10 1029@2019je006319

Thompson Lucy, M (Orcid ID: 0000-0002-5444-952X)
Berger Jeff, A (Orcid ID: 0000-0002-0380-4683)

Spray John, G. (Orcid ID: 0000-0003-3418-6862)
Fraeman Abigail, A. (Orcid ID: 0000-0003-4017-5158)
O'Connell-Cooper Catherine, D (Orcid ID: 0000-0003-4561-3663)
Schmidt Mariek, E. (Orcid ID: 0000-0003-4793-7899)
VanBommel Scott, J (Orcid ID: 0000-0002-6565-0827)
Gellert Ralf (Orcid ID: 0000-0001-7928-834X)
Yen Albert, S. (Orcid ID: 0000-0003-2410-0412)
APXS-derived compositional characteristics of Vera Rubin Ridge and

Murray formation, Gale crater, Mars: Geochemical implications for the
origin of the ridge.
L. M. Thompson1, J. A. Berger2, J. G. Spray1, A. A. Fraeman3, M. A. McCraig4, C. D.
O’Connell-Cooper1, M. E. Schmidt5, S. VanBommel6, R. Gellert4, A. Yen3, and N. I. Boyd4
1
Planetary and Space Science Centre, University of New Brunswick, Canada
2
NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, USA
3
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, USA
4
University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
5
Brock University, Ontario, Canada
6
Washington University, St Louis, USA
Corresponding author: Lucy Thompson (lthompso@unb.ca)
This article has been accepted for publication and undergone full peer review but has not been
through the copyediting, typesetting, pagination and proofreading process which may lead to
differences between this version and the Version of Record. Please cite this article as doi:
10.1029/2019JE006319
©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.
Key Points:
 Vera Rubin ridge is compositionally a continuation of the Murray formation
 Compositional trends cut across stratigraphy, are post-depositional, diagenetic and/or
products of later alteration
 APXS data indicate enhanced fluid flow, and Si, Al and Mn mobilization within VRR
Abstract
The resistant ~50 m thick Vera Rubin ridge (VRR) situated near the base of Mount
Sharp, Gale crater, Mars has been deemed a high priority science target for the Mars Science
Laboratory mission. This is because of 1) its position at the base of the 5 km layered strata of
Mount Sharp, and 2) the detection of hematite from orbit, indicating that it could be the site
of enhanced oxidation. The compositional data acquired by the Alpha Particle X-ray
spectrometer (APXS) during Curiosity’s exploration of VRR helps to elucidate questions
pertaining to the formation of the ridge. APXS analyses indicate that VRR falls within the
compositional range of underlying lacustrine mudstones, consistent with a continuation of
that depositional environment and derivation from a similar provenance. Lower Fe
concentrations for VRR compared to the underlying strata discounts the addition of large
amounts of hematite to the strata, either as cement or as detrital input. Compositional trends
associated with VRR cross-cut stratigraphy, indicating post-depositional processes. Higher Si
and Al, and lower Ti, Fe and Mn than the underlying mudstone, particularly within distinct
patches of gray/blue bedrock are consistent with the addition of Si and Al. Lateral and
vertical compositional variations, suggest enhanced element mobility and fluid flow (possibly
via multiple events) through VRR, increasing towards the top of the ridge, consistent with the
action of warm (~50-100 °C), locally acidic saline fluids as inferred from the mineralogy of
drilled samples.

Plain Language Summary
Curiosity has explored the resistant Vera Rubin ridge (VRR) at the base of Mount
Sharp, Gale crater, Mars owing to 1) its position within the 5 km layered rocks of Mount
Sharp, which record changes in Mars environment through time, and 2) the detection of
hematite from orbit. The Alpha Particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS), measures the elemental
composition of rocks. APXS analyses indicate that VRR has a similar composition to
underlying mudstones, consistent with continued deposition in a lake. Lower iron discounts
the addition of large amounts of hematite, either holding together mineral grains as cement,
or as detrital grains. Other elemental trends cut across layering, indicating post-depositional
processes. Lateral and vertical compositional variations, suggest enhanced element mobility
and fluid flow (possibly via multiple events) through VRR, particularly at the top of the ridge
and within grey/blue patches of bedrock, consistent with the action of warm (~50-100 °C),
acidic saline fluids inferred from the mineralogy of drilled samples
1 Introduction
Vera Rubin ridge (VRR) is a ~6.5 km long, 200 m wide, ~50 m thick resistant feature
at the base of Mount Sharp, located in the center of Gale crater, Mars (Anderson & Bell,
2010; Figure 1). Spectral data acquired from Mars orbiters detect different mineral species
within the layered sequence of Mount Sharp. Hydrated phyllosilicate-bearing assemblages
are detected towards the base, through hydrated sulfates to anhydrous sulfates at the top,
indicating changing geochemical and environmental conditions (Anderson & Bell, 2010;
Bibring et al., 2006; Grotzinger et al., 2014; Milliken et al., 2010). VRR has been a high
priority science target for the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission since landing because
of its association with a relatively strong hematite spectral signature from orbit (Anderson &
Bell, 2010; Fraeman et al., 2013), its distinct topography, and its position within the
lowermost strata of Mount Sharp. It is situated adjacent to the main phyllosilicate-bearing

trough within Gale crater (the clay-bearing unit, informally named Glen Torridon; Figure 1c),
also previously identified from orbit (Milliken et al., 2010). The detection of hematite within
VRR from orbit led Fraeman et al. (2013) to hypothesize that the ridge may preserve a
localized redox interface. The hematite would have formed when Fe2+ dissolved in anoxic
groundwaters was then exposed to an oxidizing environment (e.g., atmosphere or
groundwater), thereby precipitating insoluble Fe3+. This could have occurred in a lake
environment, syn-depositionally within the water column, or during later diagenesis or
alteration. The hematite could also be the result of in situ weathering of precursor Fe2+-
bearing silicates under oxidizing conditions (Fraeman et al., 2013). On Earth, iron oxidation
at chemical interfaces is favorable for chemolithotrophic microorganisms. Therefore, the
ridge is an excellent site to explore for signs of past habitability (Fraeman et al., 2013). The
hematite could also comprise a clastic component of the sedimentary strata forming VRR,
perhaps indicating a provenance distinct from the underlying Murray formation. The Murray
formation is the lower-most unit of the Mount Sharp group, first encountered at Pahrump
Hills (Figure 1c), and is interpreted to represent a primarily lacustrine and marginal lacustrine
depositional environment (Fedo et al., 2018, 2019; Grotzinger et al., 2015; Stack et al., 2019).
A dedicated campaign to study VRR using the full complement of Curiosity’s
instrument payload was planned to address the overarching questions: (1) What was the
primary depositional environment and what is the stratigraphic relationship of the ridge to
Mount Sharp? (2) Was the hematite primary or secondary? (3) What is its relationship to
hematite previously detected in the Murray formation? (4) What were the primary and
secondary geochemical environments? (5) What are the implications for habitability and the
preservation of organic molecules?
The compositional data acquired by the Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS)
during the >1 year-long campaign to study the ridge helps to address some of these questions.

How does the composition of VRR compare with the underlying Murray formation and other
rocks encountered within Gale crater? Do the strata comprising the ridge constitute a
continuation of the Murray formation and how do their compositions compare to the rest of
the Murray formation? How does the chemistry vary within VRR, both laterally and with
elevation? What might this reveal about the formation of the ridge? Are there obvious
diagenetic features and, if so, how does their composition compare with VRR host rock and
diagenetic features encountered within the Murray formation below the ridge? This work is
also the first comprehensive description of the Murray formation compositional
characteristics up to and including VRR, thus providing important context for future studies.
2 Materials and Methods
All ten of the instruments on Curiosity’s payload were utilized during the campaign to
investigate VRR (see Fraeman et al., this issue a). These included the navigation and science
cameras, as well as internal and external geochemical and mineralogical instruments. The
internal analytical laboratory instruments are the Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM; Mahaffy et
al., 2012), which among other things, measures the organic molecule and light element
content of a sample, and the Chemistry and Mineralogy, X-ray diffraction instrument
(CheMin; XRD; Blake et al., 2012), which determines the mineralogy. The Chemistry and
Camera (ChemCam) instrument on the rover’s remote sensing mast uses Laser-Induced
Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) to measure the chemistry of small, ~300 μm size spots, on
rocks and in soils, as well as a Remote Micro-Imager (RMI) to take close-up, monochromatic
images (Maurice et al., 2012). The Mast Camera (Mastcam; Malin et al., 2017) and Mars
Hand Lens Imager (MAHLI; Edgett et al., 2012) are utilized extensively to provide important
context imagery for APXS targets. Grotzinger at al. (2012) provide further details on
Curiosity’s instrument payload.

2.1. Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer
The Mars Science Laboratory, Curiosity rover is equipped with a Canadian-built
Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer (APXS, Gellert et al., 2015) positioned on the end of the
robotic arm (Figure S2). It is the third generation APXS, and fourth instrument to land on the
surface of Mars (following the Sojourner and the Mars Exploration Rovers). The APXS
obtains quantitative major, minor and some trace element compositional data for rocks and
unconsolidated materials. It combines Particle Induced X-ray Emission (PIXE) and X-ray
Fluorescence (XRF) techniques, inducing characteristic X-rays from atoms within the target
of interest (Gellert et al., 2015). The APXS signal is derived from a 1.5 cm diameter field of
view (FOV) when in contact with a solid target. The FOV increases with higher standoff
distances from the target (VanBommel et al., 2017). APXS acquires acceptable data up to a
~2 cm standoff distance from a target (~3 cm diameter FOV), provided sufficient acquisition
time is allocated (e.g., VanBommel et al., 2019). Because the APXS results are derived from
the sum of X-ray signals within the FOV, it acquires a bulk composition from that FOV. The
1.5 – 2 cm diameter APXS FOV is comparable to the 1.6 cm diameter of the holes drilled by
Curiosity; thus the APXS provides compositional data on a similar areal scale as drilled
samples.
APXS acquires the highest quality spectral data with overnight (cold temperature),
nominally ~8 hour, in contact integrations, on preferably dust-free surfaces. However,
acceptable quality data can be obtained from integration times as short as 10 minutes during
the early morning or evening, provided the sensor head temperatures are sufficiently cool
(Gellert et al., 2015; VanBommel et al, 2019). Curiosity’s robotic arm is also equipped with a
Dust Removal Tool (DRT) that brushes dust from rock surfaces prior to MAHLI and APXS
analysis. The DRT is not used on every target; it’s use is often precluded by surface
roughness and other operational constraints. Dust on a surface will have some effect on the

APXS data, particularly for the lighter, lower atomic number elements (Na through to Si),
whose signals are derived mostly from the uppermost 2 – 5 μm of a sample (Reider et al.,
2003). However, elemental trends for dusty targets, even for the lighter elements, are still
detectable (Schmidt et al., 2018). Further details of the APXS methodology and calibration
are presented in Campbell et al. (2012, 2014) and Gellert et al. (2006, 2015).
The chemistry of features of interest smaller than the APXS FOV can be investigated
using a “raster” technique. A number of overlapping APXS measurements, covering both the
feature(s) of interest (e.g., a nodule) and the substrate, are acquired. The chemistry of distinct
chemical endmembers for the feature(s) of interest are then derived at a sub-cm scale
(VanBommel et al., 2016, 2017).
The APXS has successfully recorded a diversity of compositions along the >20 km
rover traverse (Figure 1c). Bradbury group and Siccar Point APXS analyses are available at
the Planetary Data System (see link in acknowledgements). See Table S1 for the
compositions of all Murray formation rock targets analyzed by APXS up to and including sol
2301 (sol – martian solar day = 24.6 hours) (431 analyses). 159 APXS analyses were
acquired on VRR (Figure 2; Table 1). The APXS cannot distinguish the oxidation states of
polyvalent elements. Hence, total iron and sufur are reported as FeO and SO3 respectively.
2.2. APXS data treatment
Unless otherwise stated, analyses used to examine trends and compute statistical
relationships etc., exclude those containing large (>0.5 cm) veins and diagenetic features.
Diagenetic and alteration features include resistant concretions, nodules, dendritic features,
ridges and fins; different colored (to the bedrock) halos adjacent to fractures or veins; and
different colored (to the bedrock) patches (Tables S1, 1)

APXS data are plotted on a total alkali versus silica plot (TAS plot; Le Maitre et al.,
2006), with the caveat that the majority of rocks sampled by the APXS are sedimentary and
not igneous. The TAS plot has traditionally been used to display martian compositional data
(e.g., McSween, 2015; Mc Sween et al., 2009) and therefore facilitates comparison across
different datasets. The compositional fields on the TAS plot, do not imply that any of the
rocks are igneous, rather that their bulk compositions fall within these ranges. The Gale data
plotted are renormalized to S and Cl free (i.e., volatile-free) as has customarily been done for
comparing martian compositions (e.g., McSween, 2015; Mc Sween et al., 2009).
In order to investigate the correlation of Si, Al and Fe throughout the Murray, plots of
these element oxides ratioed to TiO2 are shown (see §S1) to account for closure associated
with the CaSO4 present in almost all targets (see §S2).
2.2.1. Statistical treatment of the Murray formation data
Statistical treatments were performed on the data after exclusion of the same targets
outlined above:
F-tests (Fisher-tests) were performed on the Bradbury group – Murray formation
below VRR (excluding high Si targets) pairing to determine whether they show equal or
unequal variances (§S1.1.1.). Variance is the square of the standard deviation from the mean.
F-tests and t-tests were also performed on the Murray formation below VRR – Stimson
formation pairing for SiO2 and K2O to determine variance and whether the two formations
are statistically different for those two oxides (§S1.1.1.).
Box and whisker plots were constructed for each oxide/element of the Murray
members (§S1.1.2.). These plots are used to compare the mean/median compositions of each
of the Murray formation members, to illustrate variance, and to identify outlier targets.
A comparison of the Murray members was performed with increasing elevation from
the base of the Murray formation, at Pahrump Hills, including a comparison with the

gray/blue bedrock patches on VRR (§S1.1.3.). F-tests were first performed on each pairing to
determine whether they show equal or unequal variances. Based on these results, t-tests were
then performed on each pairing to determine whether the compositions of the two members
or groupings are statistically the same or different. F-tests were also performed on the Murray
formation below VRR (excluding high Si targets) - VRR, and the upper and lower Sutton
Island to statistically compare variances between each pair.
Pearson correlation coefficients were computed for each Murray member, as well as
the formation Murray below and on VRR to investigate elemental correlations (§S1.2). 5-
point moving averages were fitted to the elevation versus oxide/element plots to identify
compositional trends with elevation (§S1.3).
2.2.2. Comparison of Murray member compositions to mean Murray formation
A comparison of each of the Murray formation members relative to mean Murray formation
bedrock up to VRR was performed to better quantify specific elemental deviations from the
mean, i.e., Si, Al, Fe, Mn and Ti (§S1.4).
2.2.3. Comparison of Jura and gray/blue bedrock to mean Pettegrove Point
Calculations (Brimhall & Dietrich, 1987) were performed to compare the Jura and
gray/blue bedrock patches to the mean Pettegrove Point (§S1.5). These calculations were
performed based on the premise that all VRR strata were deposited in a similar environment
(Edgar et al., this issue). See §5.1 for further discussion.
3 Geological and Geochemical Context of rocks encountered by APXS prior to VRR
The sedimentary strata encountered within Gale crater have been subdivided into
three stratigraphic groups: the Bradbury, Mount Sharp and Siccar Point groups, based on
their sedimentological characteristics and to a lesser extent, orbital geomorphic attributes
(Figures 1c, 2, 3) (Grotzinger et al., 2015; Banham et al., 2018; Fraeman et al., 2016). The
Bradbury group includes all strata encountered from landing to arriving at the base of Mount

