degrees
-Smooth surface = CLmax @14.8 degrees
-Rough & Smooth Surface = Same effect on CL up to ~10 degrees

 ICE AND FROST DEPOSITS

-Ice forms on leading edge @ stagnation point
-Ice build-up on landing configuration
-INCREASED MASS, INCREASED STALLING SPEED, DECREASED STALLING ANGLE

-Smooth L.E: CLmax +1.66 @ 15 degrees

-Rough L.E: CLmax +1.2 @ 12 degrees
-Ice-Covered L.E: CLmax +0.9 @ 10.2 degrees
 D. Effect of Reynold’s Number
- Reynold’s Number: RATIO BET INERTIAL & VISCOUS (FRICTION) FORCES (INERTIAL/VISCOUS)

 Re = ρ x V x X
μ
-Used to IDENTIFY AND PREDICT DIFFERENT FLOW REGIMES (LAMINAR OR TURBULENT FLOW)
-Large Re: DOMINANT INERTIAL FORCE = TURBULENT FLOW

-Small Re: DOMINANT VICSCOUS FORCE = STEADY FLOW

-No diff. to CL = @9.75 degrees
-High Re = CL +1.73 @ 16 degrees
-Medium Re = CL +1.66 @ 15.4 degrees
-Low Re = CL +1.36 @ 13.2 degrees

E. Effect of Speed of Sound

-For every angle of attack, there is a corresponding IAS, coefficient of lift and coefficient of drag.
A. Constant AOA: level flight = fixed AOA = fixed CL, fixed indicated airspeed (V)
B. Changed Indicated Airspeed: level flight = increased IAS = decreased AOA and vice versa
C. Changed Altitude: level flight = fixed mass and CG position
-The IAS is directly proportional to the square root of the mass of the airplane.

III. AIRFOIL PROFILES

-External CONTOUR / CROSS-SECTION of AIRFOIL determines its PERFORMANCE
A. High-lift
-used mainly for sailplanes (lift is primary importance, speed is secondary)
-thick, rounded, L.E; high thickness to chord ratio; pronounced camber, max thick: 25%-30%
B. High-Speed
-sharp L.E; extremely low thickness to chord ratio; no camber; max thick: 50%

C. General Purpose -used for aircraft w/ maximum TAS of less than 30 kt

-small L.E radius, low thickness to chord ratio; less camber; max thick 25%-30% aft L.E

###LIFT AUGMENTATION###
I. WING LOADING
-Determines magnitude of unstick speed (VUS) during takeoff, touchdown speed during landing, and
stalling speed.

 Wing Loading (in Newtons / meters2) – 1st formula

= MASS OF PLANE
WING AREA
-High wing loading is undesirable (caused by heavy mass or small wing):
a. increased take-off and landing speed and distance
b. increased stalling speed and glide angle
c. decreased CLmax and turbulence sensitivity
  Wing Loading = Coefficient of Lift x Dynamic Pressure – 2nd formula

II. CLmax Augmentation (SLATS, SLOTS, FLAPS, BOUNDARY-LAYER CONTROL)

A. SLATS
-Small, highly-cambered section along a portion of the L.E. of each wing near the wingtip on a swept
wing. May be manual or automatic.

-Purpose is to INCREASE CRITICAL AOA; enabling higher AOA to be maintained by aircraft W/OUT
STALLING.

-Stalling angle when retracted = CLmax +1.35 @16 degrees

-Stalling angle when extended = CLmax +2.25 @26 degrees
-Longer slat = Greater CLmax and Lower Stalling Speed
-Most efficient position = mounted on SWEPT-WING outboard of the WING-MOUNTED ENGINES to just
INBOARD of WING TIPS.

 Automatic
-High AOA, spring-loaded slats open and raise clear of the wing
 Manual
-May be ELECTRICALLY OR HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED

B. SLOTS
-Series of suitably shaped slots built in the wing-tip JUST AFT of the L.E. during manufacture.

-Alternative method of smoothing airflow over upper surface of the wing.

