Chapter 10: Crustal deformation and mountain building

10.1 Crustal deformation

Deformation- refers to the changes in the shape or position of a rock body in
response to differential stress. Plate motions and interactions along plate margins
generate the tectonic forces that causes rocks to deform
Rock structures- the basic geologic features that form as a result of the forces
generated by the interactions of tectonic plates. They include folds, faults, and
joints.
WHAT CAUSES ROCKS TO DEFORM? (stress and strain)
Stress- the forces that deform rocks. Whenever the stresses acting on a rock
exceed its strength, the rock will deform through either folding, flowing,
fracturing, and faulting.
Confining pressure- when stress is applied uniformly in all directions
Differential stress- when stress is applied in different directions,
TYPES OF DIFFERENTIAL STRESS
1. Compressional stress- differential stress that squeezes a rock mass as if
placed in a vise. (Associated with convergent plate boundaries)
2. Tensional- differential stress that pulls or elongates rock bodies. (Associated
with divergent plate boundaries
3. Shear stress- involves the movement of one part of a rock body past
another.
Strain- a change in shape caused by stress. Strained bodies lose their original
configuration during deformation
TYPES OF DEFORMATION
1. Elastic deformation- when stress is applied gradually. Changes in this
deformation are recoverable like a rubber band.
2. Brittle deformation- when the elastic limit of a rock is surpassed, it bends
or breaks. Those that break into pieces exhibit brittle deformation.
3. Ductile deformation- a type of solid-state flow that produces a change in
the shape of an object without fracturing. Example is clay/gum.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT ROCK STRENGTH
1. Temperature- heat causes rocks to be malleable and soft, cold causes rocks
to be brittle and fragile.
2. Confining pressure- More pressure=rocks stronger and harder to break.
3. Rock type- different mineral compositions and chemical composition of
rocks can alter their strength.
4. Time- as time passes, pressure from tectonic forces will slowly be applied to
rocks which will display ductile behavior and deform. Example: a taffy that
is bent slowly will just deform, but if done quickly, it may break into half.
10.2 Folds: Rock structures formed by Ductile Deformation
Folds- a series of wavelike undulations. Created when sedimentary strata,
intrusions, and volcanic rocks are bent.
TYPES OF FOLDS
1. Anticlines- usually arise by upfolding, or arching, of sedimentary layers and
are sometimes spectacularly displayed along highways that have been cut
through deformed strata.
2. Synclines- troughs, or downfolds, found in association with anticlines.
Dome- A circular or slightly elongated structure that is produced when strata is
deformed and large folds are generated
Basins- downwarped structures having gently sloping beds similar to a saucer or
bowl
Monoclines- large, step-like folds in otherwise horizontal sedimentary strata
10.3 Faults and Joints: Rock structures formed by brittle
deformation
Faults- form where brittle deformation leads to fracturing and displacement of
Earth’s crust.
Dip-slip faults- faults in which movement is primarily parallel to the inclination of
the fault surface.
Hanging wall block- rock surface immediately above the fault.
Footwall block- the rock surface below the fault.
Fault scarps- vertical displacements along the dip-slip faults tend to produce these
long, low cliffs
Normal faults- when the hanging wall block moves down relative to the footwall
block.
Movements along faults trending roughly north-south produce alternating uplifted
fault blocks called horsts and down dropped blocks called grabens.
Half-grabens- fault blocks that are tilted
Detachment fault- a nearly horizontal fault .
Reverse fault- dip slip faults in which the hanging wall block moves up relative to
the footwall block
Thrust fault- a type of reverse faults having dips less than 45 degrees
Strike-slip faults- a fault in which the dominant displacement is horizontal and
parallel to the trend or direction of the fault surface.
Transform faults- strike-slip faults that slice through Earth’s crust and
accommodate motion between 2 tectonic plates.
10.4: Mountain Building
Orogenesis- the processes that collectively produce a mountain belt.
Compressional mountains- contain large quantities of preexisting sedimentary
and crystalline rocks that have been faulted and contorted into a series of folds.
10.5: Subduction and Mountain building
Subduction leads to orogenesis. If a subducted plate is overidden by oceanic
lithosphere, island arc-type mountain building results, with a thick accumulation of
erupted volcanic rocks mixed with sediment scraped off the subducted plate.
Andean-type mountain building occurs where subduction takes place beneath
continental lithosphere.
10.6 Collisional mountain belts
Terrane- is used to describe a crustal fragment that consists of a distinct and
recognizable series of rock formations that has been transported by plate tectonic
processes
Research suggests that prior to their accretion to a continental block, some of these
fragments may have been microcontinents.
Suture- the zone where two continents collide and are welded together.
10.7 What causes Earth’s varied topography
Isostasy- the concept of a floating crust in gravitational balance.
Isostatic adjustment- this process of establishing a new level of gravitational
balance by loading or unloading
Gravitational collapse- involves ductile spreading at depth and normal faulting
and subsidience in the upper, brittle portion of Earth’s crust.