Sharp (up to sol 722) and is interpreted as a series of fluvio-deltaic deposits (Edgar et al., this
issue; Grotzinger et al., 2014; Williams et al., 2013). The Mount Sharp group is dominated by
lacustrine mudstones of the Murray formation and is unconformably overlain by the eolian
Stimson formation, Siccar Point group, (Fraeman et al., 2016; Banham et al., 2018). The
following is a description of the geochemical characteristics of the Murray formation
encountered by Curiosity and analyzed by APXS prior to arrival at VRR. This provides
context and enables a comparison of the composition of VRR strata with the underlying
Murray formation and other rocks within Gale crater. As this is the first publication of the
majority of this data (Table S1), we include brief discussions of the implications of these
results.
3.1. Mount Sharp group, Murray formation
The Murray formation, the lowermost unit of the Mount Sharp group, comprises
mainly mudstone, with lesser siltstone and fine sandstone, as well as less common lenses and
discontinuous beds of coarser sandstone. Based on sedimentological observations made along
Curiosity’s traverse, the Murray formation has been further divided into a series of members
that with increasing elevation are: Pahrump Hills, Hartmann’s Valley, Karasburg, Sutton
Island and Blunts Point (see the stratigraphic column in Figure 3) (Edgar et al., this issue;
Fedo et al., 2018, 2019). Curiosity has traversed >250 m in elevation through the Murray
formation, from its base at Pahrump Hills through to the base of VRR. In contrast, Curiosity’s
traverse through the Bradbury group includes only ~70 m of elevation. The Bradbury group
include K-rich sandstones (including the Kimberley formation), basaltic mudstones and fine
sandstones (Yellowknife Bay formation), alkali-rich sandstones and conglomerates, and
alkalic float rocks, many of which are interpreted to be igneous (Cousin et al., 2017; Edwards
et al., 2017; Sautter, et al., 2015; Schmidt et al., 2014; Stolper et al., 2013; Thompson et al.,
2016) (Figure 4). Compositional and mineralogical differences within the Bradbury group are

attributed to provenance (e.g., Thompson et al., 2016; Treiman et al., 2016), and/or physical
sedimentary processes (Siebach et al., 2017).
The chemistry of the Murray formation below VRR is relatively uniform over a
significant elevation range, in contrast to lithologies encountered within the Bradbury group
(Figure 4; Table S3) (McLennan et al., 2013; Schmidt et al., 2014; Thompson et al., 2016).
This, and the similar basaltic, igneous mineralogy (Achilles et al., 2020; Bristow et al., 2018;
Rampe et al., 2020, this issue) of the Murray formation below VRR (excluding the Pahrump
Hills targets), indicates a similar provenance for most of the Murray sediment.
In general, the Murray formation rocks have lower Ca, Mg, Mn, K and Na, and higher
Si and Al, with higher FeO/MnO than Bradbury group strata (Figure 4). Specifically, the
Murray formation mudstones and siltstones have a composition distinct from the Bradbury
group, basaltic Yellowknife Bay formation mudstones, trending to higher Si and Al, and to
lower Ca and to a lesser extent, Mg concentrations (Figures 4, S3). The Murray formation is
also characterized by higher K and Si concentrations (mean 0.84±0.13 wt% K2O and
48.39±3.23 wt% SiO2) than the basaltic composition Stimson formation sandstones (mean
0.42±0.60 wt% K2O, 43.72±1.19 wt% SiO2; Figure 4, Table S3) (Thompson et al., 2016). Mn
is low (majority of targets, <0.4 wt% MnO), and FeO/MnO is high (~100) relative to average
basaltic martian soil/sand (~50, O’Connell-Cooper et al., 2017, Figure 5), and other Gale
bedrock. The ~110 ppm Ge consistently detected in the Murray formation strata, is
significantly elevated compared to martian meteorites (1-3 ppm) and terrestrial basalts (~1.4
ppm) (Berger et al., 2017 and references therein).
The contrasting composition of the Sheepbed member, Yellowknife Bay formation
mudstones (Bradbury group), and the Murray formation mudstones, both interpreted to have
been deposited in primarily lacustrine environments, has variously been attributed to reflect,
(a) differences in provenance for the two mudstones (e.g., Bedford et al., 2019); (b) enhanced

weathering at source and during transport of the Murray sediment, combined with differences
in lake water chemistry during deposition, e.g., a redox stratified lake (Hurowitz et al., 2017);
or (c) different (pH and redox) post-depositional diagenetic processes (Rampe et al., 2017,
Bristow et al 2018).
Despite the relative homogeneity of the Murray formation compared to the Bradbury
group, variations in composition with elevation are observed (Figures 5, 6, 7). In general, Si,
Al, Ti, Mn, Na, Cr and Zn concentrations decrease, and Fe, Ni, Ca, S and Cl contents
increase with elevation from Pahrump Hills through to the Karasburg member (Figures 5, 6).
From the Karasburg through to the Blunts Point member, below the VRR, mean Si, Al and
Na concentrations are statistically the same, while mean Fe, Mn and Zn concentrations
increase (Figure 6; Table S4a). Up to the base of VRR, Si and Al positively correlate, and Al
and Fe show a moderate negative correlation with one another (Figure 8; Table S7i). A
number of Pahrump Hills targets lie outside these trends.
Pahrump Hills member
The lowest elevation lithostratigraphic member of the Murray formation, encountered
at Pahrump Hills (~20 m thick), is chemically distinct from the stratigraphically higher
sections for the majority of the elements analyzed by APXS, e.g., higher Si, Al, Ti, Cr, Mn,
Na, Zn and P, and lower Fe, Mg, Ni and Cl (Figures 5, 6, 7; Table S4a, c). In particular, Al
concentrations deviate from the Al-Si trend line, characteristic of the rest of the Murray,
trending to higher Al contents (Figure 8a). Ratios of Al/Ti also trend higher than for most of
the Murray formation (Figure 8d). The elevated Al is also evident from Figure 7, showing
the markedly higher Al versus Si concentrations for the majority of Pahrump Hills targets
relative to mean Murray, as well as lower Fe.
The Pahrump Hills member also reveals significant compositional variance for a
number of elements including Ti, Al, Fe, Na, P, Ni and Zn (Figure 6, Table S4b). Mn, Ni and

Zn abundances decrease and K increases with increasing elevation (Figures 5, 6). The
mineralogy determined by CheMin from holes drilled within the Pahrump Hills member is
also distinct from the overlying Murray formation to VRR (Bristow et al., 2018), dominated
by magnetite versus hematite, and containing trace olivine, quartz and fluorapatite.
Texturally similar, but lighter toned mudstones encountered slightly higher up in the
Pahrump Hills member (~7 m), have the highest SiO2 contents of any bedrock encountered
by APXS at Gale (e.g., Buckskin DRT and drilled fines with up to 74.43 wt%; Figures 4, 6,
7). The detection of tridymite in the drilled Buckskin sample has been proposed as evidence
of a clastic, silicic volcanic component to the mudstone at this location (Morris et al., 2016).
More recently Yen et al. (2017a) have proposed that the tridymite could have formed in situ,
precipitating from acidic hydrothermal solutions, and that the high Si within the Murray
formation might be generated by similar processes as those responsible for high-Si zones in
the Stimson formation (Yen et al., 2017b). The accompanying elevated Ti and depletions in
nearly every other element (also observed within the high-Si Stimson zones), support this
hypothesis (Figure 7). The elevated Al (as well as Mn, Ni, Zn) observed down section
(Figures 5, 6, 7) maybe the result of downward migration of these fluids and precipitation due
to changing pH (Rampe et al., 2017). Other models invoked to explain the high Si zones
within the Murray and Stimson formations are Si addition during sedimentation and
diagenesis (Hurowitz et al., 2017), or late stage mobilization of Si and subsequent deposition
(Frydenvang et al., 2017).
Isolated, raised, resistant nodular concretions (typically 1-4 cm across) are ubiquitous
throughout the basal Pahrump Hills member, and periodically higher up in the section, within
the Hartmann’s Valley member. They exhibit characteristically high Mg, S and Ni contents,
as well as elevated Cl and Br relative to nearby bedrock and are consistent with the addition

of up to 12 wt% of a Mg-Ni-SO4 phase ((Table S1; Thompson et al., 2015a; Van Bommel et
al., 2016).
A complex vein system at Garden City (Kronyak et al., 2018), within the Pahrump Hills
member, reveals at least four compositional phases, distinct from the Mg-Ni-SO4 features
(Thompson et al., 2015b; Table S1): (1) white, CaSO4-bearing veins, (2) dark, high-Ca
material (Figure S1), with high Mn, Zn, Ni, and Ge (~650 ppm Ge; Berger et al., 2017),
intimately associated with the white CaSO4 vein material (VanBommel et al., 2017), (3) dark,
Mg-rich material (with elevated P and Ge), also associated with white CaSO4 veins, and (4)
resistant dark “fins”/plates with characteristically high Na, K, Fe and P, as well as elevated
Ge (~250 ppm Ge; Berger et al., 2017). The CaSO4 vein networks at Garden City, appear to
have disrupted and incorporated the high-Ca, and high-Mg material as inclusions (Kronyak et
al., 2018). This, accompanied by the association with distinct chemistry resistant “fins” at
Garden City, suggest multiple fluid flow events at this location (Berger, et al., 2017; Kronyak
et al., 2018; Thompson et al., 2015 b).
3.1.2. Hartmann’s Valley
Immediately overlying the Pahrump Hills member, the Hartmann’s Valley member (~
20 m thick) exhibits variability in Si, Mg, K and Cl concentrations (Figure 6, Table S4b). In
particular, Hartmann’s Valley has the most variable, and highest mean K2O concentration of
the Murray below VRR (0.92 wt%). Hartmann’s Valley has lower Si, Ti, Al, Mn, Na, P, Cr
and Zn and higher Fe, Mg, K, Ni, Ca, S and Cl than Pahrump Hills (Figures 5, 6; Table S4a,
c), with the highest mean MgO content of the Murray below VRR (6.06 wt%). Hartmann’s
Valley is also characterized by higher Si and Al, and lower Ti, P and Fe concentrations than
mean Murray below VRR (Figures 5, 6, 7). Within the Hartmann’s Valley member, Si, Al,
Ti, Mn and Na concentrations generally decrease, and Fe, Ca and S concentrations increase

with increasing elevation from the contact with the Pahrump Hills member (Figure 5). Si and
Al, and Ti and Cr positively correlate with one another (Table S7b).
3.1.3. Karasburg
The overlying Karasburg (~40 m thick) is the most compositionally homogenous of
the Murray members below VRR (Figure 6, Table S4b) and reveals positive correlations of
Si, Al and Na, of Si and Ti, of Na and Cl, and Ti, Cr and Fe (Table S7c).
3.1.4. Sutton Island
The lowermost Sutton Island member (~40 m thick) has a similar composition to the
underlying Karasburg (Figures 5, 6, 7; Table S4a, c). This is reflected in the similar
mineralogy determined by CheMin from the drilled samples taken from the Karasburg and
lower Sutton Island members (Quela, Marimba and Sebina) (Achilles et al., 2020; Bristow et
al., 2018). Towards the middle of the Sutton Island member, at -4330 m elevation, Si, Ti, Fe
and Cr concentrations increase, and Ca and S decrease (Figure 5). Sutton Island member
bedrock targets at -4330 m have higher Si, Al, Ti, Fe, K, Cr and FeO/MnO, and lower Mn,
Ca and S than the underlying Karasburg and lower Sutton Island (Figure 5; Table S5).
Two occurrences of elevated K2O, FeO and SO3 concentrations (up to 2.3 wt%, 24.8
wt%, and 13.3 wt% respectively) are detected within the lower Sutton Island member
associated with later diagenetic/alteration features (targets Thrumcap and Fresh Meadow)
(Thompson et al., 2017; Yen et al., 2018). Both reveal evidence for the addition of a K, Fe
sulfate phase or phases.
Through the rest of the Sutton Island member (above -4330 m elevation) to the
contact with the Blunts Point member (~50 m), there is a general trend to lower Si, Ti, Al, K
and Ca, and higher Mg and Zn contents, and to lower FeO/MnO (Figure 5). Sutton Island
(~90 m thick) is consistently depleted in Mn relative to mean Murray, except at the contact

with the overlying Blunts Point member (Figure 7). The Sutton Island/Blunts Point member
contact is marked by low Si, K and Cr; and high Fe, Mn, Mg and Zn concentrations as well as
low FeO/MnO (Figures 5, 7). Mn shows up to 250% higher concentrations than mean Murray
(Figure 7). Five of the Sutton Island bedrock targets at this upper contact also exhibit elevated
P2O5 (1.06-1.27 wt%) compared to the mean for Sutton Island (0.98 wt%) (Figure 5). The
Sutton Island member (not including coarser sandstones) is the most compositionally varied
of all the Murray members below VRR (Figures 5, 6; Table S4b).
Less common, distinctive, thicker (up to ~30 cm thick), coarser grained and resistant
sandstone layers and lenses encountered above -4330 m elevation within the Sutton Island
member have different bulk compositions (consistently >Si, Al, Ti, Cr and K) than the more
typical Murray (e.g., Newport Ledge, Heron Island; Table S1). This is interpreted to reflect
differing provenance and/or sediment processing during transport. However, some of the
minor element trends observed for the coarser sandstones with elevation, are the same as
those within the mudstones (e.g., Mn, Mg and Zn, FeO/MnO; Figure S4).
Numerous diagenetic/alteration features encountered in the vicinity of the Sutton
Island/Blunts Point contact include resistant nodules and concretions, dark gray layers and
patches (Sun et al., 2018). These features reveal higher abundances of many of the same
elements (Fe, Mn, Mg, P and Zn) concentrated in the bedrock at this stratigraphic level
(Table S1; Figure S4) (Thompson et al., 2017). Dark, nodular/patchy features (Berry Cove
and Timber Point) within the Heron Island, coarse sandstone lens, exhibit higher
concentrations in the same elements (3.20-3.32 wt% P2O5, 0.8 wt% MnO, 20.2-23.5 wt%
FeO). This indicates that the coarser sandstones were subject to the action of the same
composition diagenetic fluids as the finer grained strata at this elevation. The abundance of
diagenetic features at the Sutton Island/Blunts Point contact indicates that it was the site of
enhanced post-depositional alteration. The varied chemistry associated with

diagenetic/alteration features at different stratigraphic levels within the Murray formation
point to changing diagenetic/alteration fluid chemistry and the possibility of multiple
diagenetic/alteration episodes.
3.1.5. Blunts Point
Above the Sutton Island/Blunts Point member contact, the Blunts Point strata (~75-85
m thick) are statistically, compositionally the same as the underlying Karasburg and Sutton
Island members for Si, Al, Mg, and Na (Figures 5, 6; Table S4a, c). Additionally, Blunts
Point has the same mean Cr, Ni, Ca and S concentrations as Sutton Island (Figure 6; Table
S4a, c). Mean Ti, Fe, Mn, K, P and Zn concentrations are higher, and Cl concentrations lower
than for Sutton Island (Figure 6). Blunts Point has the highest mean FeO and Zn
concentrations of all the Murray members (21.73 wt%and 1642 ppm respectively). There is a
general trend to higher Si, Al and Ti, and lower Mn and FeO/MnO with increasing elevation
(Figure 5). Fe and K concentrations increase to approximately -4230 m elevation, decreasing
thereafter towards VRR (Figure 5). Zn is consistently high (1500-2400 ppm) to -4230 m, with
lower (mostly <1500 ppm), but variable concentrations (up to 2238 ppm) towards VRR
(Figure 5). Both Sutton Island and Blunts Point strata exhibit positive correlations of Si, Al
and Ti, and of Na and Cl (Table 7d, e). Sutton Island also reveals positive correlations of Mn,
Mg and Zn (Table 7d).
3.1.6. Calcium and Sulfur
Relatively late (post-lithification), white, cross-cutting veins with characteristically
high Ca and S contents are observed throughout the Murray formation and indeed the whole
stratigraphic section encountered by Curiosity (Minitti et al., 2017; Nachon et al., 2014,
2016). Layer-parallel or -subparallel CaSO4 veins are abundant within the Blunts Point
member, particularly in the vicinity of VRR, and are not typically observed below -4330 m
elevation. All vein targets plot on a trend consistent with the addition of a CaSO4 phase on a