-High AOA = slots open – airflow from below wing gets guided and discharged over upper surface
C. FLAPS
L.E. FLAPS
-Increase camber of the wing but reduces stability.

 Krueger Flap
-Hinged at the L.E and EXTENDS forward.
 Drooped Flap
-Whole section of L.E can be depressed to increase lift and stalling angle
T.E. FLAPS
-Can only be used when speed is AT OR BELOW MAX speed for lowering flap (VFO).
-Need to increase thrust when used.
-Increase DOWNWASH over the TAILPLANE, causing an OPPOSING NOSE-UP PITCHING MOMENT.
-Maintained AOA = flaps retracted = aircraft will descend; flaps extended = aircraft will climb.
-30 degrees – 40 degrees flap extension = mostly affects lift/drag ratio

###DRAG###
-Force directly opposing forward movement of aircraft.
-Resistance to forward motion acting parallel ALONG LONGITUDINAL AXIS
-Two Major COMPONENTS: PARASITE DRAG (PROFILE DRAG/ZERO-LIFT DRAG) & INDUCED DRAG

-LIFT & DRAG forces depend on PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND THE AIRFOIL
I. TOTAL DRAG FORMULA
Total Drag = (½ x ρ x v2) (S) (CD)
CD = Coefficient of Drag = Ratio of drag pressure to the dynamic pressure
V = Velocity / free airspeed
S = Wing Area
ρ = Density of Atmosphere

II. PARASITE DRAG

-Produced even when LIFT IS NOT PRODUCED
-Element of total drag NOT DIRECTLY ATTRIBUTED TO PROCUREMENT OF LIFT
-SPEED-SQUARED LAW: “The magnitude of parasite drag is directly proportional to the square of the
EAS.”

A. SURFACE FRICTION DRAG

-Portion of parasite drag caused by a boundary layer of almost static air that adheres to the skin of the
airplane.

-Determined by the DISPOSITION of BOUNDARY LAYER

-Varies and determined by:
1. Surface Area: Larger area = Greater value of S-F Drag
2. Coefficient of Viscosity (MEASURE of ADHESIVE QUALITIES of the air): Greater coefficient of
viscosity = Greater value of S-F Drag = Increases with rise of temperature
3. Rate of Change of Airspeed: Greatest rate of change = Highest value of S-F Drag

 Laminar Sublayer
–extremely shallow layer of the boundary later next to the surface that REMAINS LAMINAR even
when flow is ALREADY TURBULENT

 FLOW TRANSITION
-Transition point nearer to L.E. = Greater S-F Drag
A. Surface condition
-Polish or de-ice first to reduce surface friction
B. Speed and Size
-Thicker the body = lower the transition speed
C. Adverse Pressure Gradient
-Pressure AFT max. airfoil thickness INCREASES w/ increasing distance from TRANSITION POINT.

B. FORM DRAG (A.K.A PRESSURE DRAG BY EASA)

-Component of PARASITE DRAG caused by SHAPE of the airplane and its AIRFOILS
-Affected mostly by the USE OF AILERONS
-Caused by the decrease of pressure between the STAGNATION POINT on the LEADING EDGE of the
airfoil & SEPARATION POINT of BOUNDARY LAYER

 INTERFERENCE DRAG
-Total drag experienced by an aircraft is greater than the sum of the drag caused by individual parts
of the airplane.
-Caused by the mixing of the boundary layers at the junction of adjoining airfoil surfaces
(WING/FUSELAGE & WING/NACELLE JUNCTIONS)
III. INDUCED DRAG (A.K.A. VORTEX DRAG)
-Caused when aircraft’s airfoils are PRODUCING LIFT.
-Parallel and opposite to the direction of flight and is approx. equal to the total lift multiplied by the sine
of the angle of attack.
-GREATEST INFLUENCE ON MAGNITUDE is the WING TIP (VORTICES CREATE INDUCED DRAG)

-Decreased at high forward speeds.

-MAX INDUCED DRAG occurs at HIGHEST POSSIBLE AOA & LOWEST POSSIBLE SPEED (STALLING SPEED
IN LANDING CONFIGURATION – VSO)
-Inversely proportional to the square of the EAS; CDI is directly proportional to CL2.