CaO versus SO3 plot (Figure S1). See §S2 in Supplementary Information for a detailed
discussion.
Plotting CaO versus SO3 for all Murray bedrock targets lacking evidence of veins or
diagenetic features reveals that the majority also fall on a CaSO4 addition trend (Figure S1).
A general trend to increasing Ca and S is observed, from the base of the Murray at Pahrump
Hills, through the Hartmann’s Valley, Karasburg and basal Sutton Island members (Figures
5, 6). Ca and S concentrations then decrease sharply to their lowest concentrations in the
Murray at -4330 m. Ca and S concentrations remain low compared to mean Murray through
the rest of the Sutton Island member and Blunts Point member.
The detection of Ca and S concentrations consistent with the addition of various
amounts of CaSO4 to a Precipice-like bedrock (the lowest Ca- and S-content typical Murray
bedrock, Table S1), and the lack of observable veins can be explained by the addition of a
CaSO4 cementing phase throughout much of the Murray formation. Changing Ca and S
concentrations with elevation are, therefore, probably reflecting varying abundances of
CaSO4 cement. The implied increase in CaSO4 cement within the Hartmann’s Valley through
to the lower Sutton Island member is supported by higher abundances of CaSO4 phases
detected by CheMin in the drilled samples from these members (Vaniman et al., 2018). We
acknowledge that some of the Ca and S may be present within fine veins or as fine grains, not
observed in MAHLI images. However, a number of diagenetic features (lacking visible
veins) within the Murray show elevated Ca and S relative to the substrate bedrock (Figure S1;
Table S1), indicating that Ca- and S-rich fluids played a role during diagenesis of the
mudstones, e.g., Camera Hill, Ash Island. This supports the interpretation that most of the
CaSO4 (not associated with visible veins) is present as cement.
A few targets have significant excess S that is not coupled with Ca (e.g. Jwaneng
DRT and offset; Tobane; Table S1), consistent with the presence of other, minor S-bearing

phases. Based on SAM analyses of drilled samples, targets with excess S are interpreted to be
dominated by Mg-sulfates and Fe-sulfates, and in the case of Oudam, possibly Fe-sulfide
phases (Franz et al., 2017; McAdam et al., this issue; Sutter et al., 2017; Wong et al., this
issue). Such sulfates are inferred to be present in abundances either below, or at the detection
limits, of the CheMin XRD instrument and/or concentrated in the amorphous component of
drilled samples. Rapin et al. (2019) also infer the presence of Mg- and Ca-sulfate cements
from ChemCam analyses of Blunts Point strata.
4 Composition of VRR
Table 1 lists all bedrock compositional analyses obtained by APXS on VRR. The
VRR falls within the compositional range exhibited by the Murray formation encountered
below the ridge (Figures 6, 9). This supports the sedimentological interpretation that the ridge
strata are a continuation of the Murray formation and its associated depositional environment
(Edgar et al., this issue). Based on sedimentological and stratigraphic relationships (Edgar et
al., this issue) VRR strata have been divided into two additional members of the Murray
formation, namely the Pettegrove Point and Jura members (Figures 3, 5). Both members
exhibit color variations, which are more prevalent in the Jura member. A further distinction
has been made between patches of bedrock that appear bright gray/blue in color-stretched
HiRISE imagery, and the more typical red/tan strata of VRR (Fraeman et al., this issue a;
Figures 2, S6). These bright gray/blue patches are concentrated within the upper VRR Jura
member, but are also observed within the Pettegrove Point member, albeit less commonly
(Figure 2). They do not follow stratigraphy, but instead cut across primary bedding features.
Further details of the stratigraphy, sedimentology, textures and spectral properties of the ridge
strata are provided by Bennett, et al., (this issue), Edgar et al. (this issue), Fraeman et al. (this
issue a,b), Horgan et al., (this issue) and Jacob et al., (this issue).

Although VRR falls within the range of Murray formation compositions encountered
below the ridge, it exhibits almost as much chemical variation as the whole of the underlying
Murray formation (Figures 5, 6, 8, 9; Table S6). A few VRR samples have lower Ti, Mn and
Fe, and higher Ni contents than all underlying Murray formation bedrock (Figures 6, 9). A
key observation for interpreting the ridge is that Fe concentrations on the ridge are typically
within the range of those observed for the underlying Murray formation, which, unlike VRR,
does not exhibit deep hematite absorptions in the orbital CRISM data (Fraeman et al., this
issue b).
4.1. Pettegrove Point member
No abrupt changes in bulk composition were detected as Curiosity drove from the
underlying Blunts Point member onto VRR (Figure 5). However, targets within ~4 m of the
Blunts Point/Pettegrove Point contact reveal low MnO (~0.1 wt%; Figures 5, 7), MgO
(mostly 4-6 wt%) and CaO (mostly 2-5 wt%) concentrations relative to the underlying Blunts
Point strata (Figure 5). MnO then trends to high concentrations (up to 0.42 wt%) towards the
contact with the overlying Jura member (Figures 5, 7). CaO and SO3 are also concentrated in
the vicinity of this contact (up to 7.18 wt% and 9.54 wt% respectively; Figure 5). Pettegrove
Point strata have higher Al, Na and Cl, and lower Ti, Cr, Fe, P, Zn and Br mean
concentrations than the underlying Blunts Point formation (Figure 6; Table S4a, c), with Si
and Al positively correlating with one another (Figure 8a; Table S7f).
Targets analyzed by APXS in areas exhibiting the deepest hematite absorptions in
CRISM and in situ data (ChemCam passive spectra and Mastcam multi-spectral; Fraeman et
al., this issue-a, b; Horgan et al., this issue; Jacob et al., this issue) along the traverse, within
the Pettegrove Point member, have typical Murray formation Fe concentrations (e.g.,
Stranraer DRT, Murchison and Voyageurs; Table 1; Figures 2, 5). Several targets with higher
than mean Murray Fe concentrations (e.g., Waboomberg, 24.37 wt% FeO) were analyzed on

the ridge within the Pettegrove Point member, but they are not associated with the deepest
hematite spectral absorptions.
The Stoer drilled fines and brushed DRT bedrock surfaces have the same
compositional characteristics as the bulk Pettegrove Point member (Figure S7). The drilled
fines reveal an increase in Fe content relative to the corresponding brushed bedrock surface
(~22 wt% versus 18 wt% FeO respectively). Stoer drilled fines have similar compositions to
the underlying Marimba through Duluth drilled fines (Karasburg to Blunts Point; e.g., Figure
S7).
4.2. Typical Jura member
As with the transition from the Blunts Point to Pettegrove Point members, no abrupt
changes in composition were detected as Curiosity drove on to the Jura member (Figure 5).
Typica Jura is characterized by higher mean Si and Al, and lower Fe, Cr, Mn, P and Br
concentrations than the Pettegrove Point member, otherwise it is compositionally similar to
Pettegrove Point (Tables 1, S4a, c; Figure 6). The Si and Al positively correlate with one
another as is typical for the Murray formation in general (Figure 8a; Table S7g).
The Rock Hall drilled fines, and bedrock targets in the same workspace, have
compositions that extend the range of the typical Jura (Figures 5, 6). The unbrushed Rock
Hall bedrock target and two other targets in the same workspace (Corrieshalloch Gorge and
Bothwell DRT), have low Si and Al contents relative to the majority of typical Jura bedrock
targets, even after accounting for the addition of CaSO4. In particular, the Bothwell DRT
target has the lowest SiO2 concentration (40.69 wt%) of all typical Jura bedrock targets. The
Rock Hall drilled fines accentuate this trend, with lower Si and Al than all typical Jura
bedrock (Figure S7). The drilled fines also have more Ca, S and significantly more Cl and Br
than the bedrock (Table 1). The Rock Hall fines exhibit some of the lowest Si and Al and

highest Ca and S concentrations of any Murray bedrock (Figure 6) and are compositionally
distinct from all other Murray drilled holes (Figure S7). The outcrop expression of the typical
Jura at this location was also distinct from other exposures visited by Curiosity within the
Jura. The bedrock was characteristically rough on a cm-scale, with textures suggestive of in
situ brecciation (Figure S5). Hence, the Rock Hall drilled target may not be representative of
typical Jura. This is also supported by the distinct spectral properties of the Rock Hall and
associated targets (Horgan et al., this issue).
4.3. Gray/blue bedrock patches
Targets analyzed by APXS within the gray/blue bedrock patches, the majority of
which occur within the Jura member, accentuate many of the trends observed within the
typical Jura, and are the most compositionally distinct of all VRR strata, compared to the rest
of the Murray formation (Table S4a, c). They have even higher SiO2 (up to 54.26 wt%) and
Al2O3 (up to 10.64 wt%), and lower FeO (down to 13.39 wt%) and TiO2 (down to 0.75 wt%)
contents than the rest of VRR (Figures 5, 6, 7, 8). Si and Al concentrations are the highest,
and Ti, P and Fe concentrations the lowest observed since the base of the Murray formation
(Pahrump Hills and Hartmann’s Valley members, Figure 5). The Si and Al positively
correlate with each other (Figure 8a; Table S7h), and when ratioed to Ti, Al and Fe reveal a
moderate positive correlation, unlike the rest of the Murray formation (Figure 8b). Si and Ti
have a Pearson correlation coefficient of only 0.26, in contrast to the moderate to strong,
positive correlation exhibited by the Karasburg through to Blunts Point members (Table S7c,
d, e, h) and Si/Ti ratios are generally higher than for the rest of the Murray (Figure 8c). Al/Ti
ratios are similarly higher than for the rest of the Murray, excepting a number of Pahrump
Hills targets (Figure 8d). Mn concentrations are lower (mostly <0.15 wt% MnO) than for
mean Murray formation (0.23 wt% MnO) (Tables 1, S4a, S6). The resistant bedrock target,
Aberfoyle, within a gray/blue Jura patch, is an exception with 0.21 wt% MnO. It also has

very low Fe (10 wt% FeO), and elevated Ni (~1900 ppm) and Se (~70 ppm, Table S9). The
Inverness, Calgary and Findon targets, from a different gray/blue Jura patch, also have high
Mn (0.21 – 0.24 wt% MnO).
Highfield drilled fines and brushed DRT bedrock surfaces have the same
compositional characteristics as the bulk gray/blue Jura (Figure S7; Table 1). The drilled
fines are compositionally similar to the Hartmann’s Valley, Oudam drilled fines. Both exhibit
relatively high SiO2 (52.38 wt% - Highfield, 52.87 wt% - Oudam) and Al2O3 (10.02 wt% -
Highfield, 9.40 wt% - Oudam) contents, compared to other post-Pahrump Hills member
drilled samples (Table S1). Oudam does not have as low FeO concentration (18.74 wt%) as
Highfield (16.97 wt%), nor TiO2 (1.05 wt% - Oudam, 0.96 wt% - Highfield).
4.4. Variation in composition with elevation
Lateral variations in composition at the same elevation are observed. For example,
within the Pettegrove Point member, targets encountered at ~-4170 m elevation, but laterally
separated by ~250 m, exhibit a range in compositions e.g., SiO2 concentrations range from
~42-54 wt% and FeO from ~16-24 wt% (Figures 2, 5; Table 1). Within the Jura member,
targets analyzed at ~-4154 m elevation including typical Jura and gray/blue bedrock,
separated by up to 300 m, also reveal compositional heterogeneity, e.g., SiO2 concentrations
range from ~48-53 wt%, FeO from ~16-18.5 wt%, and MnO concentrations range from 0.09-
0.29 wt% (Figures 2, 5; Table 1).
The Si, Al and Fe trends are generally the reverse of those observed as Curiosity
gained in elevation through the Murray formation, from Pahrump Hills to Blunts Point
(Figure 8). Si and Al concentrations generally increase and Fe concentrations decrease from
Pettegrove Point, through typical Jura to the gray/blue bedrock patches (Figures 5, 6, 7, 8). Si
and Al exhibit a strong positive correlation with each other (r = 0.9) and a weak-moderate
negative correlation for Al and Fe (r = -0.5) within the ridge, as is the case for the rest of the

Murray formation, excepting a number of Pahrump Hills targets (Table S7a-i). However,
when Al and Fe are ratioed to Ti, VRR reveals only a very weak negative correlation (r = -
0.19), even when excluding the blue/gray patches (Figure 8b; r = -0.27). Despite increasing
mean Si and Al concentrations for VRR, mean Ti concentrations decrease (Figures 5, 6, 7).
VRR reveals negative r-values for Si and Al with Ti, in contrast with the rest of the Murray
formation, again excepting a number of Pahrump Hills targets (Table S7a-e, i). While APXS
analyses indicate general compositional trends for Si, Al, Fe and Ti associated with each of
VRR members and the gray/blue patches, it is clear that there is significant overlap between
them.
VRR has consistently lower mean Ti, Zn, P, and Zn, and higher Na contents than the
underlying Blunts Point (Figures 5, 6). Potassium shows a broad trend to increasing
concentrations with elevation through the Pettegrove Point member into the base of the Jura
member (Figures 5, 6). K concentrations are variable within the Jura, with the second highest
variance (next to Hartmann’s Valley) of all the Murray members (Table S4b). Cl
concentrations, although variable, trend to high values (>1.5 wt% Cl) for a number of
Pettegrove Point and typical Jura member targets (not within gray/blue patches) (Figure 5).
The ridge exhibits a wide range of Mn concentrations (Figures 5, 6, 7) from relatively high
(~0.40 wt% MnO) compared to mean Murray (~0.23 wt% MnO), to among the lowest
detected at Gale (0.07 wt% MnO, Macleans Nose and Corrieshalloch Gorge). Low Mn
concentrations occur at the contact between the Blunts Point and Pettegrove Point members
and at the top of the ridge, within the Jura member.
Curiosity’s traverse facilitated sampling across the contact between the ridge and the
underlying Blunts Point member, as well as across the contact between the Pettegrove Point
and Jura members of VRR, at two laterally separated locations (Figure 3). The same overall

chemical trends between the different members are observed across both transects, but at
different elevations (e.g., Figures 5, S8).
4.5. Diagenetic and alteration features
The following section documents the chemistry of diagenetic and alteration features,
including CaSO4 veining associated with VRR strata. This is to facilitate comparisons with
features observed throughout the Murray formation below VRR, and to assess their
relationship to compositional changes observed within the bulk bedrock on VRR. Where
observed, resistant nodules and concretions, are significantly finer scale (< 1 cm size) than
those within the underlying Murray formation (Bennett et al., this issue), and do not typically
exhibit different compositions than the surrounding host rock (Figure S4). A few exceptions
show the addition of CaSO4 and other possible minor sulfate phases (e.g., Barberton raster).
Distinctive, dark gray, rectangular raised features (<1 cm long) analyzed within one of
the gray/blue patches of bedrock detected from orbit (Haroldswick raster; Figure S9), do not
show clear compositional trends away from the substrate bedrock. The spot with highest
proportion of the raised features in the APXS FOV (Haroldswick 2) has elevated FeO (22.22
wt%) relative to typical gray/blue bedrock (~16 wt%).
Three resistant targets within another blue/grey Jura bedrock patch show variable Fe
contents (Figure S6). A bulbous raised target, Macleans Nose (~4 cm across), has slightly
elevated Fe (19.59 wt% FeO) relative to typical gray/blue bedrock (~16 wt% FeO). The
resistant bedrock target, Aberfoyle, with no obvious diagenetic features, has the lowest FeO
concentration (10.17 wt%) of any Murray bedrock analyzed by APXS (except for the high-Si
targets in the vicinity of Buckskin). The resistant bedrock target, Funzie has FeO
concentrations typical of other gray/blue bedrock targets (16.90 wt%). All three exhibit
elevated Ni (1300-1800 ppm) and all bedrock targets (not including vein targets) analyzed by

APXS within this gray/blue patch have high Se concentrations (~70-100 ppm, detection limit
~40 ppm) (Table 1, S8).
In contrast to the underlying Blunts Point member, concordant or slightly discordant
veins parallel or subparallel to primary sedimentary layering are rarely observed on the ridge.
The Jura targets, Lyttleton and Balmedie, within a gray/blue patch, may be exceptions.
Strongly discordant white CaSO4 veins occur throughout VRR. As for the rest of the Murray
formation, a large number of targets do not exhibit obvious CaSO4 veins, yet have higher Ca
and S contents than the Precipice DRT target (lowest Ca- and S-content typical Murray
bedrock). Ca and S concentrations were low as Curiosity climbed onto the ridge, within the
basal Pettegrove Point member, but trend to high concentrations throughout most of the
overlying Pettegrove Point (Figures 5, 6). Pettegrove Point, Jura and gray/blue patches have
statistically the same mean Ca and S concentrations (Figure 6; Table S4a, c)
Within the gray/blue bedrock patches, CaSO4 veins are commonly observed to
contain very fine, dark inclusions (<2 mm) and rarer, coarser dark patches (up to 5 mm). The
only targets analyzed by APXS to specifically examine these phenomena were the Rona
raster and the Grange target (Figures S6, S9). However, several other APXS targets;
Newmacher offset, Forties, Portabello and Highfield offset had thin CaSO4 veins with very
fine dark inclusions within the nominal FOVs. All targets reveal elevated Fe associated with
increased proportions of the dark inclusions in the APXS FOVs. For example, the Rona 2
spot (Figure S9), with the greatest proportion of dark material included in the CaSO4 vein,
has the highest Fe content, of the three spots on the vein, as well as ~60 ppm Se (~40 ppm
detection limit; Table S8).
There are also regions of bedrock, adjacent to CaSO4 veins, possessing finer, dark inclusions
(<2 mm) surrounded by lighter gray areas (L’Haridon et al., this issue). APXS did not
specifically analyze any of the areas. However, a number of APXS targets within the

gray/blue patches likely include both the fine, darker gray inclusions and lighter gray areas
within the APXS FOV, albeit not visible because of dust. This results in the APXS analyses
of the gray/blue patches propbably representing a bulk averaging of the fine, dark inclusions
and more areally extensive lighter gray bedrock. An example of an APXS target in which
these features are observable is Highfield DRT (Figure S9), which has a typical gray/blue
bedrock composition (Table 1).
5 Implications
How does the APXS data help to address the questions outlined in the Introduction?
The mineralogy and sedimentology of the ridge are consistent with VRR being a continuation
of the Murray formation depositional sequence (Edgar et al., this issue; Rampe et al., this
issue). Bulk compositions of VRR strata determined by APXS indicate that the ridge lies
within the compositional range of the Murray formation encountered prior to VRR,
supporting the interpretation, based on mineralogy and sedimentology, that there was no
significant change in the primary depositional environment associated with the ridge strata,
nor provenance.
Compositional trends in both major and trace elements associated with the Blunts
Point/Pettegrove Point and Pettegrove Point/Jura contact, cutting across elevation, imply that
the chemical characteristics and morphology of the ridge are not the result of primary
sedimentary or depositional processes, assuming that the strata are relatively flat lying (Stein
et al., this issue). In particular, the contacts between the high Si, Al and low Fe, Ti, Mn
gray/blue patches and more typical bedrock are observed to occur at relatively high angles to
the observed bedding (e.g., Figure 13 in Fraeman et al., this issue, a). Changes in provenance,
lake water chemistry or redox conditions at the sediment/water interface would be expected
to result in compositional changes that follow the flat-lying stratigraphy. Instead, chemical
variations along and across stratigraphy are more consistent with subsequent

diagenetic/alteration episodes. The lateral and vertical compositional variability of VRR
compared to the underlying Murray formation, the presence of the gray/blue patches and
small-scale diagenetic features (mainly documented by ChemCam cf. L’Haridon et al., this
issue) indicate enhanced mobility of elements and, hence probable fluid flow within the
ridge. The fact that VRR is compositionally within the range of the Murray encountered
below the ridge also indicates that any post-depositional diagenesis/alteration did not result in
wholesale changes in composition.
No increase in Fe was observed as Curiosity climbed onto the ridge, nor within any of
the ridge strata. Specifically, the areas showing the deepest hematite spectral absorptions
from orbit and in situ measurements have average Murray Fe concentrations. Therefore, no
significant amount of Fe has been added to the bulk Murray bedrock comprising the ridge,
e.g., as a cementing oxide or as a detrital component. This is consistent with similar, or only
slightly higher, hematite abundances detected in VRR and Murray formation drilled samples
(the Pettegrove Point member, Stoer sample has 15.3 wt% hematite versus 13.9 wt% in
Oudam; Rampe et al., this issue). The lack of significant Fe addition to VRR strata
immediately discounts several of the proposed models for the formation of the ridge (see
Introduction, and Fraeman et al., 2013, 2016). Specifically, the redox interface and top down
oxidative weathering theories, that could explain enhanced hematite formation are not
feasible. Both would be expected to result in significantly increased Fe concentrations (as
well as Al and Ti for the oxidative weathering hypothesis; Nesbitt & Young, 1982) and Fe-
oxide mineral abundances within the ridge. Any model proposed must explain the trends
observed in the compositional data, as well as the mineralogy. Any model needs to account
for enhanced mobility of Mn versus Fe on the ridge, as well as the increased Si and Al, and
low Ti observed within the Jura member and the gray/blue bedrock patches specifically.

Before assessing the merits of the different hypotheses for ridge formation, further
examination of the variation of Mn, Fe, Si and Al is required.
5.1. Elemental mass change calculation
We can investigate the variation of Si, Al, Fe and Mn within the Jura and gray/blue
bedrock patches by performing a mass change calculation relative to Pettegrove Point.
Sedimentological observations indicate no significant change in the depositional environment
between any of the ridge strata (Edgar et al., this issue). This, as well as the preservation of
the same igneous, crystalline mineralogy in all three VRR drilled samples (Rampe et al., this
issue), indicate the same sediment source input for all VRR strata. We attribute differences in
composition to post-depositional processes and propose that Pettegrove Point strata is the
least altered (supported by its similar composition to the underlying Blunts Point) on VRR.
Thus, we investigate possible gains and losses of elements within the Jura and gray/blue
bedrock relative to mean Pettegrove Point to provide insight into post-depositional processes
on VRR. We assume that Ti is behaving conservatively. Ti is typically assumed to behave
conservatively in terrestrial weathering solutions under almost all environmental conditions
(Mukhopadhyay et al., 2014, Nesbitt, 1979; Nesbitt and Wilson, 1992), only showing
significant mobility at pH<2 and pH>8 (Brookins 1988, Knauss et al., 2001). It has also been
shown to behave conservatively in geothermal (~100°C), acid sulfate solutions acting on
basalt (Markússon & Stefánsson, 2011) and within acid sulfate soils (Åström & Deng, 2003),
scenarios likely to resemble some aqueous conditions on Mars. The results of these
calculations are shown in Figure 10. See §S1.5 in Supplementary Information for details and
Table S2. The standard deviations of SiO2/TiO2, Al2O3/TiO2, FeO/TiO2, and MnO/TiO2 for
Pettegrove Point are also shown on the plot.
The results of the calculations, shown in Figure 10, as well as the comparison with
mean Murray formation (Figure 7), highlight the elevated Si and Al within the gray/blue

patches, relative to both mean Murray, typical Jura and Pettegrove Point. Specifically, the
mass change calculations relative to Pettegrove point suggest the addition of Si and Al
(~20%) to the gray/blue patches versus passive enrichment. This is more than two times the
standard deviation of SiO2/TiO2 and Al2O3/TiO2 for Pettegrove Point. Typical Jura may also
be somewhat enriched in Si and Al relative to Pettegrove Point (~5-7%), with the exception
of the Rock Hall targets which show ~15% depletion in Si and Al. The low P concentrations
within the majority of VRR strata (Figure 6) relative to mean Murray, can also be explained
by the addition of Si and Al.
Iron is consistently low for the majority of grey/blue targets and typical Jura bedrock
relative to mean Murray (Figure 7). The mass change comparison with Pettegrove Point
indicates that there may have been some Fe loss from both the typical Jura and gray/blue
patches. However, the majority of gray/blue Jura targets (23 of 39) show <20% Fe loss,
similar to the standard deviation of FeO/TiO2 for Pettegrove Point, and six targets reveal Fe
gains. This indicates that the Fe was probably not significantly mobilized or leached from the
blue/grey patches. There is evidence for small scale Fe mobility within the gray/blue patches
(e.g., §4.5), but we rule out the bulk leaching of Fe. Any leaching of Fe was likely more
localized. Figure 7 reveals that the Pettegrove Point member has somewhat elevated Fe
relative to mean Murray formation, but it is not as marked as within the underlying Blunts
Point, which shows the most consistently elevated Fe concentrations of any Murray member.
The mass change relative to Pettegrove Point also highlights Mn variability within the
Jura, and the consistently depleted Mn within the gray/blue patches (excepting 6 targets,
§4.3). The comparison with mean Murray in Figure 7 reveals the same relationships. The
mass change indicates possible Mn gains and losses for the Jura, with Mn losses defining the
highest elevations on VRR within the Jura, and the gray/blue patches (Figure 10). The Mn
losses are consistently more marked than any loss of Fe, highlighting the increased mobility

of Mn, and fractionation of Mn and Fe. Relative to mean Murray, the majority of Pettegrove
Point targets have high Mn concentrations, except those within 4 m of the contact with Blunts
Point (Figure 7). This implies that Pettegrove Point strata have also experienced Mn mobility.
It is also worth noting the contrast in the pattern of high and low concentrations
associated with the high-Si and -Al Pahrump Hills member relative to mean Murray, versus
those within the Jura member and grey/blue patches on VRR (Figure 7). The high-Si
Pahrump Hills targets also show elevated Ti, and very low Al, Fe and Mn concentrations (as
well as the majority of other elements). This suggests that passive enrichment of Si and Ti
and removal of other elements, versus addition of Si, is the more likely process. Additionally,
typical Pahrump Hills targets reveal more pronounced increases in Al versus Si
concentrations, and significant increases in Mn and decreases in Fe concentrations. This
contrasts with the equally elevated Al and Si, low Mn and only moderately decreasing Fe
concentrations within the Jura and grey/blue patches on VRR. These differences all point to
distinct processes being responsible for the elemental patterns observed within Pahrump Hills
versus VRR.
Hartmann’s Valley targets, however, do exhibit similar elemental increases and
decreases relative to mean Murray as the Jura and gray/blue patches, i.e., higher Si and Al,
and lower Ti, P and Fe concentrations than mean Murray (Figures 5, 6, 7). But they do not
show the same, consistently low Mn concentrations typical of the Jura and gray/blue patches.
The Oudam drilled fines (Hartmann’s Valley member) are also share some of the same
mineralogical characteristics as Highfield. Both have a siliceous amorphous component, opal-
CT and minor quartz, similar hematite abundances and low, phyllosilicate (ferripyrophyllite)

contents (Achilles, 2020; Bristow et al., 2018; Rampe et al., this issue). These similar
compositional and mineralogical characteristics may indicate somewhat analogous processes.
5.2. Manganese and FeO/MnO
As discussed above, high and low Mn concentrations on VRR indicate mobility of Mn
within the ridge sediments (Figures 5, 7, 10). Increases and decreases in Mn concentrations
are more pronounced than for Fe, and variable FeO/MnO on the ridge (and the high ratio for
the Murray formation in general) indicates alteration of the primary igneous minerals and
other ferromagnesian minerals, and the fractionation of Fe and Mn. FeO/MnO is typically
~50 for unaltered igneous rocks on Mars and within martian meteorites (Mittlefehldt et al.,
2017; Papike et al., 2003; Yen et al., 2010) but ranges from ~50 to >300 on the ridge and is
high throughout the Murray formation (~100). Olivine is not detected by CheMin in any of
the Murray drilled samples above the Pahrump Hills member (Achilles, 2020; Bristow et al.,
2018; Rampe et al., this issue). Therefore, we conclude that olivine, phyllosilicates, pre-
existing Fe-oxides/hydroxides, the amorphous component and pyroxene are all potential
sources of mobile Fe and Mn (Tosca et al., 2004).
Divalent Fe and Mn cations have similar ionic radii, such that they have similar
geochemical behaviours. However, there are conditions under which fractionation can occur
by way of alteration in lower temperature fluids due to differences in solubility with
oxidation state and pH (e.g., Stumm & Morgan, 1996, Krauskopf, 1957). Mn2+ is oxidized
more slowly than Fe2+, such that it can be transported further into an oxidizing environment
before precipitating and becoming concentrated (Postma, 1985). Fluids containing Fe2+ can
reduce MnO present in sediments, resulting in Mn2+ enrichment in the fluid. If the Mn2+ is
then reoxidized, it can lead to concentrations of Mn (Postma, 1985; Postma & Appelo, 2000).
The geochemical cycling of Mn in lakes is influenced by acidification, and the solubility of
Mn has an inverse relationship with pH, such that low pH favors increased solubility of Mn,