 AFFECTED BY:
a. Proportional to the square of the coefficient of lift.
b. Proportional to the square of the mass.
c. Inversely proportional to the square of the EAS.

d. Inversely proportional to the aspect ratio.

e. Decreased by elliptical lift distribution.

 GROUND EFFECT
- When airplane files at a height LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO the LENGTH OF ITS WINGSPAN
- Just before touchdown, there is 50% REDUCTION IN TOTAL DRAG
- Experienced during INITIAL CLIMB after take-off and FINAL DESCENT during landing.

 WASHOUT
- Angle of incidence to progressively decrease towards the wing tip so that the effective angle of attack
remains constant along the whole wingspan.

IV. TOTAL DRAG

- Equal to the sum of INDUCED DRAG AND PARASITE DRAG

- At LOW AOA = major component is PARASITE DRAG; At HIGH AOA = major component is INDUCED
DRAG.
- Directly proportional to the gross mass of the airplane.
 OTHER FORMULA
CD = CDP + CDI

 VELOCITY OF MINIMUM DRAG

-Attained at 4 degrees
-the best lift/drag ratio is not coincident with VIMD.
-greatest range is obtained at the altitude at which the engines are most efficient.
 VELOCITY OF MINIMUM POWER
-Power required is equal to total drag multiplied by TAS.
-Minimum power required = minimum value of total drag × TAS in level flight.
 MAXIMUM EAS/DRAG RATIO (Vi/Dmax) SPEED
-Greatest distance to use all fuel available, is determined by flying at the speed at which the
maximum EAS/Drag ratio occurs.
-The total drag for a constant mass is the same at all altitudes, and the EAS at which this occurs
remains the same.
  AFFECTED BY:
A. Altitude: IAS = REMAINS UNCHANGED FOR ALL ALTITUDES; TAS INCREASES W/ INCREASED
ALTITUDE
B. Mass: Increased mass needs increased speed = TOTAL DRAG INCREASED
C. Flap: Increases BOTH LIFT AND PROFILE DRAG
D. Aspect Ratio: Aircrafts w/ short wings must be FLOWN AT LOW AOA to be efficient.

V. DRAG AUGMENTATION
A. AIRBRAKES
-Increases PROFILE DRAG, DECREASES VIMD w/OUT DESTROYING LIFT DURING LANDING
-Mostly used on MILITARY JET AIRCRAFT
-All HYDRAULICALLY OPERATED
-Example is DECELERON (SPECIAL TYPE OF AILERON)
B. SPOILERS (A.K.A LIFT DUMPER)
-Destroys lift and increases drag by extending upward into the airflow (flat metal plates)
-Decrease speed and increase RATE OF DESCENT
 Flight Spoilers – raised symmetrically in flight
 Ground Spoilers – To prevent aircraft from being airborne again.
 Roll Spoilers – deploys asymmetrically to assist DOWNWARD WING AILERON EFFECT A
TURN (decreasing lift on that wing)
C. BARN-DOOR FLAPS

- Term to describe flap systems that can be adjusted to an angle that produces LITTLE INCREASE IN
LIFT, MASSIVE INCREASE IN DRAG
D. DRAG PARACHUTES
-ONLY USED ON MILITARY AIRCRAFTS w/ EXTREMELY HIGH TOUCHDOWN SPEEDS
-Can only be used ONCE, must be JETTISONED after use.
-Most UNSUITABLE method for CIVILIAN AIRPLANES

VI. SPEED, STABILITY, AND INSTABILITY

-Acceleration = increases SPEED STABILITY; Deceleration = decreases SPEED STABILITY
 STABLE SPEED
-When a disturbance causes an UNDEMANDED SPEED CHANGE & returns to ORIG. SPEED
 NEUTRALLY STABLE SPEED
-Speed remains at THE NEW VALUE, doesn’t increase nor decrease
 UNSTABLE SPEED RANGES
-Bet. M0.80 and M0.98