while high pH lakes act as sinks for Mn (Urban et al., 1990). Slowly neutralizing an acidic
solution acting on a basaltic andesite, in an oxidizing environment was shown to concentrate
Mn in the fluid, by precipitating out the less soluble, oxidized Fe compounds (Krauskopf,
1957). Mn concentrated in a fluid could then be precipitated out where evaporation
concentrates the Mn, for example in a closed basin brine, (e.g., Berger et al., 2019). In the
brine scenario, Mn2+ can also be oxidized by chlorate, or possibly hydrochlorous acid or
perchlorate and precipitated (Berger et al., 2019).
5.3. Mineralogical manifestation of the increased Si and Al on VRR
Increased Si and Al in the Jura, particularly for the gray/blue patches, is not consistent
with increased plagioclase content. The crystalline components of the Jura drilled samples
have similar bulk plagioclase contents to Blunts Point and Pettegrove Point drilled samples
(Rampe et al., this issue). 4 wt% opal-CT and minor quartz were detected in the Highfield
drilled fines, and most of the excess Si and, to a lesser extent Al, is associated with the
amorphous component. The Highfield amorphous material has 61.7 wt% SiO2 and 7.9 wt%
Al2O3 versus 34.3 wt% SiO2 and 0 wt% Al2O3 for Duluth, and 55.0 wt% SiO2 and 5.1 wt%
Al2O3 for the Stoer amorphous components. Additionally, Highfield contains a higher
abundance of amorphous material (49 wt%) than Duluth (37 wt%) and Stoer (38 wt%)
(Rampe et al., 2020b). The excess Si/Al ratio for Highfield relative to Stoer, both with similar
plagioclase contents, is approximately the same as the Si/Al ratio in the amorphous
component for Highfield. This suggests that any addition of Si and Al is manifest
predominantly as amorphous phases and not as clay or other mineral species.
5.4. Source of increased Al and Si in the Jura and gray/blue patches
Lower plagioclase abundances are detected by CheMin from the Karasburg and
Sutton Island drilled fines, than for the rest of the Murray formation (Achilles, 2020; Bristow
et al., 2018, Rampe et al., this issue). However, neither member shows consistently lower Si

or Al concentrations (Figure 7). Hence it is unlikely that additional Si and Al is from the
dissolution of feldspar in the Karasburg and Sutton Island members. The Blunts Point
member shows minor, relative decreases in Si and Al concentrations (and Fe and Ti
increases) compared to mean Murray (Figure 7), but CheMin indicates a higher plagioclase
abundance for the drilled fines (Duluth) than for VRR samples. We therefore discount Si and
Al being sourced from the dissolution of plagioclase from any unit underlying VRR. Higher
Si and Al could be the result of dissolution of plagioclase, originally present in higher
concentrations within the Jura, and precipitation within an amorphous phase or phases,
concentrated in the gray blue patches.
The dissolution of Fe-Mg silicates (e.g., olivine, pyroxene and phyllosilcates) to form
Fe-oxides (fine grained hematite, magnetite, FeO.OH) in a closed system, would leave a Si-
rich (and Al-rich) residue (McLennan et al., 2003), which could then be dissolved and
mobilized.
Duluth has a slightly lower abundance of phyllosilicate and less amorphous material
than the Sutton Island drilled fines (Quela and Sebina, Achilles, 2020; Rampe et al., this
issue). Dissolution of the Blunts Point phyllosilicate and amorphous phases, and removal of
Al and Si from these phases might therefore be the source for at least some of the Si and Al.
Amorphous and poorly crystalline Al minerals are likely more soluble in acid sulfate fluids
than crystalline Al-minerals (Jones, Collins & Waite, 2011) and amorphous phases in general
are predicted to be more soluble than crystalline phases (e.g., Tosca & Knoll, 2009). Rock
Hall is also characterized by a relatively low amorphous content, with a low Si concentration
(Rampe et al., this issue).
5.5. Geochemical Models for VRR
The results of Curiosity’s exploration of Vera Rubin ridge have resulted in several
different models being proposed to explain the presence of the ridge and the observed

mineralogy, composition and spectral properties (see summary in Fraeman et al., this issue,
b). How does the APXS-derived compositional data constrain/fit with the different models?
5.5.1. Action of reducing diagenetic fluids
David et al. (this issue), Frydenvang et al. (this issue) and L’Haridon et al. (this issue)
favor the action of reducing diagenetic fluids, resulting in small-scale mobilization of Fe, and
larger-scale mobilization of Mn. The action of reducing fluids could also explain the likely
presence of reduced sulfur species from SAM Evolved Gas Analyses (EGA) of VRR drilled
samples (McAdam et al., this issue; Wong et al., this issue). This model could be consistent
with the variation in Mn concentrations measured by APXS. It could explain the larger scale
mobilization of Mn versus Fe from the Jura. The presence of the dark, Fe-rich inclusions
within CaSO4 veins points to relatively late-stage diagenetic events being responsible for
these features (e.g., Rona and Grange, §4.5.). At least one separate alteration/fluid flow event
would also be required to explain the other compositional characteristics and the mineralogy
observed. These scenarios do not account for the higher Si and Al concentrations and lower
Ti evident in the APXS data from the Jura and specifically, the gray/blue bedrock patches.
5.5.2. High water to rock ratio alteration
Based on geochemical modelling, Turner et al. (this issue) suggest that much of the
observed mineralogy of VRR can be produced by the action of a dilute brine at temperatures
between 50 °C and 90-100 °C, with a relatively high water to rock ratio compared to at
Yellowknife Bay (~10,000). This model does not account for the presence of jarosite and
akageneite in Stoer and Rock Hall, which they attribute to later, localized acidic alteration.
Such a high water/rock would be expected to mobilize fluid-mobile cations. While variable
concentrations of Mn, Na, K, Mg and Ca are consistent with increased water/rock, relative to
the underlying Murray formation, other fluid-mobile cations such as Zn do not exhibit
significant variation in concentration within VRR strata, although Zn concentrations are

consistently lower than in the underlying Blunts Point strata. Preservation of the igneous
minerals, plagioclase, potassium feldspar and pyroxene in all VRR drilled samples at greater
abundances than in the Karasburg and Sutton Island members, also indicate that, while
water/rock may be higher within VRR relative to most of the Murray formation, it was
probably not significantly enhanced, or may have been more localized. A relatively high
water/rock ratio would be consistent with the mobilization of Si and Al and their addition to
the gray/blue areas on VRR.
5.5.3. Action of warm, saline, acidic fluids
Based primarily on the mineralogy detected by CheMin in VRR drilled samples and
SAM EGA results, Rampe et al. (this issue), propose a model whereby the lacustrine
sediments are altered by the action of saline, acid sulfate fluids, with at least some of the
ridge strata experiencing moderately warm temperatures (~50-100 ºC). The presence of more
coarsely crystalline hematite on the ridge, and specifically gray hematite, and likely Fe-
pyrophyllite within the Highfield drilled sample, are attributed to the action of relatively
warm diagenetic fluids (e.g., Catling & Moore, 2003; Badaut et al., 1992). Opal-CT and
minor quartz present within the Highfield sample, and the likely presence of opal-CT in the
Stoer sample (Rampe et al., this issue), are also consistent with relatively warm fluids (e.g.,
Jones & Renaut, 2007).
The detection of relatively high abundances of well-crystalline akageneite and jarosite
within the Rock Hall drilled sample, are consistent with the sample having interacted with
acid-saline fluids (Rampe et al., this issue). Despite the texture and composition of Rock Hall
indicating that it may not be representative of typical Jura, the detection of minor akageneite
and jarosite in the Stoer drilled fines, indicate that saline, acid-sulfate fluids were likely
present within the ridge strata and not just confined to the Rock Hall area. However, they
may have been relatively localized.

Addition of Si and Al to the Jura and gray/blue bedrock, and mobilization of these
elements, could be consistent with interaction with localized acid-saline fluids with strata
elsewhere within the Jura (e.g. Rock Hall), Pettegrove Point and maybe Blunts Point. The
highest dissolution rates of aluminosilicates, Al-oxide, -oxyhydroxides and -hydroxides occur
under acidic and alkaline conditions (Tobler et al., 2017). Dissolution of silica and silicate
phases is also increased under acidic conditions relative to circumneutral pH (Iler, 1979),
although Si is less easily mobilized by acidic than alkaline fluids, but elevated temperatures
will enhance solubility (Drever, 1997; Tobler et al., 2017). Precipitation of Al-phases
typically occurs through neutralization, at pH greater than ~3 to 4. Si is also less soluble at
pH>3 and in circumneutral fluids (Tobler et al., 2017).
Bowen et al., (2012) report significantly enhanced solubility of Si and Al in acidic
brine lake water and groundwater associated with acid saline lakes in Western Australia,
although the basement rocks are dominated by felsic gneisses, but intermediate and basic
gneisses are also present. Markússon & Stefánsson (2011) indicate that Si and Al are mobile
in geothermal (~100°C), acid sulfate solutions acting on basalt. The Si and Al are more
mobile than Fe below the oxidation front, with Fe mobility increasing above the oxidation
front, such that it is more mobile than Si. The same study also showed that Mn is more
mobile than Fe both below and above the oxidation front, and this is consistent with the
discussion in §5.2. Sánchez-España et al. (2016) report Si and Al in solution associated with
acid mine drainage pit lakes and flooded underground mines at pH<4. Wintsch & Kvale
(1994) note that silicate dissolution reactions take place relatively rapidly in the presence of
excess acid, with acid solutions being capable of transporting Si and Al. We are not implying
that Gale crater lake was an acid saline lake, nor that conditions akin to acid mine drainage
were prevalent within the lake or subsurface. However, these examples serve to illustrate that
the mobility of Si and Al could be enhanced by the presence of acid saline fluids.

The localized action of subsurface acid saline fluids (pH = 2-3) could therefore
mobilize Si and Al (and Mn) from within the Jura (e.g., the Rock Hall area), Pettegrove Point
and possibly the underlying Blunt’s Point (all reveal possible depletion in Si and Al and
enrichment in Fe relative to mean Murray; Figure 7). The Si and Al dissolved in these fluids
would precipitate out upon encountering higher pH conditions (pH = 4-7) focused within the
gray/blue areas and the Jura at the top of VRR. The mineralogy of the Highfield samples
suggests that this precipitation occurred at somewhat elevated temperatures (~100°C). This
scenario requires enhanced fluid flow (relative to most of the rest of the Murray formation) to
transport and concentrate Al and Si, (see Turner et al., this issue, and above). Al and Si could
be further passively concentrated within the gray blue patches by local, small-scale Fe-losses.
The dark, Fe-rich inclusions in CaSO4 veins, and associated small-scale, dark Fe-rich features
surrounded by Fe-poor areas (§4.5; L’Haridon et al., this issue) within the gray/blue patches
are consistent with at least some of diagenetic/alteration processes and Fe-mobilization being
relatively late stage. However, the pervasive nature of the majority of compositional changes
and mineralogy associated with the ridge (i.e., not focused in discrete veins), indicates that
some of the alteration took place earlier. This suggests more than one diagenetic/alteration
event.
5.5.4. Proximity with the Greenheugh Pediment and cap rock
The proponents of the different geochemical models outlined above (Frydenvang et
al., this issue; Rampe et al., this issue; Turner et al., this issue) all suggest that an overlying,
relatively impermeable caprock, could have focused secondary, subsurface fluid flow along
the contact with underlying Murray formation strata (either associated with groundwater flow
from the Southern Highlands to the Northern Lowlands, or from Mount Sharp). The cap rock,
now eroded away, is considered to have been relatively impermeable owing to the fact that its
remnants form more resistant mesas, ledges and caps of hills, and are crater-retaining, all

features consistent with it being more indurated and better cemented than the recessive
Murray formation, which does not retain craters.
The erosional expression of the Greenheugh pediment, and the associated cap rock to
the south of VRR, mimics the geomorphology of the ridge (Fraeman et al., 2016; Bryk et al.,
2019). The dips of the Greenheugh pediment capping unit, and extrapolation towards VRR,
indicate that the cap rock may have extended unconformably over the ridge (Bryk et al.,
2019; Stein et al., this issue). This could explain the relatively more varied chemistry within
the Jura member. The distinct composition of the gray/blue bedrock patches indicate that they
may have acted as a locus for enhanced flow of relatively warm fluids and secondary,
diagenetic/alteration within VRR. Rampe et al. (this issue) and Fraeman et al. (this issue)
discuss potential heat sources and the origin of the acidity and salinity for the fluids.
The compositionally and mineralogically similar Oudam drill hole is situated within
the Hartmann’s Valley member, only 1 m below the contact with the unconformably
overlying, resistant Stimson formation sandstone. Both the Greenheugh pediment capping
unit and Stimson formation are interpreted to belong to the unconformable Siccar Point group
(Bryk et al., 2019). Therefore, the Murray formation at both locations may have been subject
to the same, post- depositional, diagenetic/alteration processes, as a result of their proximity
to the Siccar Point group cap rocks. Thus, the distribution of many diagenetic/alteration
effects might primarily be controlled by proximity to the unconformity rather than the
stratigraphy of the Murray formation.
The high-Si, Murray formation, Buckskin drill hole and associated targets are within
0.2 m of a contact with Stimson formation sandstones, suggesting that the observed
mineralogy and chemistry could also be the result of enhanced fluid flow along the Murray
formation/Siccar Point group contact. The Garden City vein system within the Pahrump Hills
member is also close to the contact with the overlying Siccar Point group. If Curiosity is able

to access the contact between the Murray formation and the overlying Greenheugh pediment
capping unit during the continued ascent of Mount Sharp we may encounter similar rocks,
indicating a relatively widespread diagenetic/alteration event at this contact, albeit focused in
specific areas along the contact.
6 Conclusions
The compositional data obtained by the APXS on VRR, as well as within the
underlying Murray formation, combined with sedimentological and mineralogical
observations, support a similar provenance and depositional history for the whole of the
Murray formation. The discordant nature of elemental trends associated with the ridge-
forming strata, particularly the gray/blue patches, indicate that secondary
diagenetic/alteration processes cutting across the stratigraphy were responsible for the
formation of VRR. Changes in provenance, sedimentary processes or systematic changes in
lake water chemistry during deposition are considered unlikely. The hematite spectral
signature detected from orbit on VRR is not associated with an increase in the bulk iron
content within the APXS data. This rules out the addition of significant amounts of Fe-rich
cement or detrital minerals.
The compositional variability of the ridge over a relatively narrow elevation range
(~50 m), and laterally (over 300-400 m), indicates some enhanced mobility of elements and
fluid flow relative to the underlying Murray formation. In particular, Si and Al were likely
added to the blue/gray patches, and Mn was mobilized and fractionated from Fe. We favor
the action of acid saline fluids at moderate water/rock ratios facilitating mobilization of Si, Al
and Mn. The somewhat enhanced fluid flow allowed transport and addition of Si and Al as
amorphous phases, at high pH and relatively warm temperatures within the gray/blue patches.
A relatively impermeable, overlying capping unit may have contained and focused the fluid

flow, which was likely concentrated within the Jura member, and more specifically within the
gray/blue outcrops identified from orbit.
Different elemental enrichments and depletions within the ridge strata, versus the
underlying Murray formation, support multiple, post-depositional, diagenetic/alteration
processes with varying fluid chemistries, redox conditions, pH, temperatures and timing
occurring throughout the Murray formation.
Acknowledgments, Samples, and Data:
MSL APXS is managed and financed by the Canadian Space Agency (CSA). We
acknowledge the important role of the engineers at JPL, the MSL science team and everyone
involved in operations with respect to obtaining APXS data.
Science team member funding for Thompson, Boyd, Gellert, O’Connell-Cooper, Schmidt and
Spray is provided by the CSA. Fraeman and Yen acknowledge that a portion of this research
was carried out at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, under a
contract with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Berger was funded by a
NASA Postdoctoral Program fellowship administered by USRA. VanBommel was supported
by NASA/Caltech/JPL Contract 1549716 to Washington University in St. Louis for
participation in the Mars Science Laboratory Science Team. Thompson thanks the VRR
working group, and specifically; Kristen Bennett, Briony Horgan and Samantha Jacob for
fruitful discussions. We acknowledge the thorough and constructive feedback from three
anonymous reviewers.
Data Availability
All MSL, raw data are available at the planetary data system:
https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/missions/msl/index.htm
https://an.rsl.wustl.edu/msl/mslbrowser/an3.aspx
Bradbury group and Siccar Point group APXS analyses are available at the planetary data
system:
https://pds-geosciences.wustl.edu/msl/msl-m-apxs-45-rdr-v1/mslapx1xxx/data/
All data presented in this paper, including the results of statistical tests and data used to make
plots are available at: Thompson, L. (2020). Alpha Particle X-ray spectrometer geochemistry
of the Murray formation and Vera Rubin ridge, Gale crater, Mars.
https://doi.org/10.25545/ZXDJZ7, UNB, V1,
UNF:6:bL/a2qTZBu6DNJlzkmGAbg==[fileUNF]

Cross References to articles in this issue:
Bennett et al., Extensive diagenesis revealed by fine-scale features at Vera Rubin ridge,
Gale crater, Mars, 2019JE006311
David et al., Iron oxide mineral grains observed by ChemCam across Vera Rubin ridge
sedimentary rocks at Gale crater, Mars, 2019JE006314 (accepted)
Edgar et al., A lacustrine paleoenvironment recorded at Vera Rubin ridge, Gale crater:
Overview of the sedimentology and stratigraphy observed by the Mars Science
Laboratory Curiosity rover, 2019JE006307RR (accepted)
Fraeman et al., Evidence for a diagenetic origin of Vera Rubin ridge, Gale crater, Mars:
Summary and synthesis of Curiosity’s exploration campaign, 2020JE006527 (accepted)
Fraeman et al., Synergistic ground and orbital observations of iron oxides on Mt. Sharp and
Vera Rubin ridge, 2019JE006294 (accepted)
Frydenvang et al., The chemostratigraphy of the Murray formation and role of diagenesis
at Vera Rubin ridge in Gale crater, Mars, as observed by the ChemCam instrument,
2019JE006320R (accepted)
Horgan et al., Diagenesis of Vera Rubin ridge, Gale crater, Mars from Mastcam
multispectral images, 2019JE006322
Jacob et al., Spectral, Compositional, and Physical Properties of the Upper Murray
Formation and Vera Rubin Ridge, Gale Crater, Mars, 2019JE006290 (accepted)
L’Haridon et al., Iron Mobility during Diagenesis as Observed by ChemCam at the Vera
Rubin Ridge, Gale Crater, Mars, 2019JE006299 (accepted)
McAdam et al., Constraints on the Mineralogy and Geochemistry of the Vera Rubin ridge,
Gale crater, Mars, from Mars Science Laboratory Sample Analysis at Mars Evolved Gas
Analyses, 2019JE006309R (accepted)
Rampe et al., Mineralogy of Vera Rubin Ridge from the Mars Science Laboratory CheMin
Instrument, 2019JE006306R (accepted)
Stein et al., Regional structural orientation of the Mt. Sharp group revealed by in-situ dip
measurements and stratigraphic correlations on the Vera Rubin ridge, 2019JE006298R
(accepted)
Turner et al., Fluid-rock Reactions in the Murray Formation, including Vera Rubin ridge,
Gale crater, Mars, 2020JE006447
Wong et al., Detection of reduced sulfur on Vera Rubin ridge by quadratic discriminant
analysis of volatiles observed during evolved gas analysis, 2019JE006304 (accepted)
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Figure 1a. Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) topographic map of Mars showing the
location of Curiosity in Gale crater. 1b: Oblique, computer-generated view of Gale crater
based on multiple orbital observations (Thermal Emission Imaging System camera on Mars
Odyssey, MOLA on Mars Global Surveyor orbiter., and High Resolution Imaging Science
Experiment (HiRISE) camera on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter). MSL landing ellipse and
traverse overlain (credit:NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/UA). 1c: HiRISE map showing Curiosity’s
traverse, points/areas of interest and the division of the Bradbury and Mount Sharp groups
(credit:NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/UA).

Figure 2. Color-stretched HiRISE image with Curiosity’s traverse on the Vera Rubin ridge.
White dots denote end of drive locations where APXS data was not acquired. Colored dots
and stars correspond with locations where APXS data was acquired. Colors correspond to the
respective Murray member or grouping (see legend). Note the numerous patches of gray/blue
material within the upper VRR Jura member, and less commonly in the Pettegrove Point
member (blue dots correspond with locations where APXS was acquired within these areas).
The four drill locations on the ridge and in the underlying Blunt’s Point member are also
labelled (white outlined dots); Duluth, Stoer, Highfield and Rock Hall. Thicker, black dashed
lines delineate VRR. Thinner, black dashed line delineates the Pettegrove Point/Jura contact.
Thick black arrow indicates upsection direction. (credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU/UA)

Figure 3. Stratigraphic column for Gale crater up to and including VRR. Colored dots
indicate drill holes within the Murray formation, and are shown at the elevation level they
were drilled. Colors correspond with the color of the respective Murray member shown in the
column. Black dots correspond with drill holes sampled from other Gale bedrock (i.e.,
Stimson formation and Bradbury group). (credit: MSL Sedimentology and Stratigraphy
Working Group)

Figure 4. Figure 4: Total alkalis versus silica (TAS) plot (Le Maitre et al., 2006) for all Gale
rock targets analyzed by APXS (not including targets with obvious CaSO4 veins or
diagenetic/alteration features; except the high-Si targets associated with alteration halos
within the Stimson formation to facilitate a comparison with high-Si Murray formation). All
data normalized to S and Cl free. YKB – Yellowknife Bay formation mudstones. Trends
away from basaltic compositions highlighted by arrows (Thompson et al., 2016). Caveat: The
majority of rocks sampled by APXS are sedimentary and not igneous. This plot is used to
represent the data in a way that has commonly be used for martian data, and does not imply
that samples are igneous, only that they have certain compositions.

Figure 5: Stratigraphic column for the Murray formation up to and including the VRR (top
left), and APXS elemental and oxide concentrations, and FeO/MnO (bottom left) plotted with
elevation (m) for the Murray formation and VRR. All concentrations are wt% except, Ni, Zn
and Br, which are ppm. Targets with obvious diagenetic/alteration features and/or veins are
not included. High-Si Pahrump Hills targets are also not shown for most plots, i.e., they are
off the scale. Symbols are colored to match their corresponding member in the stratigraphic
column. Dashed dark red vertical lines represent average martian basaltic soil (O’Connel-
Cooper et al., 2017). Solid blue vertical lines represent mean Murray formation bedrock
below the ridge, and the pale blue shaded boxes the standard deviation. Solid black lines are
5-point moving average trend lines. The white filled, red outlined stars on the FeO plot
represent bedrock targets analyzed by APXS from within the areas exhibiting the deepest
hematite absorptions from orbital CRISM data. The horizontal black line on the FeO/MnO
plot represents the typical error associated with the lower Mn, high (>190) FeO/MnO points.
Grey filled, black outlined points at the highest elevation on each plot are the targets analyzed
as Curiosity descended off the ridge, into the Glen Torridon area.

Figure 6. Box and whisker plots for the Murray formation members (PH – Pahrump Hills,
TP – Telegraph Peak, HV – Hartmann’s Valley, K – Karasburg, SI – Sutton Island, BP –
Blunts Point, PPt – Pettegrove Point, J – Jura, RH – Rock Hall, g/b – gray/blue). X – mean,
horizontal line – median, boxes – interquantile range, whiskers – minimum and maximum
values, circles – ouliers; dotted vertical line marks the start of VRR.

Figure 7. Plot showing the results of a comparison of SiO2, Al2O3, MnO, FeO and TiO2
concentrations for the Murray member targets relative to mean Murray formation. Except for
the high Si and TP (Telegraph Peak and associated) targets, analyses are shown with
increasing elevation from left to right. The blue/gray patches occur over the same elevation
range as the typical Jura. Note that the width of each member/subdivision is based on the
number of analyses and not proportional to the thickness of the unit. RH – Rock Hall. The
bars on the far, right side of the plot show the Murray standard deviations for the oxides
plotted. See §S1.4 for methodology.

Figure 8. Plots showing a) positive correlation of Al2O3/TiO2 and SiO2 /TiO2 for the VRR
compared to the rest of the Murray formation; b) negative correlation ofAl2O3 /TiO2 and FeO
/TiO2 for the Murray formation below VRR, and VRR; c) higher SiO2/TiO2 for the blue/grey
patches than the rest of the Murray formation; d) higher Al2O3/TiO2 for the blue/grey patches
than the rest of the Murray formation except a number of Pahrump Hills targets. Black
crosses represent typical error bars. The outlier targets (low Si, Al and high Fe) within the
typical Jura (red diamonds) are the Rock_Hall drill fines and associated targets. PH –
Pahrump Hills member (not including high Si targets), HV – Hartmann’s Valley member, K
– Karasberg member, SI – Sutton Island member, BP – Blunts Point member, PP –
Pettegrove Pt member, J-T – Jura member (typical), J-G – Jura member (grey/blue includes
one target from PP), CBU – clay-bearing unit

Figure 9. Murray formation bedrock targets below the ridge (black outline) and VRR targets
(shaded grey) ratioed (logarithmic scale) to a typical Murray formation target, Ganda (sol
1444). High Si Murray targets, and targets with prominent veins or diagenetic features not
included. Arrows highlight low Ti, Mn, Fe and high Ni concentrations within some targets on
VRR relative to other Murray targets.

Figure 10. Plot showing the results of a mass change comparison of SiO2, Al2O3, MnO and
FeO for the Jura and gray/blue bedrock targets relative to mean Pettegrove Point. For each
group, elevation increases from right to left. The elevations of the gray/blue targets overlap
with the typical Jura. The bars on the far, right side of the plot show the standard deviations
for SiO2/TiO2, Al2O3/TiO2 and FeO/TiO2 for Pettegrove Point. RH – Rock Hall. See §S1.5
for methodology.

Table 1: APXS compositional data for all targets analyzed on VRR; all concentrations are reported as wt% unless otherwise indicated (see also Table S1)
Target name (corresponds with Target Ni/ Zn/ Br/

Sol Notes/features SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Cr2O3 MnO FeO MgO CaO Na2O K2O P2O5 SO3 Cl FeO/MnO
NASA PDS) Type1 ppm ppm ppm
Pettegrove Point member
1811 Sasanoa_DRT RB 51.79 1.16 9.52 0.34 0.12 22.52 4.18 2.28 2.13 0.91 0.99 2.78 0.88 982 2108 176 188
1811 Kemps_Folly R 50.48 1.12 9.59 0.32 0.10 21.33 5.04 2.73 2.31 0.90 0.97 3.80 0.93 1101 1946 85 213
1814 Pumpkin_Nob R 47.00 1.14 8.79 0.32 0.12 20.98 5.94 3.73 2.59 0.79 0.85 5.25 2.10 1034 1320 447 175
1816 Schoppee R 50.06 1.09 9.57 0.32 0.09 22.08 4.69 2.46 2.44 0.81 0.98 3.78 1.33 949 1142 116 245
1818 Christmas_Cove_preDRT R 45.27 1.08 8.65 0.33 0.13 20.83 6.68 4.45 2.69 0.75 0.84 6.08 1.93 924 1044 287 160
1818 Christmas_Cove_DRT RB 47.06 1.07 9.05 0.32 0.11 20.55 4.27 3.76 3.08 0.86 0.82 6.04 2.64 949 1054 272 187
1818 Mitten_Ledge_DRT RB 49.63 1.14 9.30 0.32 0.07 21.50 4.63 2.68 2.65 0.90 0.91 4.00 1.96 926 1159 156 307
1821 Pennessewassee R 46.27 1.04 8.66 0.30 0.13 20.14 5.99 4.38 2.54 0.81 0.96 6.66 1.77 991 1013 555 155
1821 Passadumkeag_DRT RB 47.19 1.07 9.01 0.31 0.12 18.78 4.83 4.40 2.75 0.98 0.86 6.59 2.78 920 941 379 157
1824 Troll_Valley R nodules 45.41 1.02 8.69 0.30 0.30 19.08 6.53 5.57 2.49 0.78 0.93 7.47 1.10 777 916 187 64
1824 Sherwood_Forest_DRT RB 46.65 1.05 8.96 0.30 0.25 18.03 5.69 5.19 2.37 0.96 0.93 8.46 0.88 808 962 323 72
1829 Enon R nodules 45.92 1.16 8.78 0.36 0.23 19.89 6.73 4.90 2.53 0.69 0.89 6.83 0.85 716 1045 68 86
1830 Collingham R 42.09 1.05 8.01 0.33 0.09 21.96 6.48 5.45 2.77 0.62 1.00 8.23 1.69 767 732 452 244
1834 Katberg R 46.64 1.04 8.84 0.27 0.23 18.60 5.64 4.62 2.88 0.96 0.89 7.13 2.01 881 935 223 81
1836 Lucknow_DRT RB 45.34 1.04 8.64 0.30 0.26 20.92 5.47 3.93 2.63 1.09 1.14 6.65 2.31 752 1239 146 80
1836 Ecca_DRT RB 47.27 1.03 9.18 0.29 0.26 20.00 5.48 4.01 2.44 1.02 1.21 6.42 1.10 738 1182 88 77
1838 Cheshire R resistant features 47.89 1.09 8.88 0.34 0.25 19.55 5.79 4.57 2.30 1.01 0.89 6.20 0.92 829 1374 176 78
1838 Duitschland R 46.38 1.09 9.00 0.32 0.37 18.27 6.28 5.09 2.53 0.93 0.83 7.44 1.15 868 1410 83 49
1845 Stormberg R 44.90 1.06 8.85 0.33 0.34 19.96 6.83 4.59 2.72 0.87 0.96 6.38 1.88 805 1331 140 59
1853 Balfour R 49.79 1.07 9.30 0.30 0.30 20.59 5.46 3.26 2.42 1.06 0.89 4.57 0.73 949 968 96 69

1863 Gamka R 45.87 0.95 9.00 0.33 0.21 22.41 6.15 3.89 2.40 0.88 1.03 5.45 1.04 781 722 119 107
1863 Sibasa_DRT RB 48.36 1.06 9.00 0.30 0.30 19.32 5.39 4.33 2.38 1.04 0.85 6.60 0.82 884 896 80 64
1865 Barberton_raster1 R resistant features 44.35 1.00 9.15 0.36 0.30 18.31 6.80 6.92 2.60 0.75 0.86 7.76 0.64 702 668 41 61
1865 Campbellrand R 46.59 1.10 9.13 0.32 0.26 20.42 6.79 4.02 2.55 0.89 1.00 5.72 0.94 834 939 92 79
1868 Volksrust R resistant features 44.63 1.06 8.70 0.33 0.39 19.54 6.65 5.75 2.54 0.91 0.94 7.39 0.87 852 981 353 50
1870 Waboomberg R 41.81 0.92 7.83 0.30 0.37 24.37 6.34 4.66 2.56 0.85 1.34 5.66 2.72 721 688 516 66
1870 Platberg_DRT RB 45.00 1.00 8.49 0.30 0.38 17.18 5.68 6.09 2.82 0.94 0.80 9.21 1.84 739 972 80 45
2000 Sgurr_of_Eigg_DRT RB 48.69 1.01 9.20 0.32 0.33 19.05 6.01 4.02 2.66 1.00 0.89 5.40 1.06 836 1014 40 58
2001 Appin R 46.32 0.96 8.75 0.26 0.32 17.46 5.34 6.05 2.53 0.96 0.90 8.82 1.07 722 887 34 55
2001 Brora_DRT RB 45.64 0.98 8.55 0.30 0.31 17.39 5.37 6.43 2.42 0.91 0.88 9.54 1.03 750 951 78 56
2005 Murchison R Deepest hematite absorption, CRISM 46.99 1.06 8.96 0.30 0.25 20.39 6.01 3.54 2.82 1.03 0.80 5.66 1.90 1003 1043 71 82
2005 Stranraer_DRT RB Deepest hematite absorption, CRISM 47.57 1.05 8.78 0.31 0.25 20.68 4.99 3.40 2.85 1.10 0.79 5.55 2.40 1035 1080 82 83
2008 Dun_Caan R Deepest hematite absorption, CRISM 46.25 1.04 9.49 0.28 0.20 21.76 5.49 2.97 2.80 1.06 1.49 4.67 2.25 865 869 27 109
2008 Lanark_DRT RB Deepest hematite absorption, CRISM 47.31 1.00 8.92 0.30 0.25 20.47 5.59 3.30 2.69 1.05 0.99 5.83 2.05 1011 881 35 82
2013 Kinloch Re pebble and sand 35.54 0.79 7.09 0.27 0.25 30.64 6.08 3.25 2.79 0.70 2.13 7.90 2.12 747 985 503 123
2013 Lingarabay_DRT RB few nodules 51.08 1.03 9.80 0.30 0.27 18.10 5.05 3.87 2.64 1.03 0.87 4.94 0.74 921 952 56 67
2014 Corsehill R nodules 45.18 1.00 8.97 0.36 0.31 17.12 6.26 7.18 2.52 0.73 0.96 8.49 0.70 711 694 61 55
2029 Babbitt R Deepest hematite absorption, CRISM 47.19 1.07 9.07 0.32 0.20 19.72 4.99 3.33 2.98 0.96 0.80 6.65 2.45 992 1093 38 99
2032 Pokegama R Deepest hematite absorption, CRISM 46.95 1.08 9.56 0.31 0.23 19.19 6.02 3.55 2.73 1.01 0.77 6.46 1.86 859 1145 35 83
2038 Nashwauk R 46.81 1.05 9.09 0.32 0.10 21.90 5.38 3.15 2.76 0.82 1.11 5.48 1.70 838 1229 148 219
2042 Pigeon_River_DRT RB 45.13 1.04 8.62 0.31 0.12 20.00 4.74 4.83 2.74 0.82 0.91 7.90 2.50 939 1307 201 167
2042 Bald_Eagle_Lake_DRT RB 43.64 1.01 8.58 0.32 0.12 21.28 4.70 4.65 2.64 0.81 1.25 7.99 2.68 865 1164 160 177
2100 Dumbarton_Rock_DRT RB 47.05 1.07 8.87 0.32 0.29 20.56 5.05 4.05 2.52 1.07 0.75 6.38 1.67 1007 1243 94 71

2101 Duntarvie_Castle R 44.12 1.04 8.55 0.34 0.28 20.73 6.19 4.86 2.48 0.91 0.83 7.83 1.54 976 1277 135 74
2101 Duntelchaig R 42.25 1.04 8.33 0.33 0.32 20.21 6.73 5.65 2.68 0.85 0.84 8.57 1.83 1018 1284 159 63
2104 Oskaig R 46.08 1.05 8.77 0.34 0.35 20.49 6.50 3.92 2.52 0.86 0.95 6.13 1.65 1067 1211 78 59
2107 Chippewa R float with resistant features 43.03 0.91 8.30 0.28 0.42 17.91 5.89 6.23 2.84 1.00 1.07 9.44 2.19 713 1569 140 43
2108 Orr R dark patchy 43.69 0.98 8.57 0.28 0.19 24.31 5.63 3.09 2.72 0.70 2.46 5.07 2.00 903 796 60 128
2109 Voyageurs_DRT RB 43.97 1.00 8.28 0.32 0.25 20.88 5.00 4.86 2.79 0.97 0.75 8.24 2.34 1009 1095 60 84
2113 Voyageurs_DRT_Drill_Tailings DT failed drill attempt 46.58 1.07 8.88 0.32 0.27 22.06 4.76 4.20 2.56 1.06 0.72 5.78 1.33 1081 1189 56 82
2113 Voyageurs_DRT_post_Drill MD failed drill attempt 47.49 1.13 9.01 0.34 0.27 21.72 4.32 4.45 2.44 1.09 0.67 6.07 0.69 1072 1175 57 80
2117 Walsay R 47.65 1.04 8.89 0.30 0.25 19.23 5.44 4.36 2.64 1.03 0.89 6.62 1.38 859 892 46 77
2121 Ailsa_Craig_offset RB 47.92 0.99 9.02 0.29 0.34 19.18 5.79 4.57 2.52 0.98 0.92 6.20 0.94 834 1002 37 56
2122 Ailsa_Craig_DRT RB 45.85 0.97 8.65 0.28 0.31 17.94 5.33 6.28 2.46 0.93 0.92 8.87 0.99 749 961 36 58
2124 Ailsa_Craig_post_Drill MD failed drill attempt 47.90 1.15 9.02 0.35 0.37 21.92 4.43 4.92 2.56 1.05 0.75 4.82 0.43 942 1233 37 59
2124 Ailsa_Craig_Drill_Tailings DT failed drill attempt 48.76 1.09 9.26 0.34 0.36 21.48 4.67 4.67 2.62 1.06 0.81 4.07 0.49 909 1136 36 60
2127 Diabaig R 50.03 1.02 9.46 0.31 0.23 18.04 5.23 3.34 2.88 1.06 0.82 5.13 2.15 959 1121 94 78
2127 Slioch R dark patch 44.76 0.97 8.46 0.28 0.33 18.41 6.57 4.88 2.42 0.87 0.94 8.93 1.90 1045 1127 109 56
2131 Mount_Battock R 50.14 0.99 9.62 0.31 0.20 21.46 6.20 2.74 2.70 0.88 1.38 2.40 0.69 880 886 499 107
2131 Dobbs_Linn_DRT RB 48.71 0.97 9.32 0.31 0.23 17.74 4.98 5.28 2.53 0.94 0.92 7.01 0.81 828 1037 121 77
2131 Scourie_More R grey/blue from orbit 53.98 1.00 10.39 0.30 0.25 16.43 5.73 3.33 2.71 1.02 0.89 3.02 0.66 933 861 350 66
2134 Stoer_DRT RB 47.88 1.02 8.89 0.32 0.09 18.46 5.02 5.27 2.42 0.93 0.81 7.76 0.80 802 857 429 205
2134 Stoer_offset RB 46.39 1.00 8.86 0.32 0.11 17.51 5.29 6.27 2.53 0.87 0.83 8.86 0.88 739 787 254 159
2154 Stoer_dump_centre DBA 44.08 1.03 8.75 0.34 0.17 21.53 4.72 6.44 2.45 0.91 0.84 7.59 0.89 914 847 44 127
2155 Stoer_tailings DT 45.95 1.01 8.49 0.38 0.20 23.15 4.79 5.36 2.44 0.87 0.97 5.49 0.68 835 771 70 116
Jura member
1875 Middleton R 46.16 1.15 9.15 0.32 0.31 20.27 5.79 4.28 2.70 1.16 0.73 5.68 2.04 822 1096 29 65
1875 Fort_Brown_DRT RB 46.04 1.05 8.75 0.30 0.41 19.87 5.54 4.71 2.38 1.02 0.94 7.89 0.84 825 960 117 48

1879 Zululand R 49.47 1.00 9.41 0.28 0.26 17.21 5.25 4.22 2.59 1.04 0.85 6.67 1.56 642 650 41 66
1879 Hexriver_DRT RB 49.33 1.00 9.29 0.28 0.26 17.94 5.56 3.28 2.87 1.15 0.85 6.18 1.76 838 903 54 69
1885 Klippan_DRT RB 50.05 1.01 9.36 0.29 0.32 17.48 5.61 3.73 2.49 1.09 0.84 6.23 1.23 920 987 44 55
1885 Klipfonteinheuwel R 50.37 0.98 9.98 0.28 0.24 16.57 5.58 3.59 2.74 1.00 0.90 5.85 1.69 903 822 46 69
1889 Lyttelton R concordant CaSO4? 44.95 0.92 8.92 0.25 0.15 16.24 5.15 6.50 2.48 0.94 0.98 10.72 1.40 752 756 115 108
1892 Strubenkop R 52.28 1.00 10.21 0.29 0.09 15.52 5.35 3.47 2.72 1.17 0.72 5.75 1.23 867 548 24 172
1893 Drakensberg_DRT RB 50.01 1.04 9.93 0.30 0.10 16.85 5.53 3.70 2.86 1.17 0.81 5.74 1.72 1004 589 56 169
1895 Mzamba R 47.82 1.03 8.94 0.29 0.38 20.52 5.75 2.99 2.47 1.17 0.83 5.62 1.88 993 1304 112 54
1897 Wick R 48.64 1.07 9.59 0.30 0.19 17.04 5.57 4.47 2.58 1.04 0.73 6.86 1.67 886 717 20 90
1897 Muck R 51.52 1.04 10.13 0.29 0.16 16.79 5.19 3.33 2.78 0.95 0.77 5.30 1.49 639 521 64 105
1904 Talisker R 49.40 0.91 9.73 0.29 0.10 16.78 5.42 4.40 2.84 0.79 0.78 7.16 1.17 878 812 79 168
1904 Oban_DRT RB 52.54 0.94 10.11 0.32 0.09 15.91 5.11 3.60 2.62 0.80 0.77 5.66 1.24 1029 914 86 177
1906 Holyrood R 48.85 1.02 9.52 0.32 0.14 15.98 5.23 4.38 2.67 1.08 0.61 8.44 1.50 846 838 118 114
1907 Haddo_House R 49.26 1.00 9.55 0.28 0.15 15.51 5.37 4.65 2.63 1.02 0.70 7.90 1.71 866 903 101 103
1911 Ben_Loyal R 48.93 0.89 9.46 0.28 0.11 16.80 5.46 4.76 2.63 0.98 0.80 7.61 0.99 898 1308 55 153
1921 Haroldswick_Raster1 R resistant feature and sand 51.32 0.99 10.19 0.30 0.13 16.43 6.63 3.54 2.74 0.80 1.16 4.38 1.20 663 505 87 126
1921 Haroldswick_Raster2 R dark sticks and rock 51.52 0.86 9.68 0.32 0.13 17.64 5.92 2.94 2.68 1.00 1.05 4.74 1.22 871 645 105 136
1921 Haroldswick_Raster3 R dark sticks, rock and sand 47.67 0.89 9.47 0.28 0.14 22.22 6.70 3.84 2.55 0.60 1.01 3.49 0.95 640 590 38 159
1921 Haroldswick_Raster4 R resistant feature and rock 51.09 0.79 9.67 0.28 0.08 18.44 6.26 2.63 2.60 0.86 0.96 4.85 1.25 1117 565 76 231
1921 Haroldswick_Raster5 R resistant feature and rock 53.36 0.85 9.88 0.35 0.10 15.87 6.17 2.65 2.57 0.90 1.24 4.39 1.26 946 639 124 159
1922 Raasay R resistant features 50.44 0.90 9.87 0.31 0.11 15.90 5.45 4.39 2.68 0.83 0.73 6.81 1.29 1038 1123 108 145
1925 Assynt_RP R 48.00 0.96 9.41 0.30 0.17 16.52 6.07 5.36 2.51 0.86 0.82 7.60 1.12 935 1069 135 97
1927 Craighead_DRT RB 50.47 1.00 9.86 0.28 0.20 15.71 6.44 3.80 2.54 1.00 0.75 6.47 1.17 968 1159 101 79
1929 Banff R 54.26 1.01 10.64 0.32 0.16 16.43 5.41 3.03 2.80 1.07 0.65 3.12 0.85 904 818 22 103
1931 Unst_DRT RB 51.72 1.00 9.92 0.30 0.11 14.25 4.03 4.54 2.58 0.94 0.89 7.91 1.57 833 665 165 130

1932 Aberfoyle R 52.34 1.09 10.48 0.36 0.21 10.17 6.57 4.21 3.26 0.97 1.07 7.22 1.68 1832 688 217 48
1934 Macleans_Nose R resistant feature 47.64 0.91 9.35 0.25 0.07 19.59 5.41 3.90 2.61 0.85 0.70 6.89 1.52 1293 787 156 280
1934 Ross_of_Mull_DRT RB CaSO4 veins 50.78 0.96 9.65 0.31 0.10 14.12 4.06 4.98 2.46 0.95 0.74 9.02 1.62 925 644 148 141
1937 Rona_raster1 RB CaSO4 vein with dark material 43.22 0.81 8.34 0.29 0.08 12.62 3.98 9.04 2.23 0.71 0.79 16.31 1.38 686 542 142 158
1938 Funzie_APXS R 47.65 0.92 9.20 0.27 0.10 16.90 6.08 4.47 2.67 0.86 0.99 8.13 1.42 1768 695 151 169
1940 Mallaig_offset R 48.34 1.00 9.67 0.35 0.33 17.88 7.17 4.22 2.44 0.69 0.93 5.37 1.17 797 1286 111 54
1940 Mallaig R 48.88 1.00 9.45 0.33 0.35 17.03 7.10 4.29 2.44 0.74 0.90 6.04 1.15 906 1214 118 49
1940 Knoydart R 50.55 1.16 10.25 0.35 0.12 15.76 6.16 4.22 2.56 1.02 0.81 5.26 1.44 1024 1223 87 131
1943 Eaval R 49.11 0.95 9.38 0.29 0.27 17.30 6.49 4.37 2.41 0.75 0.62 6.48 1.29 904 1122 125 64
1945 Loch_Gairloch R 50.46 1.06 9.90 0.34 0.11 17.17 4.91 4.40 2.49 0.83 0.84 5.88 1.33 869 397 140 156
1947 Thurso R 49.51 1.10 9.62 0.33 0.10 18.23 5.98 3.99 2.62 0.72 0.72 5.28 1.55 891 781 158 182
1947 Loch_Tay R 48.72 1.10 9.62 0.33 0.09 19.16 5.81 3.55 2.56 0.79 0.80 5.54 1.67 899 839 78 213
1950 Balmedie_DRT RB CaSO4 vein/concordant/dark inclusions 48.61 1.00 8.92 0.36 0.11 9.13 3.81 7.74 2.04 0.58 1.02 15.44 0.90 341 1039 84 83
1954 Glen_Roy R 48.26 1.00 9.23 0.31 0.10 17.81 5.73 4.41 2.62 0.98 0.73 6.95 1.59 1020 752 136 178
1954 Skara_Brae R 48.74 1.06 9.27 0.30 0.12 17.92 5.55 4.29 2.65 0.99 0.73 6.40 1.71 1088 782 108 149
1959 Arnaboll R 47.59 1.15 9.44 0.30 0.12 18.51 5.59 4.24 2.50 1.05 0.75 6.80 1.71 1004 870 121 154
1963 Newmachar_offset RB fine nodules 46.99 0.84 9.15 0.28 0.12 15.73 4.87 5.67 2.71 0.94 1.04 9.94 1.40 829 1088 116 131
1963 Newmachar_DRT RB fine nodules 50.20 0.93 9.52 0.30 0.12 15.03 4.63 4.96 2.72 1.00 0.76 7.99 1.54 979 1248 104 125
1966 Forties R resistant features 49.34 0.88 9.64 0.26 0.11 16.55 5.24 4.47 2.71 0.96 0.77 7.57 1.24 896 911 80 150
1966 Lake_Orcadie_DRT RB fine nodules 50.53 0.90 9.66 0.29 0.14 14.26 5.26 4.67 2.63 1.00 0.73 8.26 1.33 1040 1152 127 102
1972 Lake_Orcadie_Offset_2 RB fine nodules 52.07 0.95 10.12 0.29 0.15 13.88 5.23 4.53 2.66 0.90 0.74 6.96 1.23 904 1110 114 93
1972 Lake_Orcadie_Offset_1 RB fine nodules 47.41 0.87 9.22 0.29 0.16 14.36 5.99 5.74 2.57 0.94 0.87 9.93 1.28 1024 1144 122 90

1975 Benbecula R CaSO4 vein/sand/rock 34.81 0.74 7.00 0.38 0.22 14.70 5.78 12.63 2.11 0.41 0.62 19.70 0.72 482 450 65 67
1975 Rockall R 49.66 0.99 9.52 0.30 0.14 13.75 5.92 5.53 2.62 0.95 0.79 8.35 1.18 1087 1012 118 98
1978 Lake_Orcadie_Drill_Tailings DT failed drill attempt 45.06 0.90 8.81 0.29 0.13 17.90 4.07 7.14 2.71 0.91 0.66 10.03 1.04 1043 1162 129 138
1979 Lake_Orcadie2_Drill MD failed drill attempt 50.02 1.04 9.83 0.32 0.18 15.45 6.41 4.60 2.74 0.94 0.78 6.16 1.25 984 1002 91 86
1980 Lake_Orcadie2_DRT RB 50.30 0.94 9.51 0.31 0.14 14.93 5.16 4.94 2.66 0.91 0.71 7.83 1.30 1075 1002 102 107
1984 Lake_Orcadie2_post_Drill MD failed drill attempt 50.59 1.00 9.97 0.31 0.14 15.80 4.78 4.79 2.90 1.04 0.57 6.62 1.15 1011 988 91 113
1988 Barkeval R concordant CaSO4 46.28 0.86 9.08 0.27 0.11 16.51 6.33 4.75 2.82 1.20 0.86 8.77 1.71 746 1342 38 150
1988 North_Harris R 48.03 0.95 9.45 0.29 0.11 17.01 6.10 4.34 2.73 0.99 0.83 7.06 1.74 832 1602 23 155
1991 Seaforth_Head R 50.45 1.14 9.54 0.29 0.28 17.18 5.00 4.76 2.38 0.99 0.52 6.01 1.09 879 1037 37 61
1993 Stirling_Castle R 50.17 1.08 10.03 0.28 0.21 17.11 5.14 4.30 2.49 1.03 0.90 5.84 1.16 640 1145 62 81
1995 Paisley R 48.86 0.99 9.32 0.27 0.29 17.15 5.46 4.65 2.70 1.02 0.77 7.02 1.24 817 981 22 59
1995 Durness RB 48.57 0.96 9.23 0.27 0.28 17.02 5.52 4.53 2.80 1.01 0.81 7.01 1.72 704 845 36 61
2160 Tayvallich R rough texture 47.48 1.00 9.01 0.33 0.21 19.66 5.81 3.94 2.61 0.91 0.94 6.54 1.28 911 969 52 94
2165 Trollochy R 48.30 1.00 9.08 0.29 0.23 15.37 6.23 4.40 2.59 1.09 0.63 8.80 1.69 988 1199 57 67
2165 Burn_O_Vat R 48.63 0.99 9.39 0.27 0.22 16.04 6.63 3.84 2.68 1.07 0.77 7.87 1.35 941 935 61 73
2165 Portobello R nodules 51.46 0.97 10.13 0.29 0.17 17.28 5.26 4.02 2.68 1.05 0.68 4.99 0.78 961 699 32 102
2168 Inverness_offset RB nodules 46.67 0.95 9.12 0.31 0.21 13.78 5.68 6.43 2.57 0.95 0.85 11.02 1.16 942 994 178 66
2168 Inverness_DRT RB nodules 47.12 0.97 9.44 0.34 0.22 15.44 6.14 5.98 2.61 0.91 0.81 8.78 0.96 931 969 122 70
2217 Grange R CaSO4 patch with dark inclusions/rock 32.24 0.66 6.58 0.20 0.14 18.78 4.76 11.21 2.26 0.58 0.70 20.42 1.23 720 810 172 134
2217 Inverness_minidrill MD failed drill attempt 48.42 0.94 9.53 0.30 0.22 14.41 5.65 5.92 2.55 1.04 0.72 9.17 0.87 894 924 113 66
2220 Findon R 50.20 0.84 9.83 0.33 0.23 13.39 5.49 5.47 2.39 1.04 0.68 8.57 0.94 965 1289 106 58
2220 Calgary_DRT RB small nodule 49.79 0.94 9.70 0.29 0.23 13.70 5.23 5.11 2.50 1.05 0.72 9.35 1.04 1074 1596 79 60
2223 Highfield_triage R 53.25 0.75 10.59 0.30 0.20 16.20 5.74 3.44 2.75 1.00 0.67 3.30 0.99 852 649 106 81
2223 Highfield_offset RB 48.87 0.88 9.28 0.28 0.13 15.86 4.33 5.53 2.40 0.80 0.79 9.56 1.00 754 603 79 122
2223 Highfield_DRT RB 53.54 0.96 10.30 0.33 0.16 16.13 5.03 3.54 2.68 0.95 0.88 4.18 1.07 1055 731 96 101

2245 Highfield_dump_offset DBA 50.59 0.94 9.45 0.30 0.14 18.60 4.20 4.83 2.58 0.85 0.73 5.61 0.93 1020 700 67 133
2245 Highfield_dump_centre DBA 51.58 0.88 9.64 0.28 0.15 17.31 4.29 4.84 2.57 0.89 0.79 5.63 0.92 930 661 60 115
2247 Highfield_Drill_Tailings DT 52.38 0.96 10.02 0.29 0.14 16.97 4.58 4.19 2.68 0.92 0.78 4.86 0.99 963 707 92 121
2254 Springside R 50.32 0.97 9.62 0.28 0.10 17.43 4.85 4.49 2.45 1.06 0.76 6.31 1.10 854 885 22 174
2255 Woodhill_DRT RB 47.29 0.93 9.33 0.29 0.10 17.76 5.56 4.71 2.62 0.98 0.89 7.79 1.45 803 871 42 178
2258 Corrieshalloch_Gorge R brecciated? 46.44 0.99 8.79 0.28 0.07 17.07 4.83 4.97 2.54 0.68 0.86 10.70 1.54 838 726 156 244
2258 Rock_Hall R brecciated? 42.84 0.98 8.60 0.30 0.12 15.81 6.40 6.89 2.67 0.55 0.95 11.93 1.74 737 705 138 132
2288 Rock_Hall_dump_offset DBA brecciated? 37.65 0.99 7.54 0.33 0.10 20.28 3.92 8.19 2.07 0.64 0.87 14.96 2.06 1025 1006 232 203
2291 Rock_Hall_dump_corrected DBA brecciated? 37.37 1.00 7.33 0.31 0.08 20.00 3.97 8.64 2.13 0.62 0.87 15.28 2.10 995 919 229 250
2292 Rock_Hall_Drill_Tailings DT brecciated? 35.43 0.94 7.21 0.30 0.10 19.77 4.14 9.16 2.03 0.57 0.94 16.85 2.28 877 877 229 198
2295 Bothwell_DRT RB brecciated? 40.69 0.94 8.01 0.28 0.09 15.92 5.50 7.60 2.54 0.51 0.98 14.90 1.80 754 700 179 177
2299 Melrose R descent to clay-bearing unit 51.13 1.24 9.84 0.37 0.06 19.84 4.34 3.34 2.63 0.83 0.76 4.35 1.05 812 709 57 331
2300 Linlithgow R descent to clay-bearing unit 48.66 1.16 9.34 0.30 0.06 19.88 5.32 3.24 2.55 0.98 0.82 5.76 1.59 1000 1010 155 331
2301 Puddledub R descent to clay-bearing unit 46.76 1.12 9.47 0.32 0.09 19.20 5.30 4.43 2.39 1.01 0.86 7.24 1.46 895 1596 235 213
2301 Loch_Ness_DRT RB descent to clay-bearing unit 48.34 1.16 9.73 0.34 0.09 19.98 4.57 3.55 2.53 1.14 0.75 5.41 1.99 907 1825 390 222
See Table S1 for errors
Grey highlighted analyses indicate APXS targets from within blue/grey bedrock areas identified from orbital, colour stretched HiRise imagery
Italics indicate APXS targets associated with successful VRR drill holes
1
R - as is, unbrushed rock surface
RB - brushed rock surface
DT - drill tailings (fines deposited around the hole during drilling; typically sampled from <2 cm depth
MD - shallow test or failed drill; APXS deployed over drill hole
DBA - drill bit assembly (DBA) dump pile; dumped from the DBA using feed extended drilling and feed extended sample transfer techniques

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Thompson Lucy, M (Orcid ID: 0000-0002-5444-952X)

Berger Jeff, A (Orcid ID: 0000-0002-0380-4683)

APXS-derived compositional characteristics of Vera Rubin Ridge and

Corresponding author: Lucy Thompson (lthompso@unb.ca)

 Vera Rubin ridge is compositionally a continuation of the Murray formation

 Compositional trends cut across stratigraphy, are post-depositional, diagenetic and/or

products of later alteration

spectrometer (APXS) during Curiosity’s exploration of VRR helps to elucidate questions

compositional range of underlying lacustrine mudstones, consistent with a continuation of

that depositional environment and derivation from a similar provenance. Lower Fe

associated with VRR cross-cut stratigraphy, indicating post-depositional processes. Higher Si

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

acidic saline fluids inferred from the mineralogy of drilled samples

within the layered sequence of Mount Sharp. Hydrated phyllosilicate-bearing assemblages

lowermost strata of Mount Sharp. It is situated adjacent to the main phyllosilicate-bearing

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

groundwaters was then exposed to an oxidizing environment (e.g., atmosphere or

environment, syn-depositionally within the water column, or during later diagenesis or

at chemical interfaces is favorable for chemolithotrophic microorganisms. Therefore, the

A dedicated campaign to study VRR using the full complement of Curiosity’s

preservation of organic molecules?

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

also the first comprehensive description of the Murray formation compositional

2 Materials and Methods

Curiosity’s instrument payload.

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

The Mars Science Laboratory, Curiosity rover is equipped with a Canadian-built

nominally ~8 hour, in contact integrations, on preferably dust-free surfaces. However,

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

(VanBommel et al., 2016, 2017).

2.2. APXS data treatment

different colored (to the bedrock) patches (Tables S1, 1)

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

comparing martian compositions (e.g., McSween, 2015; Mc Sween et al., 2009).

with the CaSO4 present in almost all targets (see §S2).

2.2.1. Statistical treatment of the Murray formation data

F-tests (Fisher-tests) were performed on the Bradbury group – Murray formation

are statistically different for those two oxides (§S1.1.1.).

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

Island to statistically compare variances between each pair.

compositional trends with elevation (§S1.3).

2.2.2. Comparison of Murray member compositions to mean Murray formation

mean, i.e., Si, Al, Fe, Mn and Ti (§S1.4).

2.2.3. Comparison of Jura and gray/blue bedrock to mean Pettegrove Point

(Edgar et al., this issue). See §5.1 for further discussion.

3 Geological and Geochemical Context of rocks encountered by APXS prior to VRR

their sedimentological characteristics and to a lesser extent, orbital geomorphic attributes

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

following is a description of the geochemical characteristics of the Murray formation

3.1. Mount Sharp group, Murray formation

discontinuous beds of coarser sandstone. Based on sedimentological observations made along

sandstones (Yellowknife Bay formation), alkali-rich sandstones and conglomerates, and

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

sedimentary processes (Siebach et al., 2017).

ppm) (Berger et al., 2017 and references therein).

The contrasting composition of the Sheepbed member, Yellowknife Bay formation

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

number of Pahrump Hills targets lie outside these trends.

Pahrump Hills member

The lowest elevation lithostratigraphic member of the Murray formation, encountered

relative to mean Murray, as well as lower Fe.

©2020 American Geophysical Union. All rights reserved.

(Frydenvang et al., 2017).